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FAULT ANALYSIS OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

USING PIC MICRO CONTROLLER


ABSTRACT

This project is mainly used to find and rectify the faults of three
phase induction motor using PIC (peripheral interface controller) Microcontroller. Here
we are taken seven types of faults, and they are
1. OVER VOLTAGE
2. UNDER VOLTAGE
3. UNBALANCED VOLTAGE
4. SINGLE PHASING
5. BLOCKED ROTOR
6. OVER LOAD
7. NO FAULT( Initial Condition)
Faults other than blocked rotor can be rectified automatically by
using PIC, i.e., over voltage, under voltage, unbalanced voltage, single phasing, over load
and initial condition can be rectified automatically by using PIC,i.e., PIC giving signal to
the relay driver unit, if there is any fault relay will cut off the supply from the induction
motor, but there is no any possibility in case of blocked rotor faults, if the blocked rotor
fault occurs PIC showing there is a blocked rotor faults in induction motor, then alarm
will be on then we can rectify the faults manually.
INTRODUCTION

Now many techniques are used to find and rectify the faults, here we
are using PIC technique this method is very faster and precise than the other
techniques and also it is easy to implemented. The program of PIC is written by using
fuzzy logic.

ADVANTAGES OF FUZZY LOGIC

1. It is real world thinking program.


2. It is easy to implement.
3. It is taking minimum number of codes.
4. It is easy to understand.

FEATURES OF PIC
 Combination Of Hardware and Software

Hardware
 To establish a Physical Connection between two parts
Software
 Issue when and where commands to control the Hardware.

 Uses Microprocessor or Microcontroller


Application
 Developing products to do one task only
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Potentia
3 l Rectifie
Single Filter
Transfor r
Phase mer
Supply
Control
Load
Unit
PIC

Current I/V Rectifie


Transfor Conver r&
mer ter Filter

TYPES OF FAULTS
 OVER VOLTAGE

 UNDER VOLTAGE

 UNBALANCED VOLTAGE

 SINGLE PHASING

 BLOCKED ROTOR

 OVER LOAD

 NO FAULT( Initial Condition)

CONTROL UNIT

• Control unit consist of relay unit(6v electromagnetic relay).

• According to the voltage & current value,the relay will operate.

• If ‘v’&‘I’ is less than the specified value,then the relay will be idle.
• If ‘v’&‘I’ is more than the specified value,then the relay will operate and cut- off
the three phase induction motor from the supply.

V AND I MEASUREMENT UNIT

• Voltage is measured by using POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER.

• This voltage is stepped-down according to the PIC specification.

• Current is measured by using CURRENT TRANSFORMER.

• This current is converted according to the PIC specification.

INDUCTION MOTOR TESTS USING MATLAB/SIMULINK

With the advent of low-cost personal computers and various


easily accessible software packages, computer- aided teaching tools have come an
essential part of both classroom lectures and laboratory experiments in electrical
machinery education the computer models and simulations of induction motors, as
teaching tools, support the classroom teaching by enabling the instructor, through the
computer-generated graphics, to illustrate easily steady-state operation of the motor under
various loading conditions.The computational tools as a part of laboratory experiments
enhance laboratory experience by providing students with the opportunity to verify the
results of laboratory experiments and compare them with those obtained by computer
simulations. Such a comparison opportunity helps students realize the limitations of
hardware experiments and, as a counterpoint, appreciate that computer models cannot
substitute for actual hardware experiments that might not exactly represent the operation
of induction motors because of some modeling assumptions.
Moreover, an undergraduate electric machinery course that
integrates up-to-date computer hardware and software tools in both lecture and laboratory
sections also meets the expectations of today’s students who want to use computers and
simulation tools in every aspects of a course, and thus, possibly attracts MORE
STUDENT Electrical machinery courses at the undergraduate level typically consist of
classroom and laboratory sections. The classroom section covers the steady-state
operation of the induction motor in which the per-phase equivalent circuit is used to
compute various motor quantities, such as input current and power, power factor,
developed torque, and efficiency. The computations associated with the steady-state
operation require the knowledge of equivalent circuit parameters. These parameters are
obtained by performing three tests, namely dc, no-load, and blocked-rotor tests on the
motor in a typical laboratory experiment.

The laboratory section includes these tests and a load


experiment that allows students to become familiar with the induction motor operation
and to gain invaluable hardware and measurement experiences. The authors’ experience
while teaching induction motors at Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, indicates that
students generally have difficulty when they come to the laboratory to carry out these
experiments even though the corresponding theory is extensively covered in the
classroom section with a detailed hand-out describing laboratory facilities and the
procedure of the experiments, given to them at least a week before the laboratory.
Students are not familiar with a laboratory.
Environment that contains large machines and relatively
complex measurement methods and devices as compared with other laboratories they
have been to before. The time constraints during the laboratory exercise are also a
difficult adjustment. Ina usual two-hour laboratory section, students are required to setup
and perform four induction motor experiments, to take the necessary measurements, and
to investigate steady-state performance of the motor under various loading conditions.
Because of the time limitations, students often rush through the experiments in order to
finish them on time, which unfortunately prevents them from getting a true feeling of
motor operation and from appreciating what has been accomplished during the laboratory
practice. Therefore, simulation tools must be developed for induction motor experiments
to serve as useful preparatory exercises before students come to the laboratory. The
objective of this paper is to present simulation models of these induction motor
experiments in an effort to design a computational laboratory The dc, no-load, and
blocked-rotor simulation models are developed as stand-alone applications using
MATLAB/Simulink[8] and Power System Blocked. For the load experiment, students are
required to write a computer program using MAT Lab’s M-file programming for the per-
phase equivalent circuit of the induction motor to compute operating quantities.

INDUCTION MOTOR TESTS

EXPERIMENTAL SETUPS AND SIMULINK/PSB MODELS

The steady-state operating characteristics of a three-phase


induction motor are often investigated using a per-phase equivalent circuit as shown in
Fig. In this circuit, and represent stator resistance and leakage reactance, respectively;and
denote the rotor resistance and leakage reactance referred to the stator, respectively;
resistance stands for core losses; represents magnetizing reactance; and denotes the slip.
The equivalent circuit is used to facilitate the computation of various operating quantities,
such as stator current, input power, losses, induced torque, and efficiency. When power
aspects of the operation need to be emphasized, the shunt resistance is usually neglected;
the core losses can be included in efficiency calculations along with the friction, windage,
and stray losses. The parameters of the equivalent circuit can be obtained from the dc, no-
load, and blocked-rotor tests. In the following, both experimental setup and
Simulink/PSB models of each test are described.
The PSB is a useful software package to develop
simulation models for power system applications in the MATLAB/Simulink
environment. With its graphical user interface and extensive library, it provides power
engineers and researchers with a modern and interactive design tool to build simulation
models rapidly and easily. MATLAB and Simulink/PSB have been widely used by
educators to enhance teaching of transient and steady-state characteristics of induction
machines. Of course, other commercial software packages, such as Maple and MathCAD,
are commonly used in electrical engineering education with their advantages and
disadvantages .The reason that MATLAB with its toolboxes was selected is that it is the
main software package used in almost all undergraduate courses in the authors’
institutions as a computation tool to reinforce electrical engineering education. Therefore,
students can easily access to MATLAB, and they already have the basic programming
skills to use the given Simulink models and to write computer programs when required
before coming to the machinery class.
No-Load Test

The no-load test on an induction motor is conducted to measure


the rotational losses of the motor and to determine some of its equivalent circuit
parameters. In this test, a rated, balanced ac voltage at a rated frequency is applied to the
stator while it is running at no load, and input power, voltage, and phase currents are
measured at the no-load condition. Fig illustrates the experimental setup of the no-load
test conducted at Drexel University’s IPSL. Fig shows the Simulink/PSB realization of
the no-load test, where a three-phase balanced Y-connected ac source whose per-phase
voltage is 120 V/60 Hz is applied to the stator terminal of the induction motor. The
electrical inputs of the induction motor block are the three electrical connections of the
stator (terminals A-B-C), while the electrical outputs (terminals a-b-c) are the three
electrical connections of the rotor, which is short-circuited. The input block (terminal
Tm) is the mechanical torque at the machine’s shaft. This torque is set to be zero to
simulate the no-load condition.
The equivalent circuit parameters obtained from experimental
data and the number of poles is specified using the induction motor-block dialogue box.
Three current measurement blocks are used to measure the instantaneous current of each
phase. The output of each current measurement block is connected to a root-mean-square
(rms) block, called signal rms, to determine the rms value of each phase current. This
block computes the rms value of the input signal over a running window of the one cycle
of the specified fundamental frequency (60 Hz). Three display boxes read these rms
values. Similarly, a voltage measurement block, an rms block, and a display box are used
to measure the phase A voltage. The outputs of the voltage measurement block and the
current measurement block of phase A are connected to a power measurement block,
called the active and reactive power measurement, that computes the active power and
reactive power. The output of this block is connected to a scope and to a display block to
obtain the waveforms and the values of and. The output terminal of the induction motor
block (terminal m-SI) allows for the measurement of several variables, such as speed and
electrical torque. A machine measurement block is used to get the mechanical speed.
Through the scope and display block, the waveform and the steady-state value of the
rotor speed can easily be measured in rad per second, or the corresponding data can be
written to MATLAB’s workspace to make use of other graphical tools available in
MATLAB. Fig shows the evolution of the mechanical speed during the no-load
simulation.
The rotor speed reaches its steady-state value (188.5 rad/s for
the tested motor) quickly, indicating that MATLAB/Simulink is an appropriate tool to
investigate steady-state behavior of induction motors as well. One can see that there are
some differences between the hardware setup and Simulink/PSB model. For example, the
per-phase-based real and reactive input power is measured in the simulation model, while
in the experiment the total three-phase real input power is measured. However, this
difference is not significant since under the three-phase balanced operation; computations
are usually completed using the per-phase quantities. Similarly, the per-phase voltage is
measured in the simulation, as opposed to the line-to-line voltages measured in the
hardware experiment. These measurements enable the approximate computation of the
sum of the magnetizing reactance and the stator
leakage reactance as follows.
where is the per-phase voltage , is the phase measured reactive power, and is the average
phase current measured . Using measured input power and the stator resistance obtained
from the dc test, rotational losses of the motor given by the sum of the friction, windage,
and core losses can be found, as follows:

Blocked-Rotor Test

The blocked-rotor test on an induction motor is performed to


determine some of its equivalent circuit parameters. In this test, the rotor of the induction
motor is blocked, and a reduced voltage is applied to the stator terminals so that the rated
current flows through the stator windings. The input power, voltage, and current are
measured. For some design-class induction motors, this test is conducted under a test
frequency, usually less than the normal operating frequency so as to evaluate the rotor
resistance appropriately. The experimental setup of the blocked-rotor test is not shown
here since it is similar to that of the no-load test shown in Fig. The only difference is that
a synchronous generator coupled with a dc motor and auto transformer were installed in
the circuit in order to perform the blocked-rotor test at various frequencies and to control
input voltage to the stator. Fig. shows the Simulink/PSB model of the blocked-rotor test.
This model is almost the same as that of the no-load test shown
in Fig. However, there is a slight difference between the two models. In the blocked-rotor
model, the inertia of the induction motor is set to infinity in order to simulate the
blocked-rotor condition. Several measurements blocks are used to measure the current,
voltage, and active/reactive powers. The mechanical torque to the rotor is set to an
arbitrary nonzero value [in this case, 5 Newton-meter (N.m)], which will not affect the

blocked-rotor condition since the inertia isinfinite. Because of the infinite inertia, rotor
speed remains at zero during the blocked-rotor simulation. Various test frequencies for
blocked-rotor simulation can be easily achieved by changing the frequencies of the
-connected voltage sources rather than using a synchronous generator coupled with a dc
motor. The measurement data from the blocked rotor test enables one to determine
approximately the blocked-rotor resistance and reactance at the test frequency

where is the blocked-rotor resistance, and is the blocked-rotor reactance at the test
frequency.
If the test frequency is different from the rated frequency, one can compute the total
equivalent reactance at the normal operating frequency as follows since the reactance is
directly proportional to the frequency.

When the three tests are completed, equivalent circuit parameters can easily be computed.
1) The stator resistance is directly computed from the dc test.
2) The no-load test gives the sum of the magnetizing reactance and the stator leakage
reactance .
3) The blocked-rotor test gives that of the stator and rotor leakage reactance. One needs
to refer to test codes to find out the empirical proportions for stator and leakage reactance
given for three-phase induction motors by class.When the classification of the motor is
not known, one assumes that. The magnetization reactance can now be evaluated using,
as follows:

As for the rotor resistance , a better approximation is required since it has a more
significant effect on the motor performance when compared with the other circuit
parameters.

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS OF THE INDUCTION


MOTOR TESTED
the equivalent circuit under blocked-rotor condition, the following expression achieves
the desired approximation
COMPARISON OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS
To illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed simulation
models, one compares the equivalent circuit parameters determined by simulations with
those obtained from hardware experiments. The motors used for this purpose are the
three-phase 60-Hz Y-connected, and the 5-Horse Power (HP) induction motors of 200-V
rating 1735 r/min located at Drexel University’s IPSL. A set of hardware experiments are
first performed (i.e., dc, no-load, and blocked-rotor tests) on four induction motors to
obtain appropriate equivalent circuit parameters for software simulations. The resulting
parameters are presented in Table I.

SIMULATION RESULTS OF THE INDUCTION MOTOR


TESTS FOR MOTOR

For each induction motor tested the Simulink/PSB models of the dc, no-load, and
blocked-rotor tests were run. The simulation data of no-load and blocked-rotor tests for
motor 1 is shown in Table II, where various quantities, such as voltage, current, and
power required to compute equivalent circuit parameters, are presented. The dc test
simulation data for motor 1 is as follows: 12.66 V and 15.74 A. The simulation data for
the other three motors is similar to that of Motor 1 and, thus, is not given here. Table III
gives the equivalent circuit parameters computed, using the simulation data and the
corresponding errors relative to those obtained experimentally. The error computations
assume that equivalent circuit parameters determined experimentally are accurate. The
results indicate that relative errors are negligible, and the proposed simulation models
accurately predict equivalent circuit parameters. The largest error occurs in the stator and
rotor leakage reactances, since one assumes that two reactances have equal contributions
to the blocked-rotor reactance, which might not be the real case.
INITIAL CONDITION
SIMULATION DIAGRAM FOR INTIAL CONDITION
SINGLE PHASE FAULT
SIMULATION DIAGRAM FOR SINGLE PHASE
UNDER

VOLTAGE FAULT
SIMULATION DIAGRAM FOR UNDER VOLTAGE
UNBALNCED FAULT
SIMULATION DIAGRAM FOR UNBALANCED
Unbalanced Fault Van
+
v
-
Vab1
Vbn
signal rms

RMS3

+ s ignal rms Vcn


v
-
RMS4
Vab2 Scope2
+
v signal rms
- 200
Vab3 RMS5
230.9
1 2 240
+
g m Demux v
Van ubnormal - Display
Scope
Ideal Switch3 Vab
1 2 0.6725
is_abc
g m 1.394
A
Pase A
Ideal Switch4 m wm 1.211
B
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C Display1
Te
Tm
Vbn normal Asynchronous Machine
SI Units

1 2
signal rms
g m
Vcn Normal Demux RMS signal rms
Ideal Switch1
signal rms RMS1 Scope1
1 2
RMS2
Vcn Ubnormal g m
ia
Ideal Switch2
2
Signal To
Pulse
Constant Workspace
ib
Generator1
Pulse
Generator2 Signal To
Workspace1

ic

Signal To
Workspace2

OVER LOAD
SIMULATION DIAGRAM FOR OVER LOAD
OVER VOLTAGE
SIMULATION DIAGRAM FOR OVER VOLTAGE

+
v Van
-
Vab1
Vbn
signal rms

RMS3 Vcn
+ signal rms
v
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RMS4
Vab2
+
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- 0
Vab3 RMS5

+
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v
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Vab Scope 0
is_abc

A
Pase A
m wm
B
AC Voltage Source m
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Te
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AC Voltage Source1 SI Units

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signal rms
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1 2
RMS2
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2
Signal To
Constant
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Pulse
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ic

Signal To
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BLOCKED ROTOR FAULT
SIMULATION DIAGRAM FOR BLOCKED ROTOR
PIC MICRO CONTROLLER

PIC16F87X
Microcontroller Core Features

• High-performance RISC CPU.


• Only 35 single word instructions to learn.
• All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are two cycle
• Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input DC - 200 ns instruction cycle
• Up to 8K x 14 words of FLASH Program Memory, Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data
Memory (RAM) Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM data memory.
• Pinout compatible to the PIC16C73B/74B/76/77.
• Interrupt capability (up to 14 sources).
• Eight level deep hardware stack.
• Direct, indirect and relative addressing modes.
• Power-on Reset (POR).
• Power-up Timer (PWRT) and Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST).
• Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable operation.
• Programmable code-protection.
• Power saving SLEEP mode.
• Selectable oscillator options.
• Low-power, high-speed CMOS FLASH/EEPROM technology.
• Fully static design.
• In-Circuit Serial Programming  ( ICSP)via two pins.
• Single 5V In-Circuit Serial Programming capability.
• In-Circuit Debugging via two pins.
• Processor read/write access to program memory.
• Wide operating voltage range: 2.0V to 5.5V.
• High Sink/Source Current: 25 mA.
• Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges.
• Low-power consumption.
- < 2 mA typical @ 5V, 4 MHz
- 20 A typical @ 3V, 32 kHz
- < 1 A typical standby current.
Peripheral Features

• Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler


• Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, Can be incremented during sleep via
external Crystal/clock.
• Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and postscaler.
• Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules
- Capture is 16-bit, max. resolution is 12.5 ns
- Compare is 16-bit, max. resolution is 200 ns
- PWM max. resolution is 10-bit
• 10-bit multi-channel Analog-to-Digital converter
• Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI(Master Mode) and I2C(Master/Slave)
• Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART/SCI) with 9-bit
address detection.
• Parallel Slave Port (PSP) 8-bits wide, with external RD, WR and CS controls (40/44-pin
only) Brown-out detection circuitry for Brown-out Reset (BOR).
DEVICE OVERVIEW

This document contains device-specific information. Additional


information may be found in the PICmicro™ Mid-Range Reference Manual, (DS33023),
which may be obtained from your local Microchip Sales Representative or downloaded
from the Microchip website. The Reference Manual should be considered a
complementary document to this data sheet, and is highly recommended reading for a
better understanding of the device architecture and operation of the peripheral modules.
There are four devices (PIC16F873, PIC16F874, PIC16F876 and PIC16F877) covered by
this data sheet. The PIC16F876/873 devices come in 28-pin packages and the
PIC16F877/874 devices come in 40- pin packages. The 28-pin devices do not have a
Parallel Slave Port implemented. The following two figures are device block diagrams
sorted by pin number; 28-pin for Figure 1-1 and 40-pin for Figure 1-2. The 28-pin and
40-pin pinouts are listed in Table 1-1 and Table 1-2, respectively.
PIC16F873 AND PIC16F876 PINOUT DESCRIPTION
PIC16F874
AND
PIC16F877
PINOUT

DESCRIPTION
PIC16F874
AND
PIC16F877
PINOUT
MEMORY ORGANIZATION

There are three memory blocks in each of these PICmicro MCUs.


The Program Memory and Data Memory have separate buses so that concurrent access
can occur and is detailed in this section. Additional information on device memory may
be found in the PIC microMid-Range Reference Manual.

Program Memory Organization

The PIC16F87X devices have a 13-bit program counter capable of


addressing an 8K x 14 program memory space. The PIC16F877/876 devices have 8K x
14 words of FLASH program memory and the PIC16F873/874 devices have 4K x 14.
Accessing a location above the physically implemented address will cause a wraparound.
The reset vector is at 0000h and the interrupt vector is at 0004h.
PIC16F877/876 PROGRAM MEMORY MAP AND STACK
PIC16F874/873 PROGRAM MEMORY MAP AND STACK

Data Memory Organization

The data memory is partitioned into multiple banks which


contain the General Purpose Registers and theSpecial Function Registers. Bits
RP1(STATUS<6>) and RP0 (STATUS<5>) are the bank select bits.
Each bank extends up to 7Fh (128 bytes). The lower locations of each bank are reserved
for the Special Function Registers. Above the Special Function Registers are General
Purpose Registers, implemented as static RAM. All implemented banks contain Special
Function Registers. Some “high use” Special Function Registers from one bank may be
mirrored in another bank for code reduction and quicker access.
PIC16F877/876 REGISTER FILE MAP
PIC16F874/873 REGISTER FILE MAP
SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS

The Special Function Registers are registers used by the CPU and
peripheral modules for controlling the desired operation of the device. These registers are
implemented as static RAM. A list of these registers is given in Table
The Special Function Registers can be classified into two sets; core
(CPU) and peripheral. Those registers associated with the core functions are described in
detail in this section. Those related to the operation of the peripheral features are
described in detail in the peripheral feature section.

SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTER SUMMARY

Legend: x = unknown, u = unchanged, q = value depends on condition, - =


unimplemented read as ’0’, r = reserved.
Shaded locations are unimplemented, read as ‘0’.
Note 1: The upper byte of the program counter is not directly accessible. PCLATH is a
holding register for the PC<12:8> whose
contents are transferred to the upper byte of the program counter.
2: Other (non power-up) resets include external reset through MCLR and Watchdog
Timer Reset.
3: Bits PSPIE and PSPIF are reserved on the 28-pin devices; always maintain these bits
clear.
4: These registers can be addressed from any bank.
5: PORTD, PORTE, TRISD, and TRISE are not physically implemented on the 28-pin
devices, read as ‘0’.
6: PIR2<6> and PIE2<6> are reserved on these devices; always maintain these bits clear.
SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTER SUMMARY

Legend: x = unknown, u = unchanged, q = value depends on condition, - = nimplemented


read as ’0’, r = reserved.Shaded locations are unimplemented, read as ‘0’.
Note 1: The upper byte of the program counter is not directly accessible. PCLATH is a
holding register for the PC<12:8> whose contents are transferred to the upper byte of the
program counter.
2: Other (non power-up) resets include external reset through MCLR and Watchdog
Timer Reset.
3: Bits PSPIE and PSPIF are reserved on the 28-pin devices; always maintain these bits
clear.
4: These registers can be addressed from any bank.
5: PORTD, PORTE, TRISD, and TRISE are not physically implemented on the 28-pin
devices, read as ‘0’.
6: PIR2<6> and PIE2<6> are reserved on these devices; always maintain these bits clear.

STATUS REGISTER

The STATUS register contains the arithmetic status of the ALU,


the RESET status and the bank select bits for data memory. The STATUS register can be
the destination for any instruction, as with any other register. If the STATUS register is
the destination for an instruction that affects the Z, DC or C bits, then the write to these
three bits is disabled. These bits are set or cleared according to the device logic.
Furthermore, the TO and PD bits are not writable, therefore, the result of an instruction
with the STATUS register as destination may be different than intended. For example,
CLRF STATUS will clear the upper-three bits and set the Z bit. This leaves the STATUS
register as 000u u1uu (where u = unchanged). It is recommended, therefore, that only
BCF, BSF, SWAPF and MOVWF instructions are used to alter the STATUS register,
because these instructions do not affect the Z, C or DC bits from the STATUS register.
For other instructions not affecting any status bits, see the "Instruction Set Summary."

Note 1: The C and DC bits operate as a borrow and digit borrow bit, respectively, in
subtraction. See the SUBLW and SUBWF instructions for examples.
STATUS REGISTER (ADDRESS 03H, 83H, 103H, 183H)
OPTION_REG REGISTER

The OPTION_REG Register is a readable and writable register,


which contains various control bits to configure the TMR0 prescaler/WDT postscaler
(single assignable register known also as the prescaler), the External INT Interrupt,
TMR0 and the weak pull-ups on PORTB.
OPTION_REG REGISTER (ADDRESS 81H, 181H)
INTCON REGISTER
The INTCON Register is a readable and writable register,
which contains various enable and flag bits for the TMR0 register overflow, RB
Port change and External RB0/INT pin interrupts.

INTCON REGISTER (ADDRESS 0BH, 8BH, 10BH, 18BH)


PIE1 REGISTER

The PIE1 register contains the individual enable bits for the peripheral interrupts.

PIE2 REGISTER

The PIE2 register contains the individual enable bits for the CCP2
peripheral interrupt, the SSP bus collision interrupt, and the EEPROM write operation
interrupt
PIE2 REGISTER (ADDRESS 8DH)

PIR2 REGISTER

The PIR2 register contains the flag bits for the CCP2 interrupt, the
SSP bus collision interrupt and the EEPROM write operation interrupt.

PCON REGISTER

The Power Control (PCON) Register contains flag bits to allow


differentiation between a Power-on Reset (POR), a Brown-out Reset (BOR), a
Watch-dog Reset (WDT) and an external MCLR Reset.
PCON REGISTER (ADDRESS 8EH)

PCL and PCLATH

The program counter (PC) is 13-bits wide. The low byte comes
from the PCL register, which is a readable and writable register. The upper bits
(PC<12:8>) are not readable, but are indirectly writable through the PCLATH register.
On any reset, the upper bits of the PC will be cleared. Figure 2-5 shows the two uationsor
the loading of the PC. The upper example in the figure shows how the PC is loaded on a
write to PCL (PCLATH<4:0>  P CH). The lower example in the figure shows how the
PC is loaded during a CALL or GOTO instruction (PCLATH<4:3> PCH).
COMPUTED GOTO
A computed GOTO is accomplished by adding an offset to the
program counter ADDWF PCL). When doing a table read using a computed GOTO
method, care should be exercised if the table location crosses a PCL memory boundary
(each 256 byte block). Refer to the application note, “Implementing a Table Read"
(AN556).
STACK
The PIC16CXX family has an 8-level deep x 13-bit wide hardware
stack. The stack space is not part of either program or data space and the stack pointer is
not readable or writable. The PC is PUSHed onto the stackwhen a CALL instruction is
executed or an interrupt causes a branch. The stack is POPed in the event of a
RETURN,RETLW or a RETFIE instruction execution.PCLATH is not affected by a
PUSH or POP operation. The stack operates as a circular buffer. This means that after the
stack has been PUSHed eight times, the ninth push overwrites the value that was stored
from the first push. The tenth push overwrites the second push (and so on).

LOADING OF PC IN DIFFERENT SITUATIONS

Program Memory Paging


PIC16CXX devices are capable of addressing a continuous 8K word
block of program memory. The CALL and GOTO instructions provide only 11 bits of
address to allow branching within any 2K program memory page. When doing a CALL
or GOTO instruction, the upper 2 bits of the address are provided by CLATH<4:3>.
When doing a CALL or GOTO instruction, the user must ensure that the page select bits
are programmed so that the desired program memory page is addressed. If a return from a
CALL instruction (or interrupt) is executed, the entire 13-bit PC is popped off the stack.
Therefore, manipulation of the PCLATH<4:3> bits are not required for the return
instructions (which POPs the address from the stack) Example 2-1 shows the calling of a
subroutine in page 1 of the program memory. This example assumes that PCLATH is
saved and restored by the interrupt service routine (if interrupts are used).

SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE CPU

These devices have a host of features intended to maximize system


reliability, minimize cost through elimination of external components, provide power
saving operating modes and offer code protection. These are:
• OSC Selection
• Reset
- Power-on Reset (POR)
- Power-up Timer (PWRT)
- Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST)
- Brown-out Reset (BOR)
• Interrupts
• Watchdog Timer (WDT)
• SLEEP
• Code protection
• ID locations
• In-Circuit Serial Programming
• Low Voltage In-Circuit Serial Programming
• In-Circuit Debugger
These devices have a watchdog timer, which can be shut off only through configuration
bits. It runs off its
Own RC oscillator for added reliability. There are two timers that offer necessary delays
on power-up. One is the Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST), intended to keep the chip in
reset until the crystal oscillator is stable. The other is the Power-up Timer (PWRT),
which provides a fixed delay of 72 ms (nominal) on power-up only. It is designed to keep
the part in reset while the power supply stabilizes. With these two timers on-chip, most
applications need no external reset circuitry. SLEEP mode is designed to offer a very low
current power-down mode. The user can wake-up from SLEEP through external reset,
Watchdog Timer Wake-up, or through an interrupt. Several oscillator options are also
made available to allow the part to fit the application. The RC oscillator option saves
system cost while the LP crystal option saves power. A set of configuration bits are used
to select various options.
Power-On Reset (POR)

A Power-on Reset pulse is generated on-chip when VDD rise is detected


(in the range of 1.2V - 1.7V). To take advantage of the POR, tie the MCLR pin directly
(or through a resistor) to VDD. This will eliminate external RC components usually
needed to create a Power on Reset. A maximum rise time for VDD is specified. See
Electrical Specifications for details. When the device starts normal operation (exits the
reset condition), device operating parameters (voltage, frequency, temperature,...) must
be met to ensure operation’s these conditions are not met, the device must be held in reset
until the operating conditions are met. Brown-out Reset may be used to meet the start-up
conditions. For additional information, refer to Application Note, AN007, “Power-up
Trouble Shooting”, (DS00007).

Power-up Timer (PWRT)

The Power-up Timer provides a fixed 72 ms nominal time-out on


power-up only from the POR. The Power up Timer operates on an internal RC oscillator.
The hip is kept in reset as long as the PWRT is active. The PWRT’s time delay allows
VDD to rise to an acceptable level. A configuration bit is provided to enable/disable the
PWRT. The power-up time delay will vary from chip to chip due to VDD, temperature
and process variation.

Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST)


The Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST) provides 1024 oscillator cycle
(from OSC1 input) delay after the PWRT delay is over. This ensures that the crystal
oscillator or resonator has started and stabilized. The OST time-out is invoked only for
XT, LP and HS modes and only on Power-on Reset or wake-up from SLEEP.

Brown-Out Reset (BOR)


The configuration bit, BODEN, can enable or disable the
Brown-out Reset circuit. If VDD falls below VBOR (parameter D005, about 4V)
for longer than TBOR (parameter #35, about 100µ S), the brown-out situation will
reset the device. If VDD falls below VBOR for less than TBOR, a reset may not
occur. Once the brown-out occurs, the device will remain in brown-out reset until
VDD rises above VBOR. The power-up timer then keeps the device in reset for
TPWRT (parameter #33, about 72mS). If VDD should fall below VBOR during
TPWRT, the brown-out reset process will restart when VDD rises above VBOR
with the power-up timer reset. The power-up timer is always enabled when the
brown-out reset circuit is enabled regardless of the state of the PWRT
configuration bit.

Time-out Sequence

On power-up, the time-out sequence is as follows: The pWRT delay


starts (if enabled) when a POR reset occurs. Then OST starts counting 1024 oscillator
cycles when PWRT ends (LP, XT, and HS). When the OST ends, the device comes out of
RESET. If MCLR is kept low long enough, the time-outs will expire. Bringing MCLR
high will begin execution immediately. This is useful for testing purposes or to
synchronize more than one PIC16CXX device operating in parallel. Table 12-5 shows the
reset conditions for the STATUS, PCON and PC registers, while Table 12-6 shows the
reset conditions for all the registers.
Power Control/Status Register (PCON)

The Power Control/Status Register, PCON, has up to two bits


depending upon the device. Bit0 is Brown-out Reset Status bit; BOR. Bit BOR is
unknown on a Power-on Reset. It must then be set by the user and checked on subsequent
resets to see if bit BOR cleared, indicating a BOR occurred. The BOR bit is a "don’t
care" bit and is not necessarily predictable if the Brown-out Reset circuitry is disabled
(by clearing bit BODEN in the Configuration Word). Bit1 is POR (Power-on Reset Status
bit). It is cleared on a Power-on Reset and unaffected otherwise. The user must set this bit
following a Power-on Reset.

Watchdog Timer (WDT)

The Watchdog Timer is as a free running on-chip RC oscillator


which does not require any external components. This RC oscillator is separate from the
RC oscillator of the OSC1/CLKIN pin. That means that the WDT will run, even if the
clock on the OSC1/CLKIN and OSC2/CLKOUT pins of the device has been stopped, for
example, by execution of a SLEEP instruction. During normal operation, a WDT time-
out generates a device RESET (Watchdog Timer Reset). If the device is in SLEEP mode,
a WDT time-out causes the device to wake-up and continue with normal operation
(Watchdog Timer Wake-up). The TO bit in the STATUS register will be cleared upon a
Watchdog Timer time-out.
WDT time-out period values may be found in the Electrical Specifications
section under parameter #31. Values for the WDT pre scale (actually a post scalar, but
shared with the Timer0 pre scale) may be assigned using the OPTION_REG register.

WATCHDOG TIMER BLOCK DIAGRAM


SUMMARY OF WATCHDOG TIMER REGISTERS
FUZZY LOGIC - AN INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

This is the first in a series of six articles intended to share information


and experience in the realm of fuzzy logic (FL) and its application. This article will
introduce FL. Through the course of this article series, a simple implementation will be
explained in detail. Each article will include additional outside resource references for
interested readers.

WHERE DID FUZZY LOGIC COME FROM?

The concept of Fuzzy Logic (FL) was conceived by Lotfi Zadeh, a


professor at the University of California at Berkley, and presented not as a control
methodology, but as a way of processing data by allowing partial set membership rather
than crisp set membership or non-membership. This approach to set theory was not
applied to control systems until the 70's due to insufficient small-computer capability
prior to that time. Professor Zadeh reasoned that people do not require precise, numerical
information input, and yet they are capable of highly adaptive control. If feedback
controllers could be programmed to accept noisy, imprecise input, they would be much
more effective and perhaps easier to implement. Unfortunately, U.S. manufacturers have
not been so quick to embrace this technology while the Europeans and Japanese have
been aggressively building real products around it.

WHAT IS FUZZY LOGIC?

In this context, FL is a problem-solving control system methodology


that lends itself to implementation in systems ranging from simple, small, embedded
micro-controllers to large, networked, multi-channel PC or workstation-based data
acquisition and control systems. It can be implemented in hardware, software, or a
combination of both. FL provides a simple way to arrive at a definite conclusion based
upon vague, ambiguous, imprecise, noisy, or missing input information. FL's approach to
control problems mimics how a person would make decisions, only much faster.
HOW IS FL DIFFERENT FROM CONVENTIONAL CONTROL
METHODS?

FL incorporates a simple, rule-based IF X AND Y THEN Z


approach to a solving control problem rather than attempting to model a system
mathematically. The FL model is empirically-based, relying on an operator's experience
rather than their technical understanding of the system. For example, rather than dealing
with temperature control in terms such as "SP =500F", "T <1000F", or "210C <TEMP
<220C", terms like "IF (process is too cool) AND (process is getting colder) THEN (add
heat to the process)" or "IF (process is too hot) AND (process is heating rapidly) THEN
(cool the process quickly)" are used. These terms are imprecise and yet very descriptive
of what must actually happen. Consider what you do in the shower if the temperature is
too cold: you will make the water comfortable very quickly with little trouble. FL is
capable of mimicking this type of behavior but at very high rate.

HOW DOES FL WORK?

FL requires some numerical parameters in order to operate such as


what is considered significant error and significant rate-of-change-of-error, but exact
values of these numbers are usually not critical unless very responsive performance is
required in which case empirical tuning would determine them. For example, a simple
temperature control system could use a single temperature feedback sensor whose data is
subtracted from the command signal to compute "error" and then time-differentiated to
yield the error slope or rate-of-change-of-error, hereafter called "error-dot". Error might
have units of degs F and a small error considered to be 2F while a large error is 5F. The
"error-dot" might then have units of degs/min with a small error-dot being 5F/min and a
large one being 15F/min.

These values don't have to be symmetrical and can be "tweaked"


once the system is operating in order to optimize performance. Generally, FL is so
forgiving that the system will probably work the first time without any tweaking.FL was
conceived as a better method for sorting and handling data but has proven to be a
excellent choice for many control system applications since it mimics human control
logic. It can be built into anything from small, hand-held products to large computerized
process control systems. It uses an imprecise but very descriptive language to deal with
input data more like a human operator. It is very robust and forgiving of operator and
data input and often works when first implemented with little or no tuning.

WHY USE FL?

FL offers several unique features that make it a particularly good choice for many control
problems.

1) It is inherently robust since it does not require precise, noise-free inputs and can be
programmed to fail safely if a feedback sensor quits or is destroyed. The output control is
a smooth control function despite a wide range of input variations.

2) Since the FL controller processes user-defined rules governing the target control
system, it can be modified and tweaked easily to improve or drastically alter system
performance. New sensors can easily be incorporated into the system simply by
generating appropriate governing rules.

3) FL is not limited to a few feedback inputs and one or two control outputs, nor is it
necessary to measure or compute rate-of-change parameters in order for it to be
implemented. Any sensor data that provides some indication of a system's actions and
reactions is sufficient. This allows the sensors to be inexpensive and imprecise thus
keeping the overall system cost and complexity low.

4) Because of the rule-based operation, any reasonable number of inputs can be processed
(1-8 or more) and numerous outputs (1-4 or more) generated, although defining the rule
base quickly becomes complex if too many inputs and outputs are chosen for a single
implementation since rules defining their interrelations must also be defined. It would be
better to break the control system into smaller chunks and use several smaller FL
controllers distributed on the system, each with more limited responsibilities.
5) FL can control nonlinear systems that would be difficult or impossible to model
mathematically. This opens doors for control systems that would normally be deemed
unfeasible for automation.

HOW IS FL USED?

1) Define the control objectives and criteria: What am I trying to control? What do I have
to do to control the system? What kind of response do I need? What are the possible
(probable) system failure modes?

2) Determine the input and output relationships and choose a minimum number of
variables for input to the FL engine (typically error and rate-of-change-of-error).

3) Using the rule-based structure of FL, break the control problem down into a series of
IF X AND Y THEN Z rules that define the desired system output response for given
system input conditions. The number and complexity of rules depends on the number of
input parameters that are to be processed and the number fuzzy variables associated with
each parameter. If possible, use at least one variable and its time derivative. Although it is
possible to use a single, instantaneous error parameter without knowing its rate of
change, this cripples the system's ability to minimize overshoot for a step inputs.

4) Create FL membership functions that define the meaning (values) of Input/Output


terms used in the rules.

5) Create the necessary pre- and post-processing FL routines if implementing in S/W,


otherwise program the rules into the FL H/W engine.

6) Test the system, evaluate the results, tune the rules and membership functions, and
retest until satisfactory results are obtained.

LINGUISTIC VARIABLES

The concept of linguistic or "fuzzy" variables. Think of them as


linguistic objects or words, rather than numbers. The sensor input is a noun, e.g.
"temperature", "displacement", "velocity", "flow", "pressure", etc. Since error is just the
difference, it can be thought of the same way. The fuzzy variables themselves are
adjectives that modify the variable (e.g. "large positive" error, "small positive" error,”
zero" error, "small negative" error, and "large negative" error). As a minimum, one could
simply have "positive", "zero", and "negative" variables for each of the parameters.
Additional ranges such as "very large" and "very small" could also be added to extend the
responsiveness to exceptional or very nonlinear conditions, but aren't necessary in a basic
system. FL does not require precise inputs, is inherently robust, and can process any
reasonable number of inputs but system complexity increases rapidly with more inputs
and outputs. Distributed processors would probably be easier to implement. Simple,
plain-language IF X AND Y THEN Z rules are used to describe the desired system
response in terms of linguistic variables rather than mathematical formulas. The number
of these is dependent on the number of inputs, outputs, and the designer's control
response goals.

THE RULE MATRIX

In the last article the concept of linguistic variables was


presented. The fuzzy parameters of error (command-feedback) and error-dot (rate-of-
change-of-error) were modified by the adjectives "negative", "zero", and "positive". To
picture this, imagine the simplest practical implementation, a 3-by-3 matrix. The columns
represent "negative error", "zero error", and "positive error" inputs from left to right. The
rows represent "negative", "zero", and "positive" "error-dot" input from top to bottom.
This planar construct is called a rule matrix. It has two input conditions, "error" and
"error-dot", and one output response conclusion (at the intersection of each row and
column). In this case there are nine possible logical products (AND) output response
conclusions.

Although not absolutely necessary, rule matrices usually have an


odd number of rows and columns to accommodate a "zero" center row and column
region. This may not be needed as long as the functions on either side of the center
overlap somewhat and continuous dithering of the output is acceptable since the "zero"
regions correspond to "no change" output responses the lack of this region will cause the
system to continually hunt for "zero". It is also possible to have a different number of
rows than columns. This occurs when numerous degrees of inputs are needed. The
maximum number of possible rules is simply the product of the number of rows and
columns, but definition of all of these rules may not be necessary since some input
conditions may never occur in practical operation. The primary objective of this construct
is to map out the universe of possible inputs while keeping the system sufficiently under
control.

STARTING THE PROCESS

The first step in implementing FL is to decide exactly what is to


be controlled and how. For example, suppose we want to design a simple proportional
temperature controller with an electric heating element and a variable-speed cooling fan.
A positive signal output calls for 0-100 percent heat while a negative signal output calls
for 0-100 percent cooling. Control is achieved through proper balance and control of
these two active devices.

A simple block diagram of the control system.


It is necessary to establish a meaningful system for representing the linguistic variables in
the matrix. For this example, the following will be used:
"N" = "negative" error or error-dot input level
"Z" = "zero" error or error-dot input level
"P" = "positive" error or error-dot input level
"H" = "Heat" output response
"-" = "No Change" to current output
"C" = "Cool" output response
Define the minimum number of possible input product combinations and
corresponding output response conclusions using these terms. For a three-by-three
matrix with heating and cooling output responses, all nine rules will need to be
defined. The conclusions to the rules with the linguistic variables associated with
the output response for each rule are transferred to the matrix.

WHAT IS BEING CONTROLLED AND HOW:

Typical control system response shows what


command and error look like in a typical control system relative to the command
set point as the system hunts for stability. Definitions are also shown for this
example.
SYSTEM OPERATING RULES

Linguistic rules describing the control system consist of two


parts; an antecedent block (between the IF and THEN) and a consequent block
(following THEN). Depending on the system, it may not be necessary to evaluate
every possible input combination (for 5-by-5 & up matrices) since some may
rarely or never occur. By making this type of evaluation, usually done by an
experienced operator, fewer rules can be evaluated, thus simplifying the
processing logic and perhaps even improving the FL system performance.

The rule structure.

After transferring the conclusions from the nine rules to the


matrix there is a noticeable symmetry to the matrix. This suggests (but doesn't
guarantee) a reasonably well-behaved (linear) system. This implementation may
prove to be too simplistic for some control problems; however it does illustrate
the process. Additional degrees of error and error-dot may be included if the
desired system response calls for this. This will increase the rule base size and
complexity but may also increase the quality of the control. Figure 4 shows the
rule matrix derived from the previous rules.

MEMBERSHIP FUNCTIONS

In the last article, the rule matrix was introduced and used. The
next logical question is how to apply the rules. This leads into the next concept, the
membership function. The membership function is a graphical representation of the
magnitude of participation of each input. It associates a weighting with each of the inputs
that are processed, define functional overlap between inputs, and ultimately determines
an output response. The rules use the input membership values as weighting factors to
determine their influence on the fuzzy output sets of the final output conclusion. Once the
functions are inferred, scaled, and combined, they are de fuzzified into a crisp output
which drives the system.

There are different memberships functions associated with each


input and output response. Some features to note are: SHAPE - triangular is common, but
bell, trapezoidal, have sine and, exponential have been used. More complex functions are
possible but require greater computing overhead to implement.. HEIGHT or magnitude
(usually normalized to 1) WIDTH (of the base of function), SHOULDERING (locks
height at maximum if an outer function. Shouldered functions evaluate as 1.0 past their
center) CENTER points (center of the member function shape) OVERLAP (N&Z, Z&P,
typically about 50% of width but can be less).
The features of a membership function illustrates the
features of the triangular membership function which is used in this example
because of its mathematical simplicity. Other shapes can be used but the
triangular shape lends itself to this illustration.

The degree of membership (DOM) is determined by


plugging the selected input parameter (error or error-dot) into the horizontal axis
and projecting vertically to the upper boundary of the membership function(s).
A sample case consider an "error" of -1.0 and an "error-dot" of +2.5. These
particular input conditions indicate that the feedback has exceeded the command
and is still increasing.

ERROR & ERROR-DOT FUNCTION MEMBERSHIP

The degree of membership for an "error" of -1.0


projects up to the middle of the overlapping part of the "negative" and "zero"
function so the result is "negative" membership = 0.5 and "zero" membership =
0.5. Only rules associated with "negative" & "zero" error will actually apply to the
output response. This selects only the left and middle columns of the rule matrix.
For an "error-dot" of +2.5, a "zero" and "positive" membership of 0.5 is indicated.
This selects the middle and bottom rows of the rule matrix. By overlaying the two
regions of the rule matrix, it can be seen that only the rules in the 2-by-2 square in
the lower left corner (rules 4,5,7,8) of the rules matrix will generate non-zero
output conclusions. The others have a zero weighting due to the logical AND in
the rules.

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER

As inputs are received by the system, the rule base is


evaluated. The antecedent (IF X AND Y) blocks test the inputs and produce
conclusions. The consequent (THEN Z) blocks of some rules are satisfied while
others are not. The conclusions are combined to form logical sums. These
conclusions feed into the inference process where each response output member
function's firing strength (0 to 1) is determined.
Degree of membership for the error and error-dot functions in the current example Data
summary from previous illustrations:

INPUT DEGREE OF MEMBERSHIP

"error" = -1.0: "negative" = 0.5 and "zero" = 0.5 "error-dot" = +2.5: "zero" = 0.5
and "positive" = 0.5 ANTECEDENT & CONSEQUENT BLOCKS (e = error, er
= error-dot or error-rate) Now referring back to the rules, plug in the membership
function weights from above. "Error" selects rules 1,2,4, 5,7,8 while "error-dot"
selects rules 4 through 9. "Error" and "error-dot" for all rules are combined to a
logical product (LP or AND, that is the minimum of either term). Of the nine
rules selected, only four (rules 4,5,7,8) fire or have non-zero results. This leaves
fuzzy output response magnitudes for only "Cooling" and "No_Change" which
must be inferred, combined, and defuzzified to return the actual crisp output. In
the rule list below, the following ddefinitions apply: (e)=error, (er)=error-dot.
1. If (e < 0) AND (er < 0) then Cool 0.5 & 0.0 = 0.0
2. If (e = 0) AND (er < 0) then Heat 0.5 & 0.0 = 0.0
3. If (e > 0) AND (er < 0) then Heat 0.0 & 0.0 = 0.0
4. If (e < 0) AND (er = 0) then Cool 0.5 & 0.5 = 0.5
5. If (e = 0) AND (er = 0) then No_Chng 0.5 & 0.5 = 0.5
6. If (e > 0) AND (er = 0) then Heat 0.0 & 0.5 = 0.0
7. If (e < 0) AND (er > 0) then Cool 0.5 & 0.5 = 0.5
8. If (e = 0) AND (er > 0) then Cool 0.5 & 0.5 = 0.5
9. If (e > 0) AND (er > 0) then Heat 0.0 & 0.5 = 0.0
SINGLE PHASE FAULT

• 3HP induction motor.


• At fault conditions, Y phase cutoff from the supply,this is achieved by using ideal
switch.
• Input current=20-30A.
• Losses nearly 500 W.
• Output power=1.75KW.

UNDER VOLTAGE FAULT

• 3HP induction motor.


• Input voltage=115V.
• Torque is continuosly varied.
• Motor not tends to rotate.
• This type of motor destroy the drive application.

UNBALANCED FAULT

• 3HP induction motor.


• Input voltage is varied continuously.
• Torque & speed is also varied continuously.
• This type of faults totally destroys the drive application at all.

BLOCKED ROTOR FAULT

• In blocked rotor conditions, the speed of the induction motor is zero.


• It simply acts as a secondary short-circuited transformer.
• The whole power is utilised to produce the losses.
• Here, the output power is wattless(useless).
OVERVOLTAGE FAULT

• Input voltage>230V.
• Input current is high.
• Both the stator & rotor losses is high.
• Torque is plenty, due to high starting torque ,there is an advantage in starting,but
there is always high amount of losses.
• Output power is so much reduced.
POWER SUPPLY UNIT

5v Power Supply

S W 1 L M 7 8 0 5 C /T O 2 2 0
J11 1 1 3
IN OU T V C C
2 U1
2 3
1 R1

GND
S W S P DT
C ON2 C 1 330E
C3

2
4 7 0 u F /2 5 V C 2 0 .1 u F

100uF/16V
D 1
LE D

GN D

Almost all the electronic devices and circuits require a D.C,


source for all the operation. One form of D.C. source is batteries. But they are costly and
require frequent replacement. The easily available and most economical source is A.C.
into a suitable D.C. such a device is called power supply. The power supply consists of
the following the three sub divisions
1. Rectifier

2. Filter

3. Voltage regulator

RECTIFIER
A rectifier is a device which offers a low resistance to the
current in one direction and a high resistance in the opposite direction. Such a device is

capable of converting A.C. voltage into a pulsating D.C. voltage. The rectifier employs
one or more diodes. It may be either a vacuum diode or a semiconductor diode.
There are two types
1. Half wave rectifier

2. Full wave rectifier


3. Bridge rectifier

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Bridge rectifier is a full wave rectifier. It consists of four


diodes , arranged in the form of a bridge . it utilizes the advantages of the full wave
rectifier and at the same time it eliminates the need for a centre tapped transformer. The
supply input and the rectified output are the two diagonally opposite terminals of the
bridge.
During the positive half cycle, the secondary terminal A is
positive w.r.t. terminal B. now the diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased and hence do
not conduct. The current flows from terminal A to terminal B through D1, load
resistance RL and the diode D3 and then through the secondary of the transformer.
During the negative half cycle, terminal B is positive w.r.t
point A. now diodes D2 and D4 are forward biased and hence conduct. Diode D1 and D3
are reversed biased and hence do not conduct. The current flows from terminal B to
terminal A through diode D2, the load resistance RL and diode D4 and then through the
secondary of the transformer.
On both positive and negative half cycles of the A.C. input, the
current flows through the load resistance RL in the same direction. The polarity of the
voltage developed across RL is such that the end connected to the junction of the diodes
D1 and D2 will be positive.

ADVANTAGES

1. Centre tapped transformer is not necessary.


2. D.C. saturation of the transformer does not take place since the two currents flow
in the opposite direction through transformer secondary.

3. Transformer utilization factor is increased.

4. PIV rating across each diode is Vm.

DISADVANTAGES

1. The circuit requires a four diodes and hence additional voltage drop that reduce
the output voltage through the transformer secondary.

2. It’s rarely used with thermionic diode value because of heater supply problem.

FILTER

Output from the rectifier unit having harmonic contents , so we can


provided the filter circuit, filter circuit is used to reduce the harmonics. Here we can use
the pi filter .pi filter consists of capacitance and inductance (i.e. two capacitance in
parallel and one inductance in series). These eliminates the harmonics from both voltage
and current signals.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Voltage regulator is used to maintain the constant voltage with the


variation of the supply voltage and the load current, mainly we can use the two types of
voltage regulator they are
1. series voltage regulator
2. zener diode voltage regulator .
TEMPERATURE CIRCUIT

+5V

R4
10K
R2
4 .7 K A D C _C H 0
R3 1K 1
2 Q1
3B C 5 4 7
R T1
10K

These temperature control circuit is mainly consists of


transistor and resistance, it is used to maintain the constant temperature with the variation
of passive circuit parameters.
RELAY DRIVER CIRCUIT

+12V

D1 NO
AC LOAD
1N4007 NC

1K
M C P o rt P i n Q1
2N 2222

Relays are components which allow a low-power circuit to switch a


relatively high current on and off, or to control signals that must be electrically isolated
from the controlling circuit itself. Newcomers to electronics sometimes want to use a
relay for this type of application, but are unsure about the details of doing so. Here’s a
quick rundown. To make a relay operate, you have to pass a suitable .pull-in. and
.holding current (DC) through its energizing coil. And generally relay coils are designed
to operate from a particular supply voltage. Often 12V or 5V, in the case of many of the
small relays used for electronics work. In each case the coil has a resistance which will
draw the right pull-in and holding currents when it’s connected to that supply voltage. So
the basic idea is to choose a relay with a coil designed to operate from the supply voltage
you’re using for your control circuit (and with contacts capable of switching the currents
you want to control), and then provide a suitable .relay driver. Circuit so that your low-
power circuitry can control the current through the relay’s coil. Typically this will be
somewhere between 25Ma and 70mA. Often your relay driver can be very simple, using
little more than an NPN or PNP transistor to control the coil current. All your low-power
circuitry has to do is provide enough base current to turn the transistor on and off, as you
can see from diagrams A and B.
In A, NPN transistor Q1 (say a BC337 or BC338) is being used to
control a relay (RLY1) with a 12V coil, operating from a +12V supply. Series base
resistor R1 is used to set the base current for Q1, so that the transistor is driven into
saturation (fully turned on) when the relay is to be energized. That way, the transistor will
have minimal voltage drop, and hence dissipate very little power. As well as delivering
most of the 12V to the relay coil. How do you work out the value of R1? It’s not hard.
Let’s say RLY1 needs 50mA of coil current to pull in and hold reliably, and has a
resistance of 240ohmso it draws this current from 12V. Our BC337/338 transistor will
need enough base current to make sure it remains saturated at this collector current level.
To work this out, we simply make sure that the base current is greater than this collector
current divided by the transistor’s minimum DC current gain hFE. So as the BC337/338
has a minimum hFE of 100 (at 100mA), we’d need to provide it with at least 50mA/100
= 0.5mA of base current. In practice, you’d give it roughly double this value, say 1mA of
base current, just to make sure it does saturate. So if your control signal Vin was
switching between 0V and +12V, you’d give R1 a value of say 11kohm, to provide the
1mA of base current needed to turn on both Q1 and the relay. If our relay has a coil
resistance of say 180ohm, so that it draws say 67mA at 12V, we’d need to reduce R1 to
say 8.2kohm, to increase the base current to about 1.4mA. Conversely if the relay coil is
360ohmand draws only 33mA, we could increase R1 to 15kohm, giving about 0.76mA of
base current. Each time we go for about twice the relay coil current divided by Q1.s hFE.
Get the idea? As you can see a power diode D1 (1N4001 or similar) is connected across
the relay coil, to protect the transistor from damage due to the back-EMF pulse generated
in the relay coil’s inductance when Q1 turns off. The basic NPN circuit in diagram A is
fine if you want the relay to energies when your control voltage Vin is high (+12V), and
be off when Vin is low (0V). But what if you want the opposite? That’s where you’d opt
for a circuit like that shown in diagram B, using a PNP transistor like the BC327 or
BC328. This is essentially the same circuit as in A, just swung around to suit the PNP
transistor’s polarity. This time transistor Q2 will turn on and energies the relay when Vin
is low (0V), and will turn off when Vin is high (+12V). Otherwise everything works just
as before, and the value of base resistor R2 is worked out in the same way as for R1. In
fact because the minimum hFE of the BC327/328 PNP transistors is also 100 at 100mA,
you could use exactly the same values of R2 to suit each relay resistance/current. The
simple transistor driver circuits of A and B are very low in cost, and are generally fine for
driving most relays. However there may be occasions, such as when your control circuit
is based on CMOS logic, where the base current needed by these circuits is a bit too high.
For these situations the circuit shown in C might be of interest, because it needs rather
less input current. As you can see it uses a readily available and very low cost 555 IC as
the relay driver, plus only one extra component: bypass capacitor C1. Although we
normally think of the 555 as a timer/oscillator, it’s actually very well suited for driving a
small relay. Output pin 3 can both source and sink 200mA (enough to handle most small
relays comfortably), and the internal flip-flop which controls its output stage is triggered
swiftly between its two states by internal comparators connected to the two sensing
inputs on pins 2 and 6. When these pins are taken to a voltage above 2/3 the supply
voltage, the output switches low (0V); then they are taken below 1/3 the supply voltage,
the output swings high. And the 555 can happily work at 5V, as you can see, so it’s very
suitable for driving a 5V relay coil from this supply voltage.

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