Gas from Green Sand Molds and

Organically Bonded Cores and Poured

with Iron

by

Leonard Winardi, Graduate Student and

University of Alabama at Birmingham
email: lwinardi@uab.edu

and

Charles E. Bates, Ph.D., Founder, AlchemCast LLC

Email: cbates@alchemcast.com

May, 2007

1
 Gas from Green Sand Molds and Organically
Bonded Cores
Introduction

Surface and sub-surface gas porosity is a significant problem in the casting

industry. High local gas pressures, produced as organic materials and water
in molds and cores evaporate, partially pyrolyze, and drive gas into the
molten metal. This gas produces blow defects and allows hydrogen absorption
which causes pinholes. The gas evolved is usually entrapped at or near the
cope surface or under cores, as illustrated in Figure 1. Since gas bubbles
may float some distance before becoming entrapped, identifying the source is
sometimes difficult.1 Proper sand permeability, gating and venting is crucial
for producing sound, high quality castings free of porosity.

Venting molds and cores is currently a combination of rough engineering

calculations, foundry experience, and art. Core gases in simple castings can
usually be exhausted through core vents. But as casting complexity
increases, venting becomes more difficult, and this results in scrap and lost
production time.2

Green sand molds, with insufficient permeability to allow moisture to exit

through the back face, can cause moisture and hydrogen to bubble through the
metal, especially where portions of the mold protrude into the casting to
form a pocket. In severe cases, substantial amounts of water are driven into
the casting.

Various investigators have measured the rate of gas evolution from binder
systems with various degrees of success.3,4,5 The Dietert Gas Pressure Test
has been used for many years and involves placing a sand sample in a boat,
placing the boat in the cold end of a tube furnace, sealing the furnace,
sliding the boat into the hot zone, and measuring the pressure developed as a
function of time. The pressure of the gas is a function of the number of
moles of gas formed, furnace temperature, and furnace volume. The rate of
gas evolution is controlled by the heat transfer from the tube to the sample.
The gas evolution rate is substantially below the rate experienced when metal
impacts a mold or core surface.

The central issues associated with mold/core gas evolution and defect
formation are:

1. What is the volume and composition of gas produced when a

molten metal contacts a mold or core prepared with a
particular binder?

2. What is the timing of the gas evolution after metal contact

with the mold or core?

3. What are the gas flow coefficients through the core and
sand being used?

4. Can core gas exit the mold back face and core prints or
does it blow through the metal?

2
 5. If gas is blowing through the metal, how/where should the
core or mold be vented or what binder/sand/additive/wash
changes should be made to eliminate the defect?

Gas blowing through gray iron poured around a 1.125 inch diameter by 6 inch
long solid shell core can be seen on the following web site:

http://www.eng.uab.edu/mse/labs/cel/anomalies/gasgas.asp

A bubble from a PUCB core formed during pouring an aluminum casting is also
illustrated at that web site. The metal head pressure built up fast enough
that the gas bubble was pushed back into the PUCB core instead of exiting
through the casting.

In the current research, experiments were conducted on green sand and one
organically bonded sand specimen placed in contact with gray iron. Deep
pockets in green sand molds can behave like cores and create pressures
sufficiently high to eject gas into the casting. Variations were made in the
water, clay, and sea coal in the green sand to determine the major factors
affecting gas evolution, and data on one organically bonded sand is included
for comparison.

Experimental Procedures

Techniques have been developed to measure the gas evolution rates from cores
contact with a variety of metals and measure the gas flow coefficients
through sand-binder combinations used in foundries [1]. The gas volume
measuring procedure involves immersing a sample of the sand into metal at the
temperature of interest. In the current study, gray cast iron was used at a
temperature of about 2450 F.

Experimentally, a sample is placed in an insulated metal print and immersed

in molten metal. The gas formed during pyrolysis gases pass from the core or
mold sample, through the print and into a preheated pipe. From the pipe, the
gas passes into a preheated oil chamber and displaces hot oil from a chamber.
The rate of oil displacement is a function of the rate of gas evolution from
the core.6

These procedures allow the effects of variations in additives and coatings to

be systematically evaluated under conditions that simulate events in a mold.
This paper presents the results of studies on green sand and one epoxy
acrylic bonded sand.

Results and Discussion

A gas evolution curve from sand containing 2.9% water, 6% clay, and one
percent sea coal is presented in Figure 2. The initial rate of gas evolution
was about 25 cm3/sec five seconds after metal contact, and value of 120 to 130
cm3/sec was reached after 20 seconds. The total gas evolved after 50 seconds
contact with iron was 3000 cm3 from a specimen weighing about 40 grams.

It is well known that water is evaporated from near the surface of the green
sand after contact with metal and driven into the interior of the mold or
mold pocket. The effect of the evaporation and condensation of moisture on
the temperature profile in the specimen being evaluated is illustrated in
Figure 3. The temperature at the mid radius and core center as a function of
time is illustrated.

3
The heat from the iron evaporated water near the surface of the core and
probably caused some moisture decomposition. The water was evaporated and
condensed as it was driven from the surface into the cooler portions of the
sample. The mid radius position reached 100C about 5 seconds after metal
contact, and the center position reached 100 C about 7 seconds after metal
contact.

Sufficient heat passed through the core surface to evaporate the moisture at
the mid radius position about 18 seconds after contact. The center did not
rise above the boiling point of the water until about 45 seconds had passed.
The peak rate of gas evolution illustrated in Figure 2 was reached just
before the mid radius position of the core reached the water boiling point,
at a time when substantial moisture was being driven from the sample.

Gas evolution substantially increased as the steam and other gases were
driven from the surface of the core about 5-6 seconds after immersion, and
the rate of gas evolution stayed above 100cm3/sec from about 15 seconds after
metal contact until about 30 seconds after metal contact. The core center
was still at 100oC when the rate of gas evolution began to decrease.

The rapid temperature rise to 100oC in the core was a result of steam mass)
convective heat flow. Steam condensation produced water near the specimen
center, and this water kept the temperature at the center constant until
sufficient conduction has occurred through the dry sand layer to evaporate
the free water.

Some experiments were conducted to validate this idea. Specimens were first
prepared with 2.5% sodium silicate and dried to evaporate the free water.
After drying, these specimens contained only dried sodium silicate (with no
additives) and perhaps a small amount of hydrated water. The gas evolution
results are illustrated in Figure 4 and the center location temperature rise
curve is illustrated in Figure 5, with a green sand temperature rise
superimposed.

The volume of gas evolved from the dried sodium silicate bonded sand was
about 40 cm3 in 50 seconds. This volume is a result of some hydrated water
evolution and expansion of air in the pores of the sand. The temperature
rise in the sodium silicate core, illustrated in Figure 5 was gradual without
any isotherms. This suggests conductive heat flow with a minimum of phase
transformations in the binder, water, or sand during this time interval.
This data and interpretation suggests that the majority of the gas coming
from the green sand is associated with water or the decomposition products of
water such as hydrogen.

Since water and hydrogen is now considered to be the dominant factors

influencing the gas evolved, an experiment was conducted where green sand
specimens were dried to 0.6% water and evaluated. The samples contained 6%
clay, and 1% Seacoal in addition to the water. The gas volume results are
illustrated in Figure 6. This sand evolved about 700 cc gas in 60 seconds,
with a peak rate of evolution of 15cm3/sec. Some of the gas may have come
from clay dehydration, some from partial Seacoal pyrolysis, and some from
water disassociation.

4
The gas evolution curve from green sand containing slightly less water (2.5%)
and 4% clay, and 1% sea coal are illustrated in Figure 7, and the temperature
history in the center of the core is illustrated in Figure 8. The total gas
volume evolved in 50 seconds was about the same as in the 2.9% water sample,
with a value of about 3000 cm3. The peak gas evolution rate was approximately
the same with values of about 125cm3/s, although the curves appeared to be
flatter and to have a more extended peak.

Both the clay and water content affected the heating rate in the sand prior
to the water boiling temperature. The center temperature rose more rapidly
in cores containing less clay and water. Clay in particular absorbed water.
Increasing clay content will require more energy for drying the clay before
evaporate the water in the clay. The effect of water content on the
temperature profile is illustrated in Figure 8a. The temperature at the
center of dried green sand core rose at longer time compare to that
containing more water.

The center temperature rose more rapidly because there was less condensation
between the surface and the center of the specimen. The reduced condensation
was a result of the lower water content in the sand.

Data on gas evolution from a sand mixture containing the same water content,
4% clay, and 2% Seacoal is illustrated in illustrated in Figure 9. The
mixture containing 1% sea coal evolved about 3000 cm³ (Figure 8) of gas
during 50 seconds immersion, and the volume from the mixture containing 2%
Seacoal was approximately 3500 cm³ in the same time interval. This indicates
that while the volume of gas from green sands is dominated by the moisture
content, organic additives such as Seacoal, cereal, and other compounds do
have effects.

For comparison purposes, typical gas evolution curves from an epoxy acrylic
core and an epoxy acrylic (EA) core having a dried water based coating on it
are illustrated in Figure 10. The epoxy acrylic core evolved about 440 cm3 of
gas within 50 seconds and the coated core evolved about 610 cm3. The peak
rates of evolution were about 16cm3/sec in the EA core and 25cm3/sec in the
coated and dried EA core. The peak rate of gas evolution in these cores was
reached after about 4 seconds of metal contact. This gas can blow into the
metal because unless the pouring rates are very high, the pressures are so
high that they overcome the metal head pressure.

The presence of water, clay, and Seacoal in green sand significantly

decreases sand permeability and can retard the gas evolution from the mold or
mold casting pocket, as illustrated in Figure 6. The no-bake molding sand
containing 1.25% PUCB binder exhibited an air flow rate at 2PSIG of 60-68
cc3/s at a density of 98 to 100 pounds per cubic foot (kg/m3). The air flow
rate through green sand was in the range of 30 to 35cm³/s at the same density
in green sand. The permeability of the wet zone behind the mold metal
interface could be even lower than the values reported.

A combination of low sand permeability and high density with high gas
evolution rates cause green sand molds to be prone to producing blow defects.
Gas bubbling through molten iron in risers of green sand molds has been
observed on some occasions.

Conclusions

5
Must work on conclusions

Answering the 5 points mentioned earlier requires a focus research on

developing sub-routines that can predict gas pressures in cores and molds
based on a few laboratory measurements. These sub-routines can be combined
with the current existing code to predict the final residence of the gas
bubble. The metallurgical defects resulting from the reactions between the
melt and the gas could also be predicted given the knowledge of the type of
gas evolved. Therefore, Code development and verification as well as
identification of the type of gas evolved will be the primary focus of future
research in this field.

Figure 1. Gas Defect Beneath the Surface of a

Gray Iron Casting.

6
 250 5000
2.9% Water
6% Clay 4500
1% Seacoal
Gas Evolution Rate (cm /s) 200 4000

3500
3

Gas Volume (cm )

3
150 3000

2500

100 2000

1500

50 1000

500

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (s)
Figure 2. Gas Evolution Rates and Volumes from Green Sand Containing 2.9%
Water, 6% Clay, and 1% Seacoal.

500
2.9% Water
450 6% Clay
1% Seacoal Mid Radius
400 2450F

350
Temperature ( C)

300
o

250

200
Center
150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (s)
Figure 3. Temperature Profile at Half Distance and at the Center of the
Green Sand Core Containing 2.9% Water, 6% Clay, and 1% Sea Coal.

7
 50 1000

45 900

40 800
Gas Evolution Rate (cm /s)
35 700
3

Gas Volumes (cm )

3
30 600

25 500

20 2-34-1 400
Rate 2-34-3
ρ = 90.8 lb/ft3 Gas Volume 2-34-1
15 300
Gas Volume
2-34-3
10 200
Rate
ρ = 87.6 lb/ft3
5 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (s)
Figure 4. Gas Evolution Rates and Volumes from Dried Sodium Silicate
Cores in contact with iron at 2450F.

500

450

400

350 2.5% Water

4% Clay
Temperature ( C)

300 1% Seacoal
o

250 Baked
Sodium Silicate
200

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (s)
Figure 5. Temperature Profile at the Center of a dried sodium silicate
bonded core in contact with iron at 2450 F.

8
 250 5000
0.6% Water
4% Clay 4500
1% Seacoal
200 Immersion temp: 2450F 4000
Gas Evolution Rate (cm /s)
3500
3

Gas Volume (cm )

3
150 3000

2500

100 2000

1500

50 1000

500

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (s)
Figure 6. Gas Evolution Rates and Volumes from Green Sand Containing 0.6%
Water, 6% Clay, and 1% Seacoal.

250 5000
2.5% Water
4% Clay 4500
1% Seacoal
200 Immersion temp: 2450F 4000
Gas Evolution Rate (cm /s)

3500
3

Gas Volume (cm )

3
150 3000

2500

100 2000

1500

50 1000

500

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (s)
Figure 7. Gas Evolution Rates and Volumes from Green Sand Containing 2.5%
Water, 4% Clay, and 1% Seacoal.

9
 500

450

400

350
Temperature ( C)

300 2.5% Water

o

4% Clay
250 1% Seacoal
2.9% Water
6% Clay
200 1% Seacoal

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (s)

Figure 8. Temperature Profile at the Center of a Green Sand Sample

containing 2.9% water and 6% clay compared to one containing
2.5% water and 4% clay.
500

450

400

350 2.5% Water

4% Clay
Temperature ( C)

300 1% Seacoal
o

250 0.6% Water

4% Clay
1% Seacoal
200

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (s)
Figure 8a. Temperature Profile at the Center of a Green Sand Sample
containing 2.9% water and 6% clay compared to one containing
2.5% water and 4% clay.

10
 250 5000
2.5% Water
4% Clay 4500
2% Seacoal
200 Immersion temp: 2450F 4000
Gas Evolution Rate (cm /s)
3500
3

Gas Volume (cm )

3
150 3000

2500

100 2000

1500

50 1000

500

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (s)
Figure 9. Gas Evolution Rates and Volumes from Green Sand Containing 2.5%
Water, 4% Clay, and 2% Seacoal.

50 1000
Vol: Epoxy Acrylic Cores
45 Rate: Epoxy Acrylic Cores Coated WB#3
Coated WB#3 Fe at 1275C
Fe at 1275C
40 Vol: Epoxy Acrylic 800
Cores Uncoated
Gas Evolution Rate (cm /s)

35 Fe at 1275C
3

Rate: Epoxy Acrylic Cores

Gas Volume (cm )

3
Uncoated
30 Fe at 1275C 600

25

20 400

15

10 200

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (s)
Figure 10. Gas Evolution Rates and Volumes from washed and unwashed epoxy
acrylic cores in contact with iron at 2450F.

11
 3
Density (Kg/m )
1.28 1.36 1.44 1.52 1.6 1.68 1.76 1.84 1.92
100

90

80
Air Flow Rate (cm /cm /s)

70 Silica Sand
2

63 GFN
60
3

50
Green
Sand
40
63 GFN
30

20

10

0
80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120
3
Density (lb/ft )
Figure 11. Air Flow Rate through Sand at 2 PSIG. Core and mold samples had
a Diameter of 1.125 inch and Length of 1.5 inch.

12
 Bibliography

1. Worman, R.A. and J.R. Nieman, “A Mathematical System for Exercising

Preventive Control over Core gas Defects in Gray Iron Castings”, AFS
Transactions, vol. 81, pp. 170-179, (1973).
2. Caine, J.B. and R.E. Toepke. “Gas Pressure and Venting of Cores”,
AFS Transactions, vol. 74, pp. 19-22 (1966).
3. Dietert, H.W., A.L. Graham, and R.M. Praski, “Gas Evolution in
Foundry Materials – Its Source and Measurement”, AFS Transactions,
vol. 84, pp.221-228 (1976).
4. Bates, C.E. and R.W. Monroe, “Mold Binder Decomposition and Its
Relation to Gas Defects in Castings”, AFS Transactions, vol. 89, pp.
671-686, (1981).
5. Scott, W.D., P.A. Goodman, and R.W. Monroe, “Gas Generation at the
Mold-Metal Interface”, AFS Transactions, vol. 86, pp. 599-610
(1978).
6. Scarber, Jr. P., Bates, C.E., Griffin, J., “Effects of Mold
and Binder Formulations on Gas Evolution When Pouring Aluminum
Castings”, AFS Transactions, vol. 114, paper no. 130 (2006)
250 5000
2.5% Water
6% Clay 4500
1% Seacoal
200 Immersion temp: 2450F 4000
Gas Evolution Rate (cm /s)

3500
3

Gas Volume (cm )

3
150 3000

2500

100 2000

1500

50 1000

500

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (s)
Figure 3. Gas Evolution Rates and Volumes from Green Sand Containing 2.5%
Water, 6% Clay, and 1% Seacoal.

Increasing the clay content to 6% at a constant 2.5% water, 6% clay, and 1%

Seacoal and produced the same volume of gas while increasing the peak rate of
gas evolution slightly to a value of 140 cm3/sec while producing the same
volume of gas as that produced with 2.9% water, 6% clay, and 1% Seacoal. The
peak rate occurred at a later time, about 25 seconds after metal contact, as
illustrated in Figure 3.

13