EARLY DETECTION METHOD OF CORROSION ON

BURIED STEEL GAS PIPELINE USING WIRELESS

SENSOR NETWORK
A PROJECT REPORT
Submited by

MANOJ KUMAR 348074016

RAGHAV KUMAR JHA 348074020
ALOK KUMAR 348074005

In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

Of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING

AARUPADAI VEEDU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(VINAYAKA MISSIONS UNIVERSITY)
OLD MAHABALIPURAM ROAD,PAIYANOOR
DIST-KANCHIPURAM
APRIL,2011

1
 VINAYAKA MISSIONS UNIVERSITY
AARUPADAI VEEDU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
CHENNAI-603104

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certified that this project report “IMPROVEMENT OF

HEAT FURNACE TEMPERATURE CONTROL VIA PLC METHOD” is
the bonafide work of “MANOJ KUMAR (348074016), RAGHAV KUMAR
JHA (348074020) and ALOK KUMAR(348074005) ” in partial fulfillement
of the requirements for the award of Degree of Bachelor of Engineering in
Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering from Aarupadai Veedu Institute of
Technology, under our guidance and supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr.N.VEERAPPAN M.E., Ph.D., MIE MISTE., Asso.Prof. L.Chitra

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT, ASSOCIATE PROF.

Department of Electrical and Department of Electronics and

Electronics Engineering Instrumentation Engineering
AVIT,paiyanoor AVIT,paiyanoor
Chennai-603104 Chennai-603104

Certified that the candidates was examined in the viva-voce Examination

held on …………………..

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At the outset, we thank “ THE ALMIGHTY” for his divine guidance and blessings
throughout our project work.
We are grateful to Dr.A.S.Ganesan, Pro-Chancellor, Vinayaka Missions University
and Dr.(Mrs.)N.R.Alamelu,M.E.,Ph.D.,Principal, AVIT,Paiyanoor, for providing us
adequate academic facilities.
We are very mush indebted to Dr.N.Veerappan,M.E.,Ph.D.,MIE MISTE., HOD,
Department of EEE for granting permission to realize this project and for his valuable
suggestions during the review of the project work. We wish to express our deep sense of
gratitude to our project guide Mrs.L.Chithra, M.E., Associate Professor, Department of
EEE for her excellent guidance and continous encouragement in completion of the project
work.
We are also grateful to Mrs. M.Chithra, B.E.,M.B.A., Lecture, Mrs. T.Manjula,
M.E., Assistant Professor, Department of EEE for their valuable suggestions during this
project and co-opeartion in finalizing the project report.
We are also thankful to all other Faculty members and non-teaching staff of EEE
Department for their co-operartion for the successful completion of this project. Finally we
extend our professed thanks to our parents, family members and friends for their help and
perennial encouragement towards realizing this project successfully.

MANOJ KUMAR -348074016

RAGHAV KUMAR JHA -348074020
ALOK KUMAR -348074005

ABSTRACT

3
 This Project deal with the early detection on any abnormality
on the pipeline such as leakage is essential for efficient management. As to date,
wireless sensors have been widely used to gather information in monitoring
reliability of the pipeline. The commonly used sensors are corrosion and
pressure sensors. One of the issues that relate to pipeline monitoring is the
reactive rather than proactive maintenance approach to leakage and
abnormality. The objective of this project is to develop a method for early
detection of corrosion, which the buried pipeline is exposed to changing
temperatures and gas flow pressures. This will ensure that maintenance works
can be done quickly to prevent pipe burst, as well as to minimize operational
cost. Also to shut down the process imediately by using a control action i.e.,
solenoid valve.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

4
CHAPTER No. TITLE PAGE No.

ABSTRACT

LIST OF SYMBOLS

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 CORROSION DETECTION

1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

2. PROGRAMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 PLC HISTORY

2.3 PLC HARDWARE

2.4 WORKING OF PLC

2.5 PROGRAMMING THE PLC

3. CORROSION

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 TYPES OF CORROSION

3.3 EFFECT OF CORROSION

3.4 CORROSION PREVENTION

4. SENSORS

4.1 CORROSION SENSOR

4.2 RELAY

4.3 PRESSURE SENSOR

5
5. WIRELESS NETWORK

5.1 ENCODER

5.2 TRANSMITTER

5.3 RECEIVER

5.4 DECODER

6. POWER SUPPLY

6.1 RECTFIER

6.2 FILTER

6.3 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

7. CONTROL ACTION

7.1 BUZZER

7.2 BUFFER AMPLIFIER

7.3 SOLONIOD VALVE

REFERENCES

6
 CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION

7
 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Oil, gas and water are the natural resources that have been
the key of life and source of economy for most countries in the world .
These natural resources are transported from its original plants or storage
through extended pipelines which spreads throughout the countries. In
some countries, pipelines also being used to supply gas directly to users.
These pipelines serve as the backbone between producers and
consumers. Maintaining pipelines is essential to sustain economic growth,
political stability and also safety. Delays in detecting leakage on pipeline
may lead to more serious matters such as fire and fatality. Wireless
technologies have evolved so rapidly now-a-days and widely used in many
applications and services. This mainly because it can remotely placed and
uses its own power source such as battery to power itself. There are
number of technologies to monitor and protect pipelines. Most of these
are designed specifically for detecting and locating pipeline leakages .
These technologies allow a remote facility to detect and to report the
positions of any leakage . Most of these solutions rely on the availability of
a network to transfer the information and report leakages . Pipeline
monitoring systems have been using wireless devices as part of the
system communication and information transfer.

One of the industries that have taken advantage of wireless

sensors is oil and gas industry. Gas main distribution method is using
pipeline. Monitoring of pipeline is very crucial because of its valuable
resources as well as for safety precautions . Wireless sensors have been
widely used to monitor the health and the condition of the pipeline.
Continuous monitoring of pipelines is necessary to ensure the safety
operation of pipelines transmission . However, several issues and
problems have been discussed related to the usage of wireless sensors in
pipeline monitoring system. One of the issues is to detect leakage or

8
abnormality of the pipeline as early as possible particularly in gas
pipeline. It is very important that we detect the signs of pipeline defects
as early as possible because if that allow it to go on it could cause some
serious problems later on such as endanger the environment and if the
pipeline near human population area, it can be a disaster . In , the section
of pipeline
ruptures at 146 millions of cubic feet per day (MMCFD) of gas for pressure
of 1198 psi and 54.4° Celsius was flowing through the 18-inch diameter
pipe and caused one life. Structural defects on gas pipeline may caused
by several factors such as corrosion. Several factors have been identified
that lead to the event of buried pipeline corrosion such as pipe coatings,
soil conditions, changing of temperature, stresses, pipe pressure and
cyclic loading effects.
The objective of this project is to develop a method for early
detection of corrosion, which the buried pipeline is exposed to changing
temperatures and gas flow pressures so that prompt actions can be done
to prevent any incidents or fatality. It is a necessity to have system that
detects signs or abnormalities that will resulted to leakage event. In, a
pipeline monitoring and inspection system has several tasks to be
performed for natural gas pipelines environment to ensure the integrity of
the pipeline. These include measuring pipe wall thickness, measuring
velocity and flow of gas, detecting gas contamination in pipeline and also
determining structural defects on pipes. In, gas pipelines commonly
placed in hazardous environmental such as deserts, underwater and
buried deep. These conditions can cause deterioration or even damage
due to corrosion, erosion and fatigue. Major problem is to detect corrosion
cracks.

9
Fig of full circuit

10
 1.2. BLOCK DIAGRAM

TRANSMITTER SECTION:

RECEIVER SECTION:

RF
Power
Decoder
Receiver
Load
PLC
Supply

11
12
 CHAPTER – 2

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

13
 2. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

2.1. INTRODUCTION:

Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are members of the

computer family capable of storing instructions to control functions such as sequencing,
timing, and counting, which control a machine or a process. The PLC is composed of two
basic sections, the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and the Input/Output (I/O) interface
system. The PLC measures input signals coming from a machine and through the internal
program provides output or control back to the machine. Ladder logic is the
programming language used to represent electrical sequences of operation. In hardwired
circuits the electrical wiring is connected from one device to another according to logic of
operation. In a PLC the devices are connected to the input interface, the outputs are
connected to the output interface and the actual wiring of the components is done
electronically inside the PLC using ladder logic. This is known as soft wired. PLC is a
device that is capable of being programmed to perform a controlling function. Before the
advent of PLC, the problem of industrial control was usually solved by relays or
hardwired solid-state logic blocks. These are very flexible in design and easy for
maintenance personal to understand. However, they involved a vast amount of
interconnection. For the wiring cost to be minimized, relays and logic blocks had to be
kept together. This led to development of control panel concept for larger and more
complex logic control system. The PLC was first conceived by group of engineers from
hydramatic division of GM in 1968.This was designed to provide flexibility in control
based on programming and executing logic instruction. Adopting the ladder diagram
programming language, simplifying maintenance and reducing the cost of spare parts
inventories realized major advantages.

2.2.PLC HISTORY:
In the late 1960's PLCs were first introduced. The primary reason for designing such a
device was eliminating the large cost involved in replacing the complicated relay based
machine control systems. Bedford Associates (Bedford, MA) proposed something called a
Modular Digital Controller (MODICON) to a major US car manufacturer. Other companies
at the time proposed computer based schemes, one of which was based upon the PDP-8. The

14
MODICON 084 brought the world's first PLC into commercial production.
When production requirements changed so did the control system. This becomes very
expensive when the change is frequent. Since relays are mechanical devices they also have a
limited lifetime which required strict adhesion to maintenance schedules. Troubleshooting
was also quite tedious when so many relays are involved. Now picture a machine control
panel that included many, possibly hundreds or thousands, of individual relays. The size
could be mind boggling. How about the complicated initial wiring of so many individual
devices! These relays would be individually wired together in a manner that would yield the
desired outcome. Were there problems You bet! These "new controllers" also had to be
easily programmed by maintenance and plant engineers. The lifetime had to be long and
programming changes easily performed. They also had to survive the harsh industrial
environment. That's a lot to ask! The answers were to use a programming technique most
people were already familiar with and replace mechanical parts with solid-state ones.
In the mid70â„¢s the dominant PLC technologies were sequencer state-machines and the bit-
slice based CPU. The AMD 2901 and 2903 were quite popular in Modicon and A-B PLCs.
Conventional microprocessors lacked the power to quickly solve PLC logic in all but the
smallest PLCs. As conventional microprocessors evolved, larger and larger PLCs were being
based upon them. However, even today some are still based upon the 2903.(ref A-B's PLC-3)
Modicon has yet to build a faster PLC than their 984A/B/X which was based upon the 2901.
Communications abilities began to appear in approximately 1973. The first such system was
Modicon's Modbus. The PLC could now talk to other PLCs and they could be far away from
the actual machine they were controlling. They could also now be used to send and receive
varying voltages to allow them to enter the analog world. Unfortunately, the lack of
standardization coupled with continually changing technology has made PLC
communications a nightmare of incompatible protocols and physical networks. Still, it was a
great decade for the PLC! The 80â„¢s saw an attempt to standardize communications with
General Motor's manufacturing automation protocol(MAP). It was also a time for reducing
the size of the PLC and making them software programmable through symbolic programming
on personal computers instead of dedicated programming terminals or handheld
programmers. Today the world's smallest PLC is about the size of a single control relay!
The 90â„¢s have seen a gradual reduction in the introduction of new protocols, and the
modernization of the physical layers of some of the more popular protocols that survived the
1980's. The latest standard (IEC 1131-3) has tried to merge plc programming languages
under one international standard. We now have PLCs that are programmable in function
block diagrams, instruction lists, C and structured text all at the same time! PC's are also

15
being used to replace PLCs in some applications. The original company who commissioned
the MODICON 084 has actually switched to a PC based control system.

2.3.PLC HARDWARE:
A programmable logic controller consists of the following components:
Central Processing Unit (CPU). Memory. Input modules. Output modules and Power
supply. A PLC hardware block diagram is shown in Figure. The programming terminal in the
diagram is not a part of the PLC, but it is essential to have a terminal for programming or
monitoring a PLC. In the diagram, the arrows between blocks indicate the information and
power-flowing-directions.

Fig:PLC-Hardware-Block-Diagram
CPU
Like other computerized devices, there is a Central Processing Unit (CPU) in a PLC. The
CPU, which is the brain of a PLC, does the following operations:
* Updating inputs and outputs. This function allows a PLC to read the status of its input
terminals and energize or deenergize its output terminals.
* Performing logic and arithmetic operations. A CPU conducts all the mathematic and logic
operations involved in a PLC.
* Communicating with memory. The PLCâ„¢s programs and data are stored in memory.
When a PLC is operating, its CPU may read or change the contents of memory locations.
* Scanning application programs. An application program, which is called a ladder logic
program, is a set of instructions written by a PLC programmer. The scanning function allows
the PLC to execute the application program as specified by the programmer.
* Communicating with a programming terminal. The CPU transfers program and data
between itself and the programming terminal. A PLC CPU is controlled by operating system
software. The operating system software is a group of supervisory programs that are loaded
and stored permanently in the PLC memory by the PLC manufacturer.
Memory
Memory is the component that stores information, programs, and data in a PLC. The process
of putting new information into a memory location is called writing. The process of retrieving
information from a memory location is called reading. The common types of memory used in
PLCs are Read Only Memory (ROM) and Random Access Memory (RAM). A ROM

16
location can be read, but not written. ROM is used to store programs and data that should not
be altered. For example, the PLCs operating programs are stored in ROM.
A RAM location can be read or written. This means the information stored in a RAM
location can be retrieved and/or altered. Ladder logic programs are stored in RAM. When a
new ladder logic program is loaded into a PLCs memory, the old program that was stored in
the same locations is over-written and essentially erased. The memory capacities of PLCs
vary. Memory capacities are often expressed in terms of kilo-bytes (K). One byte is a group
of 8 bits. One bit is a memory location that may store one binary number that has the value of
either 1 or 0. (Binary numbers are addressed in Module 2). 1K memory means that there are
1024 bytes of RAM. 16K memory means there are 16 x 1024 =16384 bytes of RAM.
Input modules and output modules

A PLC is a control device. It takes information from inputs and makes decisions to
energize or de-energize outputs. The decisions are made based on the statuses of inputs and
outputs and the ladder logic program that is being executed. The input devices used with a
PLC include pushbuttons, limit switches, relay contacts, photo sensors, proximity switches,
temperature sensors, and the like. These input devices can be AC (alternating current) or DC
(direct current). The input voltages can be high or low. The input signals can be digital or
analog. Differing inputs require different input modules. An input module provides an
interface between input devices and a PLCs CPU, which uses only a low DC voltage. The
input moduleâ„¢s function is to convert the input signals to DC voltages that are acceptable
to the CPU. Standard discrete input modules include 24 V AC, 48 V AC, 120 V AC, 220 V
AC, 24 V DC, 48 V DC, 120 V DC, 220 V DC, and transistor-transistor logic (TTL) level.
The devices controlled by a PLC include relays, alarms, solenoids, fans, lights, and motor
starters. These devices may require different levels of AC or DC voltages. Since the signals
processed in a PLC are low DC voltages, it is the function of the output module to convert
PLC control signals to the voltages required by the controlled circuits or devices. Standard
discrete output modules include 24 V AC, 48 V AC, 120 V AC, 220 V AC, 24 V DC, 48 V
DC, 120 V DC, 220 V DC, and TTL level. Power Supply -PLCs are powered by standard
commercial AC power lines. However, many PLC components, such as the CPU and
memory, utilize 5 volts or another level of DC power. The PLC power supply converts AC
power into DC power to support those components of the PLC.
Programming Terminal -A PLC requires a programming terminal and programming
software for operation. The programming terminal can be a dedicated terminal or a generic
computer purchased anywhere. The programming terminal is used for programming the PLC

17
and monitoring the PLCs operation. It may also download a ladder logic program (the
sending of a program from the programming terminal to the PLC) or upload a ladder logic
program (the sending of a program from the PLC to the programming terminal). The terminal
uses programming software for programming and talking to a PLC.

2.4. WORKING OF PLC:

Bringing input signal status to the internal memory of CPU
* The field signals are connected to the I/P module. At the output of I/P module the field
status converted into the voltage level required by the CPU is always available.
*At the beginning of each cycle the CPU brings in all the field I/P signals from I/P module &
stores into its internal memory called as PII, meaning process image input.
*The programmable controller operates cyclically meaning when complete program has been
scanned; it starts again at the beginning of the program.

I/OBUS
A PLC works by continually scanning a program. We can think of this scan cycle as
consisting of 3 important steps. There are typically more than 3 but we can focus on the
important parts and not worry about the others. Typically the others are checking the system
and updating the current internal counter and timer values.

Step 1-Check Input Status-First the PLC takes a look at each input to determine if it is on or
off. In other words, is the sensor connected to the first input on How about the second input
How about the third... It records this data into its memory to be used during the next step.
Step 2-Execute Program-Next the PLC executes your program one instruction at a time.
Maybe your program said that if the first input was on then it should turn on the first output.
Since it already knows which inputs are on/off from the previous step it will be able to decide
whether the first output should be turned on based on the state of the first input. It will store
the execution results for use later during the next step.
Step 3-Update Output Status-Finally the PLC updates the status of the outputs. It updates the
outputs based on which inputs were on during the first step and the results of executing your
program during the second step. Based on the example in step 2 it would now turn on the first
output because the first input was on and your program said to turn on the first output when
this condition is true.Process Control and Automation Process Control

18
The process of recognizing the state of the process at all times, analyze the information
according to the set rules and guidelines and accordingly actuate the control elements is
referred to as process control.

RECOGNISING THE STATUS

In control of process all these actions can be taken manually with human involvement or in a
semiautomatic or fully automatic manner. Automation -Automation is basically the
delegation of human control functions to technical equipment aimed towards achieving:
- Higher-productivity.
-Superior quality of end product.
-Efficient usage of energy and raw materials.
-Improved safety in working conditions etc.
Methods adopted for Process Control and Automation
- Manual control
- Hard wired logic control
- Electronics control
-PLC control
- Manual Control
Hardwired Control
-This was considered to be the first step towards automation.
- Here the contractor & relays together with timers & counters were used.
Electronics Control
-With the advent of electronics, the logic gates started replacing the relays & auxiliary
contractors in the control circuits & timers.
- With changes, the benefits are:
1) Reduced space requirements
2) Energy saving
3) Less maintenance and hence greater reliability etc.
-With electronics, the implementation of changes in the control logic as well as reducing the
project lead-time was not possible.
Programmable Logic Controller
- With microprocessor and associated peripherals chips, the process of control and
automation went a radical change.
- Instead of achieving the desired control or automation through physical wiring of control

19
devices, in PLC it is through a program or software. Thus these controllers are referred to as
programmable logic controllers.
- The programmable controllers have experienced an unprecedented growth as universal
element. It can be effectively used in applications ranging from simple control like replacing
small number relays to complex automation problem.

2.5. PROGRAMMING THE PLC:

Ladder Logic
Ladder logic is the main programming method used for PLCs. The ladder logic has been
developed to mimic relay logic. The decision to use the relay logic diagrams was a strategic
one. By selecting ladder logic as the main programming method, the amount of retraining
needed for engineers and trades people was greatly reduced.
Modern control systems still include relays, but these are rarely used for logic. A relay is a
simple device that uses a magnetic field to control a switch, as pictured in Fig. When a
voltage is applied to the input coil, the resulting current creates a magnetic field. The
magnetic field pulls a metal switch (or reed) towards it and the contacts touch, closing the
switch. The contact that closes when the coil is energized is called normally open. The
normally closed contacts touch when the input coil is not energized. Relays are normally
drawn in schematic form using a circle to represent the input coil. The output contacts are
shown with two parallel lines. Normally open contacts are shown as two lines, and will be
open (non-conducting) when the input is not energized. Normally closed contacts are shown
with two lines with a diagonal line through them. When the input coil is not energized the
normally closed contacts will be closed (conducting).

Fig: Simple Relay Layouts and Schematics

Relays are used to let one power source close a switch for another (often high current) power
source, while keeping them isolated. An example of a relay in a simple control application is
shown in Figure. In this system the first relay on the left is used as normally closed, and will
allow current to flow until a voltage is applied to the input A. The second relay is normally

20
open and will not allow current to flow until a voltage is applied to the input B. If current is
flowing through the first two relays then current will flow through the coil in the third relay,
and close the switch for output C. This circuit would normally be drawn in the ladder logic
form. This can be read logically as C will be on if A is off and B is on.

Fig: A Simple Relay Controller

The example in Figure does not show the entire control system, but only the logic. When we
consider a PLC there are inputs, outputs, and the logic. Figure 4 shows a more complete
representation of the PLC. Here there are two inputs from push buttons. We can imagine the
inputs as activating 24V DC relay coils in the PLC. This in turn drives an output relay that
switches 115V AC that will turn on a light. Note, in actual PLCs inputs are never relays, but
outputs are often relays. The ladder logic in the PLC is actually a computer program that the
user can enter and change. Notice that both of the input push buttons are normally open, but
the ladder logic inside the PLC has one normally open contact, and one normally closed
contact. Do not think that the ladder logic in the PLC needs to match the inputs or outputs.
Many beginners will get caught trying to make the ladder logic match the input types.

21
 Fig: A Simple Ladder Logic Diagram

There are other methods for programming PLCs. One of the earliest techniques involved
mnemonic instructions. These instructions can be derived directly from the ladder logic
diagrams and entered into the PLC through a simple programming terminal. An example of
mnemonics is shown in Figure. In this example the instructions are read one line at a time
from top to bottom. The first line 00000 has the instruction LDN (input load and not) for
input A. This will examine the input to the PLC and if it is off it will remember a 1 (or true),
if it is on it will remember a 0 (or false). The next line uses an LD (input load) statement to
look at the input. If the input is off it remembers a 0, if the input is on it remembers a 1 (note:
this is the reverse of the LDN). The AND statement recalls the last two numbers remembered
and if they are both true the result is a 1; otherwise the result is a 0. This result now replaces
the two numbers that were recalled, and there is only one number remembered. The process
is repeated for lines 00003 and 00004, but when these are done there are now three numbers
remembered. The oldest number is from the AND, the newer numbers are from the two LD
instructions. The AND in line 00005 combines the results from the last LD instructions and
now there are two numbers remembered. The OR instruction takes the two numbers now
remaining and if either one is a 1 the result is a 1; otherwise the result is a 0. This result
replaces the two numbers, and there is now a single number there. The last instruction is the

22
ST (store output) that will look at the last value stored and if it is 1, the output will be turned
on; if it is 0 the output will be turned off.
PLC Structure

PLC Divided into 4 parts, I/O Modules, CPU, Memory and Programming Terminal. It
operates by examining the input signals from a process and carrying out logic instructions
and Producing output signals to drive process equipment. The Standard interfaces built-in to
PLC directly connected to process actuators & transducers without the need for intermediate
circuitry or relays. It requires short installation & commissioning times and it has Specific
features for industrial control:

1. Noise immune equipment

2. Modular plug-in construction
3. Standard I/O connections & signal levels
4. Easily understood programming language
5. Ease of programming & reprogramming in-plant
6. Capable of communicating with other PLCs, computers & intelligent devices
7. Competitive in both cost & space occupied with relay & solid-state logic systems

Features:
 The main difference from other computers is that PLCs are armored for severe
condition (dust, moisture, heat, cold, etc) and have the facility for extensive
input/output (I/O) arrangements.
 These connect the PLC to sensors and actuators.
 PLCs read limit switches, analog process variables (such as temperature and
pressure), and the positions of complex positioning systems. Some even use machine
vision.
 On the actuator side, PLCs operate electric motors, pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders,
magnetic relays or solenoids, or analog outputs
 . The input/output arrangements may be built into a simple PLC, or the PLC may have
external I/O modules attached to a computer network that plugs into the PLC.

23
 Fig. Of PLC

ADVANTAGE OF PLC
Cost effective for controlling complex system.
Smaller physical size than hard-wired solutions.
Flexible and can be reapplied to control other systems quickly.
PLCs have integrated diagnostics and override functions.
Computational abilities allow more sophisticated control.
Diagnostics are centrally available.
Troubleshooting aids make programming easier and
reduce downtime.
Applications can be immediately documented.
Applications can be duplicated faster and less
expensively.
Reliable components make these likely operate for
several years successfully.
Communication is possibilities.

24
DISADVANTAGE OF PLC
Programmable controllers are not equipped with enough memory to store big amounts of
data.
In this field the communication system need to be more developed.

25
 CHAPTER – 3
CORROSION

26
3.1. INTRODUCTION:
Defination:
Corrosion is the deterioration of materials by chemical interaction with their environment.
The term corrosion is sometimes also applied to the degradation of plastics, concrete and
wood, but generally refers to metals.
OR

The chemical or electrochemical reaction between a material and its environments that
produces a deterioration of the material and its properties.
Corrosion in environment

3.2. TYPES OF CORROSION:

Underground corrosion:

27
Buried gas or water supply pipes can suffer severe corrosion which is not detected until an
actual leakage occurs, by which time considerable damage may be done.
Electronic components:

In electronic equipment it is very important that there should be no raised resistance at low
current connections. Corrosion products can cause such damage and can also have sufficient
conductance to cause short circuits. These resistors form part of a radar installation.

Corrosion influenced by flow:

The cast iron pump impeller shown here suffered attack when acid accidentally entered the
water that was being pumped. The high velocities in the pump accentuated the corrosion
damage.

Corrosion in aircraft:

28
The lower edge of this aircraft skin panel has suffered corrosion due to leakage and spillage
from a wash basin in the toilet. Any failure of a structural component of an aircraft can lead
to the most serious results.
Corrosion at sea:

Sea water is a highly corrosive electrolyte towards mild steel. This ship has suffered severe
damage in the areas which are most buffeted by waves, where the protective coating of paint
has been largely removed by mechanical action.
“Corrosion” of plastics:

Not only metals suffer “corrosion” effects. This dished end of a vessel is made of glass fibre
reinforced PVC. Due to internal stresses and an aggressive environment it has suffered
“environmental stress cracking”.
Galvanic corrosion:

29
This rainwater guttering is made of aluminium and would normally resist corrosion well.
Someone tied a copper aerial wire around it, and the localised bimetallic cell led to a “knife-
cut” effect.

3.3. EFFECT OF CORROSION:

• Reduced Strength
• Downtime of equipment
• Escape of fluids
• Lost surface properties
• Reduced value of goods

The consequences of corrosion are many and varied and the effects of these on
the safe, reliable and efficient operation of equipment or structures are often more serious
than the simple loss of a mass of metal. Failures of various kinds and the need for
expensive replacements may occur even though the amount of metal destroyed is quite
small.

Losses due to Corrosion:

30
3.4. DISASTERS DUE TO CORROSION:

Aloha Incident

1988
19-year old Boeing 737 operated by Aloha Airlines lost a major portion of the upper fuselage
in full flight at 24000 ft

Bhopal Accident

In the early morning of December 3, 1984, water inadvertently entered the methylisocyanate
storage tank, where >40 metric tons of methylisocyanate were being stored. The addition of
water to the tank caused a runaway chemical reaction, resulting in a rapid rise in pressure and
temperature. The heat generated by the reaction, the presence of higher than normal
concentrations of chloroform, and the presence of an iron catalyst, produced by the corrosion
of the stainless steel tank wall, resulted in a reaction of such momentum that gases formed
could not be contained by safety systems.
Consequently, methylisocyanate and other reaction products, in liquid and vapor form,
escaped from the plant into the surrounding areas. There was no warning for people
surrounding the plant since the emergency sirens had been switched off. The effect on the
people living in the shanty settlements just over the fence was immediate and devastating.
Many died in their beds, others staggered from their homes, blinded and choking to die in the
street. It has been estimated that at least 3000 people died as a result of this accident, while

31
figures for the number of people injured currently range from 200,000 to 600,000, with an
estimated 500,000 typically quoted.

Carlsbad Pipeline Explosion

At 5:26 a.m. on August 19, 2000, a 75-cm diameter natural gas transmission pipeline
operated by El Paso Natural Gas Company (EPNG) ruptured adjacent to the Pecos River near
Carlsbad, New Mexico. The released gas ignited and burned for 55 min. Twelve persons who
were camping under a concrete-decked steel bridge that supported the pipeline across the
river were killed and their three vehicles destroyed. Two nearby steel suspension bridges for
gas pipelines crossing the river were extensively damaged with $1 million in property and
other damages or losses .
The force of the rupture and the violent ignition of the escaping gas created a 16-m wide
crater 34 m along the pipe. A 15-m section of the pipe was ejected from the crater in three
pieces measuring ∼1, 6, and 8 m in length. The largest piece was found 90 m northwest of
the crater in the direction of the suspension bridges. Investigators visually examined the
pipeline that remained in the crater as well as the three ejected pieces. All three ejected pieces
showed evidence of internal corrosion damage, but one of the pieces showed significantly
more corrosion damage than the other two. Pits were visible on the inside surface of this
piece, and at various locations, the pipe wall evidenced significant thinning.
Interconnecting pits were observed on the inside of the pipe in the ruptured area. Typically,
these pits showed the striations and undercutting features that are often associated with
microbial corrosion. A pit profile showed that chloride concentration in the pits increased
steadily from top to bottom. Increased chloride concentration can result from certain types of
microbial activity. All four types of microbes (sulfate reducing, acid-producing, general
aerobic, and anaerobic) were observed in samples collected from two pit areas in the piece of
line where internal corrosion was discovered after the accident.

3.5.COROSSION PROTECTION:

32
Barrier Protection

� Provided by a protective coating that acts as a barrier between corrosive elements and the
metal substrate.

Cathodic Protection

� Employs protecting one metal by connecting it to another metal that is more anodic,
according to the galvanic series.

Corrosion Resistant Materials

� Materials inherently resistant to corrosion in certain.

33
 CHAPTER – 4

SENSORS

34
4.1.THE PRESSURE SENSOR:
The piezoresistive pressure sensor, or silicon cell –
This type of pressure sensor consists of a micro-machined silicon diaphragm with
piezoresistive strain gauges diffused into it, fused to a silicon or glass backplate.

The resistors have a value of approx. 3.5 kOhm. Pressure induced strain increases the value
of the radial resistors (r), and decreases the value of the resistors (t) transverse to the radius.
This resistance change can be high as 30%.

The resistors are connected as a Wheatstone Bridge, the output of which is directly
proportional to the pressure.

Leadouts from the bridge.

1). Gold or aluminium wires are welded to the aluminium contacts on the chip and to the
glass feed-through, pins of the header.
2). TAB (Tape Automated Bonding). The contacts on the chip have a gold dot.
A pretinned felxible printed circuit is directly soldered to these gold dots and the other end to
a PC-board, or the header.
In the first method, the sensor must be fixed on the header. The TAB printed circuit,
however, holds the sensor in place itself

35
 Fig. Pressure sensor

4.2.Corrosion sensor:
In corrosion sensor to detect the corrosion The Electric field signature method(EFSM) is
used. This is a method developed by CorrOcean ASA from the commonly used principle of
electrical resistance (ER) determination applied for corrosion monitoring of steel pipe.
A current is impressed through the object and the potential drop between several electrodes
fixed directly to the outer surface, e.g., on a spool piece in a pipe system, is measured.
Changes in the geometry in the form of cracks, general corrosion, erosion corrosion, or
pitting will impair the potential field in the metal. These measurements are compared to
previous measurements, and the development of corrosion or cracks can be recorded. A
computer usually treats the results before they are presented.

Fig. Of corrosion sensor

RELAY:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to
operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used.
Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with

36
complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several
circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph
circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another.
Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical
operations.
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to
directly drive an electric motor is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits
with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays
with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to
protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these
functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays.
CONSTRUCTION:
A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron
core, an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron
armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature
is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is
held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the
magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is
closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts
depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature
to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the
armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is
soldered to the PCB.

WORKING:

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that
attracts the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes
or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of
contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts
and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the
coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the
magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity
is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate
quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current
application it reduces arcing.
When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to
dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would
otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Some
automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection
network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series (snubber circuit) may absorb the
surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), a small copper
"shading ring" can be crimped to the end of the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase
current which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle. A solid-state
relay uses a thyristor or other solid-state switching device, activated by the control signal, to
switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid. An optocoupler (a light-emitting diode
(LED) coupled with a photo transistor) can be used to isolate control and controlled circuits.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

37
 CHAPTER – 5

WIRELESS NETWORK

38
5.1. ENCODER(HT12E):
Features:
1. Operating voltage:2.4V~12V for the HT12E.
2. Low power and high noise immunity CMOS technology.
3. Minimum transmission word’s of 4 words for the HT12E.
4.Built-in oscillator needs only 5% resistor.
5.Data code has positive polarity
6. Minimal external component of HT12E: 18-pin DIP/20-pin SOP package

Description:
1.The 2^12 encoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system
applications.

39
 2.They are capable of encoding information which consists of N address bits and
12N
data bits.
3. Each address/data input can be set to one of the two logic states.
4.The programmed addresses/data are transmitted together with the header bits via
an
RF transmission medium .
5.Transmission is enabled by applying a low signal to the TE pin.

5.2. RF TRANSMITTER (TWS-434A):

1.The transmitter output is up to 8mW at 433.92MHz with a range of
approximately few meters.
2. It accepts both linear and digital inputs.
3.It can operate from 1.5 to 12 Volts-DC.
4.It is approximately the size of a standard postage stamp.

Fig.of RF Transmitter
Connection of ENCODER & RF TRANSMITTER:

40
5.3. RF RECEIVER(RWS-434):
1. It also operates at 433.92MHz, and has a sensitivity of 3uV.
2. It operates from 4.5 to 5.5 volts-DC and It has both linear and digital outputs.

Fig. Of HT12D Decoder

5.4.DECODER(HT12D):
Features:
1.Operating voltage: 2.4V~12V.

41
 2. Low power and high noise immunity .
3. CMOS technology.
4. Low standby current.
5. Capable of decoding 12 bits of information.
6. Binary address setting.
7. Received codes are checked 3 times.
8. Address/Data number combination.
9. 8 address bits and 4 data bits.
10. Built-in oscillator needs only 5% resistor.
11. Valid transmission indicator.
12.Easy interface with an RF transmission medium.
13. Minimal external components.
14. Pair with Holtek's 212 series of encoders,18-pin DIP, 20-pin SOP package.

Fig. Of HT12D Decoder

Description:
1. 2^12 decoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system applications..
2. The decoders receive serial addresses and data from a programmed 2^12 series of
encoders that are transmitted by a carrier using an RF transmission medium.
3 .They compare the serial input data three times continuously with their local
addresses. 4. If no error or unmatched codes are found, the input data codes are
decoded and then transferred to the output pins.
5. The VT pin also goes high to indicate a valid transmission.
6.The 2^12 series of decoders are capable of decoding information's that consist of N
bits of address and 12-N bits of data.
Connection of RF receiver & Decoder:

42
43
 CHAPTER – 6

POWER SUPPLY

44
6.1.RECTIFIER:
1.A rectifier is a device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction
and a high resistance in the opposite direction.
2.Such a device is capable of converting A.C. voltage into a pulsating D.C. voltage.
3.The rectifier employs one or more diodes. It may be either a vacuum diode or a
semiconductor diode.
4.There are three types :
1. Half wave rectifier
2. Full wave rectifier
3. Bridge rectifier
Bridge rectifier:
1.Bridge rectifier is a full wave rectifier. It consists of four diodes , arranged in the
form
of a bridge .
2. It utilizes the advantages of the full wave rectifier and at the same time it
eliminates
the need for a centre tapped transformer.
3.The supply input and the rectified output are the two diagonally opposite
terminals of the bridge.
4.During the positive half cycle, the secondary terminal A is positive with respect to
terminal B.
5. Now the diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased and hence do not conduct.
6.The current flows from terminal A to terminal B through D1, load resistance RL and
the diode D3 and then through the secondary of the transformer.
7.During the negative half cycle, terminal B is positive with respect to point A.
8. Now diodes D2 and D4 are forward biased and hence conduct.
9.Diode D1 and D3 are reversed biased and hence do not conduct.
10.The current flows from terminal B to terminal A through diode D2, the load
resistance
RL and diode D4 and then through the secondary of the transformer.
11.On both positive and negative half cycles of the A.C. input, the current flows
through
the load resistance RL in the same direction.

45
 12.The polarity of the voltage developed across RL is such that the end connected to
the
junction of the diodes D1 and D2 will be positive.

Fig. Of Bridge rectifier

6.2.FILTER:
1.Output from the rectifier unit having harmonic contents , so we can provided the
filter circuit, filter circuit is used to reduce the harmonics.
2.Here we can use the electrolytic capacitor.
3.This eliminates the harmonics from both voltage and current signals.

Fig of filter

6.3.VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
1 .Voltage regulator is used to maintain the constant voltage with the variation of the
supply voltage and the load current,
2 .When specifying individual ICs within this family, the xx is replaced with a two-
digit number, which indicates the output voltage the particular device is designed to
provide (for example, the 7805 has a 5 volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts).
3. The 78xx line are positive voltage regulators, meaning that they are designed to
produce a voltage that is positive relative to a common ground.

46
 Fig. Of voltage regulator

Circuit diagram of Power supply of RF recevier :

U 1
1 3
V I N V O U T

D 1 7 8 0 5
R 1 J P 1
1

W 0 1 G
3 3 0
+

2
2 3 C 1 1 2
1

T X 1 4 7 0 u F C 1 C 1 D 2 1
4 7 u F 0 . 1 u F
L N 2 1 1 W P
-

V 1
4
230V

2 3 0 / 9 V

Operation:
1. Initially 230 V AC supply is reduced to (0-9V) with the help of a step down
transformer having a capacity of 500mA.

2. Since the input voltage to the regulator IC should be more than its output voltage,
transformer secondary voltage is 9V.

47
3. This low voltage is rectified with the help of bridge rectifier. The ripples are
minimized with the help of capacitor filter to get a smooth DC supply. The rating of

the chosen capacitor filter is 1000µF.

4. The regulated DC voltage is obtained by using a regulator IC 7805. In the case of IC

7805, the unregulated DC voltage is applied to Pin 1, and the output is taken at Pin 3
and Pin 2 is grounded.

5. Another capacitor filter of rating 10µF is connected at the output of regulator IC to

eliminate the voltage oscillations at the output due to the large voltage oscillations at
the input of the regulator

48
 .

CHAPTER – 7

CONTROL ACTION

49
7.1. BUZZER:
A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include
alarms, timers and confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke.
TYPES OF BUZZER:
1. Mechanical
2. Electromechanical
3. Piezoelectric

1. Mechanical:
A joy buzzer is an example of a purely mechanical buzzer.
2. Electromechanical:
Early devices were based on an electromechanical system identical to an electric bell
without the metal gong. Similarly, a relay may be connected to interrupt its own actuating
current, causing the contacts to buzz. Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling to
use it as a sounding board. The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that
electromechanical buzzers made.
3. piezoelectric:
A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating electronic circuit or other
audio signal source, driven with a piezoelectric audio amplifier. Sounds commonly used to
indicate that a button has been pressed are a click, a ring or a beep.

Fig. Of buzzers

Circuit diagram of buzzer:

50
Circuit diagram of electronic buzzer:

51
 Fig. Of electronic buzzer(PS1420P02CT)

FEATURES:

• Low frequency tone(2kHz).

• Suitable for automatic radial taping machine(15mm-pitch).

SPECIFICATIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Sound pressure:70dBA,10cm min.[at 2kHz, 5V0-P rectangular wave,

measuring temperature: 25±5°C,humidity: 60±10%]

2.Temperature range:
Operating –20 to +70°C
Storage –30 to +80°C

3.Maximum input voltage 30V0-P max. [without DC bias]

4.Minimum delivery unit 1750 pieces [350 pieces/1 reel×5 reels]

7.2. SOLONIOD VALVE:

A solenoid valve is an electromechanical valve for use with liquid or gas.
The valve is controlled by an electric current through a solenoid: in the case of a two-port
valve the flow is switched on or off; in the case of a three-port valve, the outflow is switched
between the two outlet ports. Multiple solenoid valves can be placed together on a manifold.

52
Solenoid valves are the most frequently used control elements in fluidics. Their tasks are to
shut off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids. They are found in many application areas.
Solenoids offer fast and safe switching, high reliability, long service life, good medium
compatibility of the materials used, low control power and compact design.
Besides the plunger-type actuator which is used most frequently, pivoted-armature actuators
and rocker actuators are also used.

Construction:

A solenoid valve has two main parts: the solenoid and the valve. The solenoid
converts electrical energy into mechanical energy which, in turn, opens or closes the valve
mechanically. A direct acting valve has only a small flow circuit, shown within section E of
this diagram (this section is mentioned below as a pilot valve). This diaphragm piloted valve
multiplies this small flow by using it to control the flow through a much larger orifice.
Solenoid valves may use metal seals or rubber seals, and may also have electrical interfaces
to allow for easy control. A spring may be used to hold the valve opened or closed while the
valve is not activated

Fig. Of SOLONIOD VALVE

LIST OF REFERENCES

1. Bonny B.N. Umeadi, K.G. Jones; The Development of An Intelligent

Sensor For The Monitoring of Pipeline System Integrity, nanomindidc.com
Oil and Gas 2008.
2. Richard Kluth, Jerry Worsley, Digital Pipeline Leak Detection Using
Fiber-optic Distributed Sensing (DTS). Westwick-Farrow Publishing,
What’s New in Process Technology, April 2008
3. I. Jawhar, N. Mohamed, and K. Shuaib, Reliability Challenges and

53
 Enhancement Approaches for Pipeline Sensor and Actor Networks. In
proceeding of The International Conference on Wireless Networks (ICWN
2008), Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, July 2008
4. Odusina, J. Akingbola, and D. Mannel, Software-Based Pipeline Leak
Detection. Advanced Chemical Engineering Design CHE 4273Department
of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science University of Oklahoma,
May 2, 2008
5. Yumei Wen, Ping Li, Jin Yang, Zhangmin Zhou, Adaptive Leak Detection
and Location in Underground Buried Pipelines, International Journal 0f
Information Acquisition, vol.1, no.3, pp269-277, 2004
6. Yuanwei Jin, Ali Eydgahi, Monitoring of Distributed Pipeline Systems by
Wireless Sensor Networks. In proceeding of The 2008 IAJC-IJME
International Conference, 2008
7. Daniele Inaudi, Riccardo Belli, Detection and Localization of Micro-
Leakages Using Distributed Fiber Optic Sensing, In proceeding of The 7th
International Pipeline Conference, Calgary, Canada,October 2008.
8. R.C. Tennyson, W.D. Morison, T. Cherpillod, Monitoring Pipeline
Integrity Using Fiber Optic Sensors, In proceeding of Corrosion 2005
Conference, Warsaw, Poland, June 2005
9. R.K. Ginzel, W.W. Kanters, Pipeline Corrosion and Cracking and The
Associated Calibration Considerations for Same Side Sizing Applications ,
e-Journal of Nondestructive Testing, e-Journal of Nondestructive Testing,
Vol. 7, No. 7 , July 2002
10. F. Hassan, J. Iqbal, F. Ahmed, Stress corrosion failure of high-pressure gas
pipeline, Journal of Engineering Failure Analysis, Volume 14, pp. 801-809,
November 2006
11. Ahmad Taufik, Nathanel Nainggolan, Gas Flow Modelling and Simulation
To Predict Corrosion Attack On Pipeline, In Proceeding of INDOPIPE
2006 Conference & Exhibition, The Ritz-Carlton Hotel, Jakarta, Indonesia,
30 May-1 June 2006
12. Digby D. Macdonald, Effect of pressure on the rate of corrosion of metals
in high sub-critical and supercritical aqueous systems, Journal of
Supercritical Fluids, Volume 30, pp. 375–382, September 2003

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