Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Joakim Strandberg
July 2005
v = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn (1)
b1 = v · x1
b2 = v · x2
.. .. (2)
. .
bn = v · xn
Why the components (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) are called contravariant and (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) are
called covariant is explained on page 2. Problem 1 illustrates how to compute the con-
travariant and covariant components of a given vector.
Problem 1 Given the vectors x1 = (1, 0), x2 = (1, 2) and v = (1, 2).
a) Determine the contravariant components (a1 , a2 ) of v with respect to the vectors
x1 and x2 .
Solution 1a The vectors x1 and x2 are clearly independent. Using the definition of
contravariant components of a vector
v = a1 x1 + a2 x2 (3)
1
1 1 1 1 2
= a + a (4)
2 0 2
This is an equation system 1
1 1 a 1
= (5)
0 2 a2 2
Using Cramer’s rule
1 1
2 2 2−2
1
a = = =0 (6)
1 1
2
0 2
1 1
0 2 2
2
a = = =1 (7)
2 2
Thus (a1 , a2 ) = (0, 1).
Important! Generally the contravariant and covariant components of a vector are dif-
ferent. But when the “coordinate axes” x1 , . . . , xn are orthonormal (they all have unit
length and and are orthogonal) there is no difference between contravariant and covariant
components!
Solution 2 If the coordinate axes are scaled by a factor of c, then the contravariant
components become c times smaller but the covariant components become c times greater.
Thus the contravariant components of a vector scale against the coordinate axes and the
covariant components scale with. In Latin contra means against and co means with.
Thereof the names contravariant and covariant components. Problem 3 illustrates this.
Problem 3 Given the vectors x1 = (c, 0), x2 = (c, 2c) and v = (1, 2).
2
Solution 3a The equation system now becomes
1
c c a 1
= (10)
0 2c a2 2
c1 = v · x1 /|x1 |
c2 = v · x2 /|x2 |
. . (15)
.
. .
.
cn = v · xn /|xn |
Why not also give the components (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) a name? Why are the contravariant
and covariant components so “important” that they have been given names?
Solution 4 When parametrizations of the Euclidean plane and tensors of first order
have been explained, it is shown on page 7 how the definition of work in physics give rise
to contravariant and covariant components.
Solution 5 Intuitively the Euclidean plane can be imagined as a flat piece of paper.
In this paper one can introduce two orthogonal coordinate axes usually denoted x- and
y-axes. Two numbers x and y can then be measured to describe the position of a point.
How is a point defined? Instead of saying that the two numbers describe the position of
a point, the two numbers are defined to be a point.
3
Definition of the Euclidean plane The Euclidean plane is defined as the set of all
ordered 2-tuples r = (x, y) called points where x and y are real numbers.
This text does not consider all possible parametrizations but restricts itself to allowable
parametrizations.
Important! Notice that coordinates (in a parametrization) are NOT written with sub-
scripts (u1 , u2 ) but with superscripts (u1 , u2 ). The 2 reasons for this will be explained
on page ???. It’s not explained here in the text because the explanation requires the
Einstein summation convention and contravariant tensors of first order.
Problem 6 Determine which of the following parametrizations which are allowable para-
metrizations.
a) r = (u1 , u2 )
b) r = (u1 + u2 + (u2 )3 , 2u2 )
∂r
= (1, 0)
∂u1 (18)
∂r
= (0, 1)
∂u2
∂r ∂r
It is clear that the vectors ∂u1 and ∂u2 are defined everywhere, linearly independent and
6= 0.
4
Solution 6b The parametrization r = (u1 + u2 + (u2 )3 , 2u2 ) leads to
∂r
= (1, 0)
∂u1 (19)
∂r
= (1 + 3(u2 )2 , 2)
∂u2
∂r ∂r 2 2
Here the vectors ∂u 1 and ∂u2 are defined everywhere. They satisfy 6= 0 because (u ) ≥ 0
∂r
and are linearly independent. Notice that the vector ∂u2 is dependent on the point under
∂r ∂r
consideration. This example shows that the vectors ∂u 1 and ∂u2 may be different from
point to point.
Problem 7 Why is the second requirement (ii) important in the definition of allowable
parametrizations?
Solution 7 The second requirement (ii) guarantees that a vector defined at a point in
∂r ∂r
the Euclidean plane always can be written as a linear combination of ∂u 1 and ∂u2 defined
at the point.
Important! From now on when coordinates are introduced in the Euclidean plane it
is assumed they are allowed parametrizations.
Problem 8 Why is the letter r used to define a point? Why not use the notation
p = (x, y) instead, where the letter p has been chosen since it’s the first letter in the
word point as is done in the book Elementary differential geometry by Barret O’Neill?
Solution 8 This text follows the notational convention used in the book Vektoranalys
by Anders Ramgard. Ramgard does not explain why he chose r to denote a point or
vector in Euclidean n-space. It may be because of the following three reasons:
(i) In Euclidean 2-space where r = (x, y), one can introduce a parametrization (r, φ)
called polar coordinates r = (r cos φ, r sin φ). Notice that the length of the vector
r is |r| = r, where r originates from the word radius (here radius of a circle).
(ii) In Euclidean 3-space where r = (x, y, z), one can introduce a parametrization
(r, φ, θ) called spherical coordinates r = (r sin θ cos φ, r sin θ sin φ, cos θ). The length
of the vector r is |r| = r, where r originates from the radius of the sphere.
(iii) Euclidean n-space is denoted Rn , where the letter R here comes from the word real.
5
Using another coordinate system u1 , u2 , the contravariant components of the vector v
are (a1 , a2 ) and v can be written:
∂r ∂r
v = a1 + a2 2 (21)
∂u1 ∂u
What is the relation between (a1 , a2 ) and (a1 , a2 )? Express (a1 , a2 ) as a function of
(a1 , a2 ).
∂r ∂r ∂u1 ∂r ∂u2
= + (22)
∂uα ∂u1 ∂uα ∂u2 ∂uα
1 2
∂r ∂r ∂u ∂u
It is allowed to use the chain-rule here since ∂u 1 , ∂u2 , ∂uα and ∂uα are continuous
∂u1 ∂u2
functions. That ∂uα and ∂uα are continuous functions is shown in problem 11. Now
using equations (20), (21) and (22) leads to expressing (a1 , a2 ) as a function of (a1 , a2 )
∂r ∂r
v = a1 + a2 2
∂u1 ∂u
∂r ∂u1 ∂r ∂u2 ∂r ∂u1 ∂r ∂u2
= a1 + + a2
+
∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂u2
(23)
∂u1 ∂u1 ∂r ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂r
= a1 1 + a2 2 1 + a1 1 + a2 2
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u2
∂r ∂r
= a1 1 + a2 2
∂u ∂u
∂r ∂r
Identifying the coefficients in front of ∂u1
and ∂u2
in the last two steps
∂u1 2 ∂u
1
a1 = a1 + a (24)
∂u1 ∂u2
∂u2 ∂u2
a2 = a1 1
+ a2 2 (25)
∂u ∂u
Summarizing (here β = 1, 2):
∂uβ ∂uβ
aβ = a1 1
+ a2 2 (26)
∂u ∂u
Equation (26) is the source of inspiration for tensors (1:st order contravariant tensors).
There are two kinds of tensors of 1:st order:
6
Definition of a covariant tensor of 1:st order (or a covariant vector) on the
Euclidean plane Let a 2-tuple of real numbers (b1 , b2 ) be associated with a point P
in the Euclidean plane with coordinates u1 , u2 . Associate also with the point P a 2-tuple
of real numbers b1 , b2 with respect to the coordinates u1 , u2 . If these numbers satisfy:
∂u1 ∂u2
bβ = b1 + b2 (28)
∂uβ ∂uβ
we say that a covariant vector at P is given. The numbers b1 , b2 and b1 , b2 are called the
components of the covariant vector in the respective coordinate systems u1 , u2 or u1 , u2 .
Covariant vectors are indicated by a subscript index.
Solution 10 The vector (du1 , du2 ) is a contravariant vector since the components du1
and du2 transform contravariantly under change of coordinate system from (u1 , u2 ) to
(u1 , u2 ) accordning to the chain-rule
∂u1 2 ∂u
1
du1 = du1 1 + du (29)
∂u ∂u2
∂u2 2 ∂u
2
du2 = du1 1 + du (30)
∂u ∂u2
Summarizing:
∂uγ 2 ∂u
γ
duγ = du1 + du (γ = 1, 2) (31)
∂u1 ∂u2
That the vector (du1 , du2 ) transforms contravariantly is part of the reason why coordi-
nates are written with superscripts.
Returning to problem 4 posed on page 3 Why are the contravariant and covariant
components so “important” that they have been given names?
Solution When calculating the work performed by a force on a particle under an in-
finitesimal displacement in the Euclidean plane, its natural to assume that the work
performed is independent of the coordinate system used. If the work performed is inde-
pendent of the coordinate system then it turns out that if the displacement is expressed
by its contravariant components then the force must be expressed by its covariant compo-
nents. To see this, assume that a force F is exerted on a particle which moves (du1 , du2 )
in an ordinary Cartesian coordinate system r = (u1 , u2 ). The work done dW is
With new coordinates (u1 , u2 ), the force is F = (F1 , F2 ). We would like to write
What then is the connection between (F1 , F2 ) and (F1 , F2 )? Using the fact that du1 and
du2 transform contravariantly
∂uγ 2 ∂u
γ
duγ = du1 + du (34)
∂u1 ∂u2
7
dW = F1 du1 + F2 du2
1 1 2 2
1 ∂u 2 ∂u 1 ∂u 2 ∂u
= F1 du + du + F2 du + du
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u1 ∂u2
(35)
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u1 ∂u2
= F1 1 + F2 1 du1 + F1 2 + F2 2 du2
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
1 2
= F1 du + F2 du
Identifying:
∂u1 ∂u2
F1 = F1
+ F2 (36)
∂u1 ∂u1
1
∂u ∂u2
F2 = F1 2 + F2 2 (37)
∂u ∂u
Equations (36) and (37) can be summarized by:
∂u1 ∂u2
Fβ = F1 β
+ F2 β (38)
∂u ∂u
Comparing (38) and (28) shows that the components (F1 , F2 ) must transform covariantly
if the work performed by the force is independent of the choice of coordinates used.
Problem 11 A contravariant 1:st order tensor is a 2-tuple of real numbers (a1 , a2 ) that
is transformed under change from coordinates (u1 , u2 ) to (u1 , u2 ) as:
∂uβ ∂uβ
aβ = a1 1
+ a2 2 (39)
∂u ∂u
β β
But is it obvious that ∂u ∂u
∂u1 and ∂u2 always exists? It is sufficient in this problem to
1
investigate if ∂u
∂u1 exists under change of allowable parametrizations (it is not difficult
1
to generalize). If ∂u
∂u1 doesn’t always exists, then a first order tensor is defined by an
expression that is not always defined. How can one define something by something that
is not defined???
1
∂u
Solution 11 The expression ∂u 1 is always well defined under coordinate change between
allowable parametrizations. To see this, use u1 = u1 (x, y) and the chain rule:
∂x 1 ∂x 2
dx = du + du (41)
∂u1 ∂u2
∂y 1 ∂y 2
dy = du + du (42)
∂u1 ∂u2
∂x ∂x
1
dx 1 ∂u2 du
= ∂u (43)
dy ∂y
∂u 1
∂y
∂u 2 du2
8
Using Cramer’s rule:
∂x
dx
∂u2
dy ∂y ∂y ∂x
1 ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂u2
du = ∂x ∂x
= ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
dx − ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
dy (44)
1
∂u ∂u2 ∂u1 ∂u2
− ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u1 ∂u2
− ∂u1 ∂u2
∂y1 ∂y
∂u ∂u2
∂u1 ∂u1
If ∂x , ∂y are defined then du1 can be written:
∂u1 ∂u1
du1 = dx + dy (45)
∂x ∂y
Identifying:
∂y
∂u1 ∂u2
= ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
(46)
∂x ∂u1 ∂u2
− ∂u1 ∂u2
∂x
∂u1 2
= − ∂x ∂y ∂u ∂y ∂x (47)
∂y ∂u1 ∂u2
− ∂u1 ∂u2
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
The denominator ∂u1 ∂u2
− ∂u1 ∂u2
is equal to the determinant
∂x
1 ∂x2
∂u ∂u (48)
∂y1 ∂y
2
∂u ∂u
∂r ∂r
which is equal to ±the area spanned by the vectors ∂u 1 and ∂u2 . And this area is 6= 0
∂r ∂r ∂y ∂x
since ∂u1 and ∂u2 are two linearly independent vectors 6= 0. The nominators ∂u 2 and ∂u2
∂r
are defined since ∂u2 is defined. Thus the right-hand sides of equations (46) and (47) are
1
∂u1
defined, and hence the left-hand sides ∂u
∂x and ∂y are also defined. Thus the expression
∂u1
∂u1 is always defined under coordinate change between allowed parametrizations.
∂r
Problem 12 Determine if the vector ∂u1 is contravariant, covariant or neither.
∂r
Solution 12 Investigating how the vector ∂u 1 transforms when coordinates are changed
α β
from u to u .
∂r ∂x ∂y
= , (49)
∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u1
Using the chain-rule
∂x ∂x ∂u1 ∂x ∂u2
1 = ∂u1 1 + ∂u2 (50)
∂u ∂u ∂u1
∂y ∂y ∂u1 ∂y ∂u2
1 = ∂u1 1 + ∂u2 (51)
∂u ∂u ∂u1
Thus
∂x ∂u1 ∂x ∂u2 ∂y ∂u1 ∂y ∂u2
∂r
= + , +
∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u1
1 2
∂x ∂y ∂u ∂x ∂y ∂u
= , 1 1 + , (52)
1
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂u1
∂r ∂u1 ∂r ∂u2
= 1 +
1
∂u ∂u ∂u2 ∂u1
9
∂r ∂r ∂u1 ∂r ∂u2
β
= β
+ (53)
∂u 1
∂u ∂u ∂u2 ∂uβ
∂r
This means that ∂u β does not define a contravariant nor covariant vector, but it is
∂r ∂r
the “vector” ( ∂u1 , ∂u2 ) that transforms covariantly. Covarians is usually denoted by a
subscript, which inspires the following notation that is frequently used
∂r
rα ≡ (54)
∂uα
∂r
rα ≡ (55)
∂uα
Using this notation, it’s possible to write
∂u1 ∂u2
rβ = r1 + r2 (56)
∂uβ ∂uβ
bβ = v · rβ (57)
bβ = v · r β
∂u1 ∂u2
= v · r1 β + r2 β
∂u ∂u
∂u 1
∂u2 (58)
= (v · r1 ) β + (v · r2 ) β
∂u ∂u
∂u1 ∂u2
= b1 β + b2 β
∂u ∂u
10
∂r ∂r
ii) The vectors ∂u1 , . . . , ∂un are defined everywhere, linearly independent and 6= 0.
As before, when coordinates are introduced it is assumed they are allowed parametriza-
tions. Generalizing problem 9:
∂r ∂r
v = a1 + · · · + an n (60)
∂u1 ∂u
Using another coordinate system u1 , . . . , un , the contravariant components of the vector
v are (a1 , . . . , an ) and v can be written:
∂r n ∂r
v = a1 1 + · · · + a ∂un (61)
∂u
What is the relation between (a1 , a2 ) and (a1 , a2 )? Express (a1 , a2 ) as a function of
(a1 , a2 ).
∂uβ ∂uβ
aβ = a1 1
+ · · · + an n (62)
∂u ∂u
Therefore the generalization of 1:st order tensors to be defined on Euclidean n-space
becomes:
∂uβ n ∂u
β
aβ = a1 + . . . + a (63)
∂u1 ∂un
under change of coordinate system in Euclidean n-space.
∂u1 ∂un
bβ = b1 β
+ . . . + bn β (64)
∂u ∂u
under change of coordinate system in Euclidean n-space.
11
convention is to simplify notation. Consider the definition of 1:st order contravariant
tensors. The notation may first be simplified by the introduction of a summation sign:
∂uβ n ∂u
β
aβ = a1 + . . . + a
∂u1 ∂un
n
X ∂u β (65)
= aα α
α=1
∂u
∂uβ
In the expression ∂uα the index β is considered superscript and the index α is considered
subscript.
For example
n
X
aα bα = aα bα = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn (67)
α=1
Applying the Einstein summation to the definition of 1:st order covariant tensors:
∂u1 ∂un
bβ = b1 + . . . + b n
∂uβ ∂uβ
n γ
X ∂u
= bγ β (68)
γ=1
∂u
∂uγ
= bγ
∂uβ
Equation (20) on page 5 can be written
v = aβ rβ (69)
Rewriting equation (56) with the Einstein summation notation (and of course generalized
to Euclidean n-space)
∂uα
rβ = rα β (70)
∂u
An index with respect to which summation must be carried out is called a summation
index or dummy index. The other indices are said to be free indices. Dummy indices
may be changed during computations without warning, for example
aα bα = ai bi = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn (71)
aα bα + aγ cγ = aα (bα + cα ) (72)
12
Solution 15 One could be led to believe that the vector (u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) transforms
contravariantly under coordinate changes because the indices of the coordinate variables
are written with superscripts. This is not true. It is the vector (du1 , du2 , . . . , dun )
α
that transforms contravariantly. In expressions duα , ∂u , ∂r the index α is considered
∂uβ ∂uβ
superscript and β subscript. This convention together with the Einstein summation
convention simplifies the tensor notation.
I = bα aα (73)
Show that if I is invariant under coordinate change, then bα are the covariant components
of a vector w which means bα transforms covariantly.
13
This means
∂uα
bγ δβγ = bα (80)
∂uβ
∂uα
bβ = bα β (81)
∂u
Thus bα transforms covariantly. This problem can be generalized, for example to define
2:nd order covariant tensors as in problem 17 and 2:nd order contravariant tensors as in
problem 18.
Problem 17 Let bα and cβ be two arbitrary contravariant 1:st order tensors. Consider
I = aαβ bα cβ (82)
∂uω ∂uλ
I = aωλ bα α cβ β = aαβ bα cβ (84)
∂u ∂u
∂uω ∂uλ
aαβ = aωλ (85)
∂uα ∂uβ
∂uα ∂uβ
Multiply both sides by ∂uµ ∂uν and sum with respect to both α and β from 1 to n
Problem 18 Let bα and cβ be two arbitrary covariant 1:st order tensors. Consider
I = aαβ bα cβ (89)
14
Solution 18 Since I is invariant
∂uα ∂uβ
ωλ
I=a bα ω cβ λ = aαβ bα cβ (91)
∂u ∂u
Since bα and cβ are arbitrary it’s possible to identify
∂uα ∂uβ
aαβ = aωλ (92)
∂uω ∂uλ
∂uµ ∂uν
Multiply both sides by ∂uα ∂uβ and sum with respect to both α and β from 1 to n
Now, there is a third kind of tensor, the mixed 2:nd order tensor.
I = aαβ bα cβ (96)
Important! Notice that aαβ is not written as aβα . This is because in tensor notation
it’s not only if the index is superscript or subscript that matters, but the position is also
important. This has to do with the possibility of associating a new tensor with a given
one through the metric tensor by raising or lowering an index and is explained later in
this text.
ω
∂uβ
λ α ∂u
I = aω b cβ λ = aαβ bα cβ (98)
∂uα ∂u
15
Since bα and cβ are arbitrary it’s possible to identify
∂uω ∂uβ
aαβ = aωλ (99)
∂uα ∂uλ
∂uα ∂uν
Multiply both sides by ∂uµ ∂uβ and sum with respect to both α and β from 1 to n
∂uα ∂uν ∂uω ∂uα ∂uβ ∂uν
aαβ µ β
= aωλ α µ λ β = aωλ δµω δλν (100)
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
∂uα ∂uν
aµν = aαβ (101)
∂uµ ∂uβ
If I is invariant under coordinate change then aαβ defines a 2:nd order mixed tensor. It
is covariant to 1:st order and contravariant to 1:st order.
Solution 20 A zero order tensor is defined as a scalar. Why is this so? For example,
a 2:nd order tensor has n2 components, a 1:st order tensor has n1 components, and thus
a zero order tensor should have n0 = 1 components.
Now that the tensor concept has been introduced, the rest of this text is devoted to
explaining why tensors are written cν1 ν2 ···νs α1 α2 ···αr and not cνα11να22···ν
···αr
s
.
16
CONVENTION First order tensor: The index denotes the row in a column vector.
Second order tensor: The first index denotes the row and the second index denotes the
column in a matrix.
For example if aαβ is defined on the Euclidean plane and a11 = 1, a12 = 2, a21 = 3,
a22 = 4, then this can be written in matrix notation
1 2
(aαβ ) = (106)
3 4
Notice that the indices over the Kronecker delta tensor is written on top of each other
and not δµ ν nor δ νµ . This is because one can change places of the indices δµν = δνµ .
A tensor with this property is called a symmetric tensor and it does not matter which
index denotes the row and which index denotes the column. Since it is a mixed tensor it
transforms as
ν ∂uα ∂uµ
δ µ = δαβ
∂uν ∂uβ
∂uα ∂uµ
=
∂uν ∂uα (110)
∂uµ
=
∂uν
= δνµ
17
Thus the Kronecker delta tensor has the same components in all coordinate systems.
In Cartesian coordinate systems where there is no difference between contravariant and
covariant components it is usually written with both indices subscript δµν .
Solution 21 One way of solving this problem is to write out what the expression
Aαγ B γβ is short hand notation for and calculate each case individually:
A11 B 11 + A12 B 21 (α = 1, β = 1)
12 22
A11 B + A12 B (α = 1, β = 2)
11 21
(113)
A21 B + A22 B (α = 2, β = 1)
A21 B 12 + A22 B 22 (α = 2, β = 2)
Here is an alternative solution is given. In this problem it’s advantegous to make use of
matrix multiplication. Assume there is a tensor Cαβ = Aαγ B γβ , where the indices α and
β in Cαβ are written right on top of each other because it’s not yet decided which index
denotes the row and column. Writing out what the expression Cαβ = Aαγ B γβ is short
hand notation for
C11 = A11 B 11 + A12 B 21
C12 = A11 B 12 + A12 B 22
(114)
C21 = A21 B 11 + A22 B 21
C22 = A21 B 12 + A22 B 22
Rearranging
18
C12
12
A11 A12 B
= (117)
C22 A21 A22 B 22
Or even more compact
1
C12
11
B 12
C1 A11 A12 B
= (118)
C21 C22 A21 A22 B 21 B 22
Notice that in the matrix with the A:s and B:s, the α denotes the row and β the column
in Aαβ and B αβ . Considering the matrix with the C:s, we let α denote the row and β
the column in Cαβ and writes this from now on Cα β . Thus
1
C1 2
11
B 12
C1 A11 A12 B
= (119)
C2 1 C2 2 A21 A22 B 21 B 22
Or in tensor notation Cα β = Aαγ B γβ . Returning now to the original problem, where the
solution is given by
β 1 2 4 3
(Cα ) =
3 4 2 1
(120)
8 5
=
20 13
Notice that the method used in this problem can be generalized. If instead
A11 A12 · · · A1n
A21 A22 · · · A2n
(Aαβ ) = . (121)
.. .. ..
.. . . .
An1 An2 · · · Ann
B 11 B 12 · · · B 1n
B 21 B 22 · · · B 2n
αβ
(B ) = . (122)
.. .. ..
.. . . .
B n1 B n2 · · · B nn
then Cα β = Aαγ B γβ is given by
11
B 12 B 1n
A11 A12 ··· A1n B ···
A21 A22 ··· A2n B 21 B 22 ··· B 2n
(Cα β ) = . (123)
.. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. . . . . . . .
An1 An2 ··· Ann B n1 B n2 ··· B nn
If we put two indices, a contravariant and a covariant, equal to each other in a mixed
tensor and sum with respect to this pair of indices we obtain a tensor of order one less
contravariant and one less covariant. This process is called contraction of the given
tensor. Contraction of a mixed tensor of second order for example aαβ gives a scalar
Rule to memorize If two 2:nd order tensors are multiplied with each other (for exam-
ple Aαγ B γβ or Aαγ B γβ ) and the column index of the tensor with matrix representation
A is contracted with the row index of the tensor with matrix representation B then the
resulting tensor can be calculated by matrix multiplication AB.
19
4.4 The metric tensor
Problem 22 Given the contravariant components aβ and the vectors rβ , determine the
covariant components aα .
Problem 23 Show that the metric tensor gαβ is a 2:nd order covariant tensor.
Solution 24 The metric tensor is by definition a symmetric tensor gαβ = gβα and thus
both expressions are correct.
Problem 25 Given the covariant components aβ and the vectors rβ , determine the
contravariant components aα .
20
There is a tensor g αβ which is defined as the inverse of the metric tensor:
Here
(g αβ ) = (gαβ )−1
−1
g11 g12
= (132)
g21 g22
1 g22 −g12
=
g11 g22 − g21 g12 −g21 g11
In the Differential geometry litterature one often finds the notation g for the determinant
of the matrix (gαβ ). Here it means that g = g11 g22 − g21 g12 and one can write
αβ 1 g22 −g12
(g ) = (133)
g −g21 g11
g22
which means that g 11 = g , g 12 = − gg12 , g 21 = − gg21 , g 22 = g11
g . With this notation it’s
possible to write 1 11
g 12
a g a1
= (134)
a2 g 21 g 22 a2
Writing this in tensor notation
aα = g αβ aβ (135)
Equation (135) is not only valid in Euclidean 2-space but also in Euclidean n-space.
Solution 26 The proof is divided into two steps. The first step proofs the assertion
when gαβ is defined on Euclidean 2-space. The second step proofs the assertion when
gαβ is defined on Euclidean n-space.
Step 1: When defined on the Euclidean plane the metric 4 components g11 , g12 , g21 ,
g22 and this is written in matrix notation as:
g11 g12
(gαβ ) = (137)
g21 g22
The matrix (gαβ ) is invertible if and only if it’s column vectors are linearly independent.
Assuming that they are linearly dependent will lead to a contradiction. If they are linearly
dependent, this means there is a real number k 6= 0 such that
g11 g
= k 12 (138)
g21 g22
21
√
Notice that g12 = r1 · r2 = g21 . Notice also that g12 < g11 g22 . That this is so can be
seen from the definition of scalar product.
g12 = r1 · r2
(139)
= |r1 ||r2 | cos θ
where 0 ≤ θ < π is the angle between the two vectors r1 and r2 . Since r1 and r2 are
linearly independent the angle θ 6= 0 which means that cos θ < 1 and
g12 < |r1 ||r2 |
p
= |r1 |2 |r2 |2 (140)
√
= g11 g22
Now using equations
√
g12 < g11 g22
r g
21
= (kg12 )
k (141)
√
= g12 g21
= g12
Thus we arrive at the conclusion g12 < g12 which is obviously not true. Thus the two
column vectors in the matrix (gαβ ) are linearly independent and the invertibilty of (gαβ )
follows.
Step 2: Now to prove the general case when gαβ is defined on Euclidean n-space. If
two column vectors in the matrix (gαβ ) are linearly dependent there is a real number
k 6= 0 such that (here γ is an integer satisfying 1 ≤ γ ≤ n)
Row 1 g1α g1β
.. .. ..
. .
.
Row γ gγα = k gγβ
(142)
.. . .
. .. ..
Row n gnα gnβ
for arbitrary integers α and β 6= α such that 1 ≤ α, β ≤ n. Row α and row β means
Thus we arrive at the contradiction gαβ < gαβ , which means that the column vectors in
the matrix (gαβ ) must be linearly independent and the matrix (gαβ ) is therefore invertible.
22
Problem 27 Given the contravariant components aα of a vector v and the vectors rα ,
the vector v can be written
v = aα rα (146)
But if the covariant components aβ of the vector v were given instead of the contravariant
components aα , the vector v is also specified and therefore there should exist vectors rβ
such that it’s possible to write
v = aβ rβ (147)
Determine the vectors rβ !
Solution 27 Since the vectors rβ are given, the metric tensor gαβ = rα ·rβ is also given.
This in turn implies that the tensor (g αβ ) = (gαβ )−1 also is given. The relationship
between the contravariant components aα and the covariant components aβ of a vector
is given by
aα = g αβ aβ (148)
Assume that the contravariant components of vector rγ is written aαγ and the covariant
components of this vector is written aβ γ . This means
aαγ = g αβ aβ γ (149)
rγ = aαγ rα (150)
But
rγ = δβγ rβ (151)
Thus aβ γ = δβγ
aαγ = g αβ aβ γ
= g αβ δβγ (152)
= g αγ
rγ = g αγ rα (153)
Problem 28 Since
gαβ = rα · rβ (154)
one could suspect that
g αβ = rα · rβ (155)
Show that this is so!
rα · rβ = g αµ rµ · g βν rν
(156)
= g αµ g βν gµν
23
Here we shall use g αµ gµν = δνα , which is a relationship between g αβ and gαβ that is used
a lot in tensor calculations. This follows from (g αβ ) = (gαβ )−1 , which means that
11
g 12 · · · g 1n
g g11 g12 · · · g1n 1 0 ··· 0
g 21 g 22 · · · g 2n g21 g22 · · · g2n 0 1 · · · 0
.. = .. .. (157)
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . . . . . . . .
g n1 g n2 ··· g nn gn1 gn2 ··· gnn 0 0 ··· 1
Continuing
rα · rβ = g αµ gµν g βν
= δνα g βν (158)
= g βα
Since (gαβ ) is a symmetric matrix, the inverse matrix (g αβ ) is also a symmetric matrix
which means g αβ = g βα .
Problem 29 The vectors rβ are linearly independent. A natural question thus arises,
are the vectors rγ linearly independent?
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4.6 Summary
Definition of a tensor of arbitrary order on Euclidean n-space
Let r, s and n be integers ≥ 1.
25