A N EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATION OF THE

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

NF-38 /12-67

Electric Power Generalion in SDace

In space, as on earth, electricity is one of our Electricity is required to operate a spacecraft’s
most useful forms of energy. Electricity enables equipment] life support system, on-board computer
the astronaut to make scientific measurements, systems, and even the firing of control or retro-
to take pictures of the earth and other celestial rockets for return to earth. All of these operations
bodies, to code and store information aboard the have an insatiable appetite for energy.
spacecraft] to receive and interpret electronic sig- What men may accomplish in space is, for the
nals from earth, and to transmit information to most part, limited by the amount of electricity
earth. that can be made available and by the length of
Artist’s conception of the SNAP-27 radio isotope therrno electric generator. It is shown connected to a central station
containing the data management and power distribution equipment. The astronaut has carefully aimed the telemetry
antenna toward the earth after deploying the various instruments with due regard for the scientific objectives of the
Apollo Program. Note Apollo Lunar Module in upper right corner. The SNAP-27, attached to its mounting pallet, is able
to provide 56 watts for at least one year operating continuously throughout the lunar day and night.
time that it can be provided.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
tion is deeply involved in the investigation-some
cooperatively with other Government agencies-of
various electrical power generation systems that
show promise of meeting steadily increasing elec-
trical requirements of future space research pro-
grams.
HOW MUCH? HOW LONG?
The amount of electricity needed aboard a
spacecraft varies widely in range and depends upon
what the spacecraft is expected to do, where it is
to do it, and for how long.
Most satellites are expected to operate for
months, even years. Their useful life is generally
limited by how long their power supply lasts.
In the early years of the space program, NASA
satellites were forced to operate with but a few
watts of power because available technology wasn’t
capable of furnishing more within the weight limits
imposed. So engineers learned instead how to
design equipment that consumed little power. The
decision to do so was good because, even today,
spacecraft are limited to just a few hundred or a
few thousand watts for long duration flight. A
primary reason for the electric power limitation is
that most of the electricity is eventually reduced
to heat. Heat must be rejected from the space-
craft to maintain the craft’s thermal balance. The
use of large amount of power, of course, requires
large radiators-thus more weight.
Some spqcecraft missions are intended for only
a few hours or possibly weeks of operation. One
example was Ranger which photographed the moon
during its approach and later was ordered to crash
into it. Then, of course, there were Mercury,
Gemini (and now the Apollo spacecraft), with mis-
sions ranging from minutes to several days. More
recently electrical power has played a most promi-
nent role in the successful missions of Surveyor
which landed on the moon to photograph its sur-
face; and Lunar Orbiter, which over a prolonged
period of time electrically televised many astound-
ing photos of the moon’s surface.
POWER REQUIREMENTS FOR MANNED FLIGHTS
When men enter the environment of space, the
power level needed for all operational activities
goes up. When Apollo astronauts leave earth for
landing on the moon, they must be provided with
from 4,000 to 5,000 watts of power for part of the
2
trip there and back.
The long-term trend in space exploration-both
manned and unmanned-is toward vehicles and
instruments that require higher and higher power
levels for months, even years. For example, a four-
or six-man earth-orbiting laboratory is expected to
require 6 to 10 kilowatts for several years. Inter-
planetary probes could require as much as ten or
even hundreds of kilowatts for up to three years
or more. A large scientific base on the moon would
require hundreds of kilowatts for an indefinite
period. Several thousand kilmvatts will be needed
for the manned electric propulsion systems which
may one day be used to send heavy payloads into
interplanetary space perhaps requiring years of
travel time.
Developing power sources that will operate at
these high levels with assured reliability for long
periods and at weights than can be lifted into
space at an acceptable cost is a major technologi-
cal challenge to NASA and other Government
agencies concerned with space travel ventures.
POWER GENERATION-ON EARTH
When the United States launched its first space
device, our Nation already possessed more than a
century of experience i n building power generating
systems. So we entered the space age with con-
sidrable technological know-how. But much of
what was known in the field of electrical power
generation required substantial further develop-
ment to be applicable to space. Here’s why:
Most electric power on earth is generated by
burning fuel in combination with oxygen to gen-
erate steam in a boiler. Pressurized steam i s used
to drive a turbine which in turn drives a generator
or alternator to produce electricity. An unwanted
byproduct of the process is excess heat which
must be dissipated to the air or to water in a
nearby stream.
In space there is neither a supply
fuel to burn, and it would be impossible to lift
into space the tons and tons of
needed to generate large amou
for long periods of time. For the same reasons,
the use of air breathing internal combustion en-
gines to drive electric generators is impractical.
Using the atom as a heat source to generate
electricity is attractive, of course, because it uses
very little fuel. However, designers of space nu-
clear reactor plants are forced to consider the
heavy radiation shielding required and the weight
penalty it imposes. er Applications of Solar Cell Systems
On earth reliability in power. generation ob-
viously is important but generally not crucial. If
a breakdown in earth power generation equipment
occurs, usually standby equipment can be switched
into operation. Subsequently, repairs can be made
to the faulty equipment and normal operation is
resumed. But a power failure i n space operations
could have instant and perhaps lethal effects on
mission participants-human or mechanical.

has numerous
constraints not encountered on earth. Here are a
few:
It must be small enough to be mounted
within the spacecraft for which it is intended, with
sufficient room left for all the other equipment
that must go along,
It must be as light i n weight as possible
I weight of each spacecraft is severely lim-

I t should consume little fuel,

It must operate in an airless environment
and be completely reliable for the entire period
of the mission.
Solar Electric Propulsion
These requirements rule out most of the com-
monly used power generating equipment.
The first satellite launched by the United States
in 1958-Explorer I-carried batteries that could
provide about 60 watt-hours of power, just enough
to keep a 60 watt bulb burning for one hour. Since
then, drawing heavily upon knowledge accumu-
lated over the decades, scientists and engineers
have been able to fashion power generating sys-
tems barely adequate for the space missions so
far conducted. But looking ahead at what's re-
quired, we've really just started. Continuing de-
velopment of power-generation technology for Manned Orbital Space Flight
future space applications is a major NASA effort.

S
WATTS-The level or amount of power generated
or consumed is usually stated in watts. (In direct
current, one watt is equal to one ampere flowing
under a potential of one volt.) If the power-
generating system can produce power at essen-
tially a constant level for a long period of time
(months or years), its capacity is usually stated i n
watts, kilowatts (thousands of watts), or megawatts
(millions of watts, or thousands of kilowatts). A
watt is a unit of power. Manned Planetary Missions

3
 WATT-HOURS-If the energy capacity of a watts produced from one square foot in space a t
power-generating system is limited to a few hours the earth’s mean distance from the sun. Solar
or days (as in a battery), it is rated in watt-hours panels can be built with specific weights ranging
(watts multiplied by operating hours). Watt-hour from 250 down to 50 pounds per kilowatt.
is a unit of energy. Solar cells are manufactured from an artificially
SPECIFIC POWER-The number of pounds of grown silicon crystal to which a very small amount
power plant required to produce a given amount of of boron has been added. The crystal-usually
power-an all-important feature of any power-gen- rod-like in shape, two t o three inches in diameter
erating space system. It is usually derived by and 4 to 6 inches in length-is first cut into a
dividing the total power system weight in pounds small rectangular bar.
by the power generated in kilowatts (thousands of This bar is then sliced into thin rectangular or
watts). The total weight includes the weight of square wafers about ten thousandths of an inch
everything associated with power generation on a thick. After mechanical or chemical polishing,
spacecraft including fuel, tanks, piping, machinery, the silicon wafers are placed in an oven into which
equipment, and heat radiators. The specific weight phosphorus vapor is introduced. During the heat-
is stated as “pounds per kilowatt,” or sometimes ing process the phosphorous penetrates one side
the reciprocal “watts per pound” is used. of the cell to a depth of a few millionths of an
EFFlCl ENCY-The ratio of electrical energy gen- inch. So actually a cell is made up of two layers.
erated to the total energy fed into a generating One, referred to as the boror; layer, consists of
system. For example, if 100 watts of heat is fed silicon with boron as an impurity. The other, re-
into a conversion system and only 10 watts of ferred as the phosphorus layer, consists of silicon
electricity comes out, the machine is 10 per cent with both boron and phosphorus as impurities.
efficient. When the phosphorus side is exposed to sunlight
it becomes negatively charged with respect to the
ELECTRICITY FROM SUNLIGHT
Sunlight pervades our entire solar system. Of
course, there are shadow areas behind the moon
and planets, and sunlight intensity decreases as
distance from the sun increases. But for many
space missions within our Nation’s present capa-
bility and interest, the sun is an excellent source
of energy. The ability to convert its energy into
electricity a t suitable power levels has made a
great contribution to space exploration.
Actually scientists have known how to convert
sunlight into electricity for about 9 0 years. A
widely used application of the principle, for in-
stance, is the selenium cell used in photographic
light meters. Here a small current is produced
that varies in proportion to light intensity. The cur-
rent developed deflects a needle across a Cali-
brated dial to indicate the level of light intensity.
Although adequate for photographic light meter
use, the method is so inefficient that it could not
be used as a spacecraft prime source of power.

THE SOLAR CELL

The silicon solar cell, invented in 1954, has
proven to be the most economical and feasible
solar energy conversion source for space power.
Silicon solar cells convert 8 to 10 per cent of
the available solar energy to electricity, with 10
4
boron side. If the two sides are connected by a
conductor through a resistor, a small current will
flow between the two. By connecting a number of
cells sufficient electricity can be generated to
power a spacecraft. About two hundred of the
square cells (0.788” x 0.788”) can be mounted
within a square foot area. NASA engineers i n
fabricating a solar panel connect the cells both in
series to build up voltage and in parallel to build
up current. As an added bonus, the parallel con-
nections increase reliability. I f for any reason a
few cells fail, the power level may not necessarily
become critically low. (see figure 3)

SATELLITE MOUNTED
Sometimes cells are mounted directly on the
body of a satellite. For example, more than eight
thousand cells covered virtually the entire outer
surface of the communications satellite RELAY.
So, in space, as the satellite rotated to keep itself
stabilized in orbit, periodically all of the cells were
exposed to sunlight. Usually, for hundreds of watts,
the cells are mounted on panels which, to be op-
erative, must face the sun. This requirement de-
mands the installation of attitude sensing devices
and small jet engines to keep a satellite properly
oriented.
As a solar-powered spacecraft moves toward the
sun, its power output increases. For example, the
solar energy available a t Venus is about 250 ther-
mal watts per square foot compared to 130 at the
earth’s mean distance. The increase i n solar
energy has two important effects on solar cell out-
put. First, there is more energy per square foot
that can be converted to electricity, and second,
the increased solar heating decreases cell effi-
ciency, offsetting part of the gain in electrical out-
put. About 15 watts is available from each square
foot a t Venus. Sunward, beyond Venus, the solar
cells become so hot that some means of cooling
must be provided.
Flying away from the sun, the available solar
energy and solar cell output decreases. A t Mars’
distance, the panels have to be about twice as
large (e.g. only about 5 watts electrical output per
square foot is obtained) as those required at the
earth’s mean distance from the sun. Beyond Mars,
sunlight becomes so weak that solar cells as a
power source may be impracticable.
NASA technologists are working to improve the
efficiency of the solar cell and to reduce the cost
of their manufacture and assembly. As mentioned
Part of Lewis Research Center’s work on solar converters
is aimed at improving the efficiencies of thin-film solar
cells. Here a Lewis scientist i s shown examining the sur-
face of a cadmium sulfide thin-film cell. The CdS?, evap-
orated onto the thin film substrate, is a semiconductor
compound that responds t o photons in the sun’s rays by
creating a flow of electrons or electricity across the cell.
previously silicon solar cells now convert into
electricity only about 8 to 10 per cent of the avail-
able solar energy that strikes their surface. NASA
is searching for new types of solar cells in an
attempt to increase conversion efficiency. As a
spacecraft orbits a planet or the moon, the solar
cells are not able to generate electrical power
when in shadow. Therefore rechargeable batteries
are almost always used with solar cells. During
dark periods batteries furnish the necessary power.
In sunlight the solar cells recharge the batteries
and simultaneously furnish operating power for
the craft. During this period batteries are used
only to furnish supplementary power when needed
to handle peak loads.
There are, of course, drawbacks to extensive use
of solar cells. The cells are expensive to manu-
facture and assemble into panels. Assembly takes
a great deal of meticulous hand labor. Panels, as
5
 in the case of the Mariner spacecraft, must be
folded during launch and unfolded in space. The
fold-unfold process may require complex mecha-
nisms which are potential sources of trouble.
Further, about one hundred square feet of panel
area are required to generate a kilowatt (1,000
watts) and may weigh from 50 to 250 pounds.

BATTERIES
In the early days of space flight, batteries fre-
quently were used as the primary, and sometimes
the only, source of electric power. Even now, there
are batteries on spacecraft, either as a secondary
or as a primary source of power. One of their
strong features is that batteries are highly reliable.
The secondary lead-acid battery commonly used
in automobiles is not suitable for space operation.
I t is much too heavy and releases gases during
operation. In the vacuum of space the battery must
be sealed. The primary flashlight or dry cell type,
while a sealed unit, is also too heavy.

An engineer installs a silver cadmium battery package

aboard a modified Titan I I launch vehicle used in the
Gemini Program

Most NASA manned flights are powered with

Above, Nickel cadmium space battery package for Orbiting
Astronomical Observatory.
A t left, a scientist is shown examining a new type ceramic-
to-metal hermetic seal on a prototype nickel cadmium
battery for spacecraft.
specially constructed light-weight alkaline bat-
teries. Having a reasonably low specific weight,
the primary ones are capable of producing up to
100 watt-hours per pound. These batteries are
made of silver oxide and zinc electrodes with a
plastic separator that has been soaked with an
electrolyte of potassium hydroxide dissolved in
water.
Several silver oxide and zinc plates are con-
nected alternately in layers or sandwich struc-
ture to form a cell. Several cells are assembled
into a battery. The Mercury spacecraft that car-
ried John Glenn into orbit for his 4Y2-hour flight
used 7 batteries with a total capacity of 15,000
watt-hours-far more than he actually needed or
used. But for safety, when a man is involved,
excess energy is always furnished. Colonel Glenn
had three 3,000 watt-hour and one 1,500-watt-
hour batteries for primary power, one 1,500-watt-
hour battery for emergency backup and two 1,500-
watt hour batteries to fire his retrorockets and
other flight pyrotechnics.
The secondary or rechargeable battery has broad
application in space. One important application
is in earth-orbiting satellites when the primary
7

. 1.
power source is the solar cell as previously noted.
Even on planetary missions batteries are needed
to ignite engines for mid-course correction and to
perform other useful functions.
A battery for an earth-orbiting satellite is
charged and discharged thousands of times and is
subject to repeated cycles of heating and cooling.
Planetary missions may take spacecraft into areas
of blistering heat near Venus or even closer to
the sun, or into the frigid temperatures near Mars
and beyond. For most such missions the alkaline
battery has proven acceptable. (see figure 9)
For the longest satellite missions, however, the
secondary nickel-cadmium has proven superior.
While individual sealed cells are only capable of
delivering from 2 to 20 watt-hours per pound, they
will deliver their power through more than 20,000
charge-discharge cycles without serious deteriora-
tion. The more powerful silver-cadmium battery
will deliver from 10 to 30 watt-hours per pound
but will take only a few thousand charge-discharge
cycles. Another type, the secondary silver-zinc

RECHARGEABLE CELL NEGATIVE TERMINAL

Cutaway view of silver-cadmium rechargeable
cell of the type used in missile and space ap- FILLER AND VENT PLUG
plications.
POSITIVE TERMINAL
EXTREMELY LOW
INTERNAL RESISTANCE

POSITIVE ELECTRODE
(siIver)
(leakproof, spillproof)
OUTER SEPARATOR
ION EXCHANGE SEPARATOR
PLASTIC CASE INNER SEPARATOR

NEGATIVE ELECTRODES
ELECTROLYTE (cadmium)
(essentially absor
required)

-
3

ALKALINE BATTERY

LOAD
-e
POSITIVE ELECTRODE, e , /
NEGATIVE ELECTRODE
(CATHODE) n \ 11 (ANODE)

*ALKALINE ELECTROLYTE
3

4 6

h
battery can be charged and discharged hundreds
of times, and can deliver up to 40 watt-hours per
pound. (see figure 8)
For some time NASA scientists have been en-
gaged in efforts to develop new type batteries and
to improve the performance of existing batteries.
One solution to the problem of deterioration due
to age which is critical on long planetary missions
may be a primary dry tape battery. Here the elec-
trodes are coated on opposite sides of a continuous
tape. By releasing electrolyte one unit at a time,
r FUEL CELL POWERPLANT
WATER REMOVAL
AND STORAGE
the unused sections can be kept inactive for long
periods without deteriorating.
FUEL CELLS
If there’s such a thing as “glamour” in power
generation, the fuel cell has it. Discovered by an
Englishman, Sir William R. Grove, over a century
ago, its potential for power generation has been
recognized by numerous researchers over the
years. In 1889, a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell was
described that closely resembles our present-day
fuel cell. Then, around the turn of the century
there was a flurry of interest for possible com-
mercial power generation. Interest dwindled, how-
ever, with the development of the steam turbine.
Further, technical problems connected with the
fuel cell seemed to most researchers to make the
device economically impractical. Interest in the
fuel cell as a commercially attractive power source
lagged.
285-191 0-68-2
In the late 1930s, interest in fuel cells revived.
Mr. F. T. Bacon at Cambridge University, England,
decided that the potential value of the fuel cell was
well worth a sustained effort to develop it. By the
late 1940s, he and others had made great progress
in the field. In the U.S., scientists of the Depart-
ment of Defense also began giving fuel cell de-
velopment serious attention. If such a device
could convert chemical fuel into useful energy a t
high efficiencies, this would mean tremendous
savings in the cost of fuel transportation. As long
HEAT REMOVAL
AND REJECTION
ago as 1959, a tractor was operated by fuel cells,
but its commercial potential remains uncertain.
A great stimulus in recognition of fuel cell
potential came from NASA in early 1960. At that
time the manned space flight program was ex-
panded from the need to keep one man in space
for a few hours to the national goal of sending
three men to the moon and back to earth. Ob-
viously, more efficient, powerful, and lightweight
energy sources had to be developed. Batteries
and solar cells were not deemed adequate for
these manned space projects. The fuel cell ap-
peared to offer the best solution within the time
limit established. (See figure 10.)
ITS ADVANTAGES
The fuel cell has many favorable features. One
now undergoing tests seems very promising be-
cause of its high-energy content (watt-hours per
pound) as compared with batteries. For a 14-day
9
An engineer is shown examining a model of the fuel cell
power plant used in the Gemini spacecraft. It can deliver
a peak load of 2KW o f DC electricity, the primary electric
power for all equipment in the spacecraft including the
control, artificial environment, communications and The Power Pack for an Apollo Fuel Cell is shown being
instrumentation apparatus. lowered into its container.

These Apollo fuel cell powerplants are being readied for shipment by the factory where they are manufactured. The fuel
cells provide on-board electrical power for Apollo spacecraft and each Apollo vehicle uses three. They produce up t o
two kilowatts each of electric power directly from oxygen and hydrogen. Pure water is a by-product of the reaction and
will be used for drinking by the astronauts and for cooling certain components of the spacecraft.

10

B h
 mission it is capable of producing up to six times
as much electricity for each pound as the best pri-
mary alkaline battery. And i t has a high efficiency
when compared with heat conversion systems.
Even large ground power plants that convert heat
into electricity are presently limited to an effi-
ciency of about 40 per cent. Fuel cells now op-
erate a t 45 to 65 per cent efficiency and even
higher efficiencies seem attainable. Unlike effi-
ciencies of rotating power-generating systems, fuel
cell efficiency does not vary with size. Small ones
are just about as efficient as big ones.
In addition to producing electricity, a fuel cell
operating on hydrogen and oxygen produces, as a
byproduct, pure water which can be used for
drinking, food preparation, and for cooling equip-
ment. Water is always a prime need i n manned
flights and in other “live” flights that carry animals
such as monkeys or other primates. NASA space
applications scientists selected hydrogen as the
fuel and oxygen as the oxidizer for the Gemini
and Apollo missions. These are combined to form
water which is removed as fast as necessary. The
cell will continue to produce electricity as long as
the supply of hydrogen and oxygen lasts.
TWO DESIGNS DEVELOPED
Fuel cells of several different designs have
been tested. Two were selected by NASA as hav-
ing the greatest potential for manned flight.
One design (see figure 11) was perfected in
time to be used on the fifth Gemini flight and, with
minor modifications, was used on the seventh and
all subsequent Gemini flights. It operated a t nor-
mal room temperature and had a quick start-up
time. But it used an acid electrolyte embedded in
a plastic membrane which proved to be only a fair
ion conductor and thus reduced its efficiency.
The fuel cell developed for Apollo flights (see
figure 12) uses an electrolyte with higher con-
ductivity (which contributes toward higher effi-
ciency) but operates at a higher temperature.
’ HOW THE APOLLO FUEL CELL WORKS
Each cell has three cavities: One for hydrogen
gas, one for the liquid electrolyte and one for
oxygen gas. (See figure 10.) To save space, the
hydrogen and oxygen are stored in liquid form but
are introduced into the cell as gases.
Two electrodes separate the cavities. The elec-
trodes are connected through the spacecraft’s
power circuits. They are made of porous nickel,
e
the one on the oxygen side having a top layer of
nickel oxide.
Each electrode contains many thousands of
pores and is made i n two sections-both with pores
of a different size. The smaller pores are on the
side of the liquid electrolyte. The larger ones are
on the gas side. Given enough pressure, the pores
would pass both gas and liquid, but in operation
neither the liquid nor the gas is allowed to pass
through.
Gaseous hydrogen and oxygen are introduced
into their respective cavities at a slightly higher
pressure than the electrolyte pressure. Thus the
surface of the liquid is kept just below the point
where the size of the pores changes.
The electrolyte is concentrated potassium hy-
droxide (about 75 per cent) which, at room tem-
perature, is solid. For the cell to begin operation,
the electrolyte must be heated to about 400 de-
grees Fahrenheit. A small amount of liquid oxygen
and hydrogen must also be heated to convert them
to gases. A separate power source is used for
starting, but once started, the heat generated by
the fuel cell’s chemical reaction maintains an
operating temperature between about 420 and 450
degrees Fahrenheit. Nitrogen is used to keep the
electrolyte cavity under a pressure of about four
atmospheres (about 60 pounds per square inch
a bsolUte).
As each oxygen molecule enters the porous elec-
trode, it comes into contact with the liquid elec-
trolyte and the nickel oxide electrode. The oxygen
molecule first breaks into two oxygen atoms. Each
atom takes two electrons from the electrode and
for an instant exists as an oxygen ion. It imme-
diately reacts with a molecule of water to form two
negatively charged hydroxyl (OH-) ions. These ions
move in the molten electrolyte toward and into
the porous hydrogen electrode.
Meanwhile gaseous hydrogen flows into its adja-
cent electrode and comes into contact with both
the nickel and hydroxyl ion. Each hydrogen mole-
cule breaks into two atoms and each atom surren-
ders its one electron to the electrode. For an
instant it exists as hydrogen ion (H+) but imme-
diately combines with one hydroxyl ion to form a
molecule of water, which at this temperature is
vapor. Half of the water vapor formed passes
through the pores and is picked up by a stream of
hydrogen flowing over the surface of the electrode.
The humidity of the hydrogen stream is carefully
controlled to insure the removal of only half the
11
water thus formed in the process.
The loss of electrons by the oxygen electrode
and the gain of electrons from the hydrogen elec-
trode cause a potential difference of less than
one volt per cell. The electrons flow from the
hydrogen electrode through the spacecraft circuits
to the oxygen electrode.
After leaving the fuel cell, the mixture of hy-
drogen and water vapor is cooled to condense the
water. The water is separated and the hydrogen
returned to the fuel cell. The water is used for
life support and for the cooling of equipment.
About oile pint of usable water is produced for
each kilowatt hour of electricity generated.
THE POWER PLANT
Each cell can produce about 45 watts of power.
Thirty-one cells are connected in series to form
one power plant capable of delivering approxi-
mately 1,400 watts of direct current at 29 volts.
In fact, it can deliver up to 2,000 watts for a
short time. Three power plants with a total capa-
city of 4 to 4% kilowatts are slated to be mounted
in each Apollo spacecraft. During much of the
flight to the moon and return, one power plant
will deliver all the power needed but there are
times when the electrical load will be sufficiently
high to require a second one. The third power
plant is to be installed as a safety backup i n case
one or two fail. Should two fail, the astronaut can
get back to earth with only one operating.
The construction of fuel cell power plant is
complex because of its many regulators, safety
devices, heat transfer and radiating units, controls,
etc. But thousands of hours of operating experi-
ence have been accumulated and both efficiency
and reliability have been accurately established.
The fuel cell’s greatest usefulness in space is
during manned missions of a few weeks. For
longer duration manned and unmanned missions,
other methods of power generation require less
weight of equipment.
THE FUTURE
As yet, the fuel cell has not found a commercial
application, but many i n science and industry be-
lieve that it does have a bright future. Liquid
hydrogen and oxygen are expensive and difficult
to store. So it is likely that commercial use will
have to await the development of an efficient cell
that will directly or indirectly convert hydrocarbons
and air into electricity.
12
ELECTRICITY FROM HEAT
Heat is a good source of energy for electricity
because it is easily generated. Of course, heat
is easier to generate on earth than it is in space.
In space, only those methods that consume little
or no fuel may be considered. Either heat derived
from the sun or from the atom is best suited to
space applications. The big engineering problem
is constant-to produce the greatest number of
thermal watts for each pound weight.
Another problem is the conversion of heat to
electricity. All conventional methods of accom-
plishing the conversion are inefficient. So far,
even the most efficient earth power-generation
stations convert only 40 to 45 per cent of the
heat to electricity. At the same time, space con-
version methods have been less than 5 per cent
efficient and then are able only to produce a few
watts of power, A vigorous development program
by the National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
tion and Atomic Energy Commission is under way
to increase both the power level and efficiency at
specific weights that will permit electric power use
on space missions.
HEAT FROM THE SUN
The sun radiates both heat and light. We’ve
seen that its light can be converted by the solar
cell to provide electrcity in space. What about
heat?
The sun’s radiation at earth’s mean distance is
about 130 thermal watts per square foot. By using
a curved reflector, heat received over a large area
can be focused or concentrated. Temperatures
from 1200 to 3500 degrees Fahrenheit are needed
to produce electricity efficiently. At a conversion
rate of about 10 per cent upward of 400 square
feet are required during 100 per cent sunlight to
concentrate enough heat to produce an electrical
output of 5 kilowatts. These large reflectors could
be put into space by using structures capable of
being folded into small packages for launch and
later unfolding.
Once in space, the reflector must be kept point-
ing at the sun with a high degree of accuracy.
This means that highly sensitive attitude sensing
and control mechanisms must be provided. Tests
have indicated that the reflectivity of such a sur-
face could be damaged i n a space environment.
Therefore, before committing a flight program to *
a power generating system using solar concentra-
tors, more development to assure durability is
This is an artist’s conception of the SNAP-1OA Thermoelectric power package. The SNAP-1OA nuclear reactor is coupled
to a thermoelectric converter-radiator which converts heat t o electric power.
required of reflector equipment.
Taking everything into account, it appears that
solar cells are able to produce electricity at a
more favorable specific weight than can solar con-
centrators producing heat then converting it into
electricity.
HEAT FROM RADIOISOTOPES
The radioactive decay of isotopes can be used
as a source of heat. These are unstable atoms of
an element that spontaneously emit alpha and beta
particles and gamma radiation. When these emis-
sions are absorbed by an enclosure their kinetic
energy is converted into heat energy. Here’s the
principle involved in radioactivity:
The nucleus of every atom consists of positively
charged protons and neutral particles called neu-
trons. For any particular element there is a nor-
mal number of each that is peculiar to that ele-
ment. For example, the Strontium nucleus normally
has 38 protons and 50 neutrons, a total of 88
particles. This is its stable form and is designated
Strontium 88. By bombarding it with neutrons,
two more may be forced into its nucleus to form
Strontium 90 which is unstable. These atoms de-
cay by ejecting electrons and gamma rays to reach
a lower energy state which is stable. The rate at
which this decay takes place is peculiar to each
isotope and depends upon the number of radio-
active atoms present. The rate of decay is de-
scribed i n terms of “half life.” The half life of
Strontium 90 is 28 years which means that one
half of the isotopic atoms will decay each 28-year
period.
While some radioactive isotopes occur naturally,
those that are most attractive for power generation
have to be manufactured. About 1300 isotopes
have been made but only a few are suitable for
space applications.
An isotopic heater for space must operate at a
high temperature. So the isotope selected must
form compounds that can withstand this high tem-
perature. A long half-life is usually needed to in-
sure a fairly constant rate of heat generation dur-
ing the life of the mission. The radiations should
be mostly alpha particles which are easily shielded.
13
One of the more attractive isotopes for space ap-
plications is Plutonium 238,which has a half-life
of 86 years and emits primarily alpha particles.
Radioactive isotopes for space power have two
features that limit their use. Their manufacture
is very slow and very expensive. And the most
attractive ones are quite heavy for the amount of
heat produced as compared to a nuclear reactor.
These features limit their application to fairly small
power supplies-up to about 10 kilowatts. Ob-
viously, use of isotopic heat puts a premium on
development of conversion systems of the highest
possible efficiency, so as to reduce the amount
of isotopes needed for a particular mission.
HEAT FROM NUCLEAR FISSION
For generating high power levels for space mis-
sions lasting months or years, the nuclear reactor
has no serious competitor as a source of energy.
Here neutrons are used to split atoms of Uranium
235 or another element that is easy to split. For
each atom split, two or more neutrons are released
which then can split two more atoms. This split-
ting, or fission, action builds up to what is called
a chain reaction. As predicted in 1906 by Albert
Einstein, mass is lost in the process and is re-
leased as energy. The kinetic energy of the fission
products is converted to heat in the reactor. It
takes very little fuel (U-235)consumption to pro-
duce a tremendous amount of heat since, on a
reaction basis, nuclear fission produces ten million
times the energy produced by ordinary chemical
reactions; e.g., the combustion of gasoline.
Unlike radioisotope decay which takes place at
a fixed rate, the rate of fissioning can be varied
and the rate of heat generation controlled. Re-
actors can be built as small as one foot in diam-
eter. While the specific weight of small reactors
(roughly under about 10 kilowatts) is higher than
isotope heaters, the weight factor rapidly becomes
more favorable as the power level increases. For
power levels above about 25 kilowatts, it begins
to have decided advantages. For big power supplies
in the hundreds and thousands of kilowatts, the
nuclear reactor is the only feasible source of
energy.
The development of space reactor technology is
well under way. One project currently under way
(by the Atomic Energy Commission for NASA) is
the development of a 600-thermal-kilowatt reactor.
Experimental reactors have been built and tested
at this power and experimental data is being accu-
14
mulated that will eventually permit the building
of a similar reactor for flight. And the technology
is being developed that will permit the building of
even larger, more advanced reactors with much
greater thermal outputs.
Nuclear reactors require heavy shielding. This
shielding weight, therefore, must be included when
computing the total weight of a power-generating
system.
CONVERTING HEAT TO ELECTRIC"TY
Thermoelectric ~ O ~ v e r s i o n
A simple and direct way to convert heat to elec-
tricity is to use a thermocouple. Join two dif-
ferent conductors at their ends to form a loop.
Heat one junction and keep the other one at a
lower temperature. A small electric current will
flow. This device has been used for many years
for temperature measurements. But the materials
used for that type of thermocouple convert sub-
stantially less than one percent of the thermal
energy to electricity.
It has been found that semiconductors can be
used to convert from 4-5 per cent of the heat to
electricity. A semiconductor is a material that
conducts electricity fairly well, but conducts heat
poorly. Lead telluride or alloys of silicon and
germanium are usually used in space applications.
The same alloy is used in both legs of the couple
but a different impurity is introduced into each
to change its conducting properties.
At the cold junction of the couple, the poten-
tial difference may be only a fraction of a volt.
Many of them must be connected in series to build
up to the voltage needed. Groups are connected
in parallel to build up the current.
The isotope heat generator appears to be the
most advantageous heat source for thermoelectric
conversion for power levels up to about 1 to 2
kilowatts. Many isotopelthermoelectric power sys-
tems have been built for unattended operation in
remote parts of the earth. For example, one is
buried in the snow on the Ross Ice Shelf in Ant-
arctica and furnishes 5 watts of power to an auto-
matic weather station. Another is in 15,000 feet
of water near Bermuda and furnishes 7 watts to a
sonic beacon. Still another furnishes 60 watts to
a lighthouse in the Chesapeake Bay. These are
designed for many years of operation. However,
they weigh 80 pounds or more per electrical watt
which is much too heavy for space missions. But
the technology that has been developed has been
useful in building lighter ones for use i n satel-
lites.
A few (three through 1966) isotope thermoelec-
tric power supplies have been put aboard satellites
to provide power up to 25 watts. Specific powers
from Y2 to 1 watt per pound have been attained.
Efficiency stays roughly constant as power levels
increase while turbomachinery systems are quite
inefficient at low power levels but get better as the
power goes up. It appears that isotope/thermo-
electric systems may be useful in space up to
about 2,000 watts.
Thermoelectric conversion can be used with a
nuclear reactor. In 1965, one such combination
developed jointly by tf?e Atomic Energy Commis-
sion and the U S . Air Force was successfully test
ADVANCED SYSTEM FUEL
3000“
THERM ION I C
DIRECT CONVERSION
15
THERMIONIC
G ENERATOR CONCEPT
HEAT INPUT
ELECTRIC LOAD
16
. E
flown for six weeks by, the USAF. The reactor
generated about 33,000 thermal watts while the
electrical power output was about 500 watts- less
than 2 per cent conversion efficiency. The con-
verter had 1440 silicon-germanium couples. The
system weighed 725 pounds without shielding.
The use of reactor/thermoelectric power systems
in space has yet to be determined. It appears
that they may find applications at power levels from
10 to about 25 kilowatts.
Thermionic Conversion
Heat also can be converted directly into elec-
tricity by “thermionic emission of electrons.” Place
two electrode plates about five or ten thousandths
of an inch apart in a vacuum tube. Heat one to a
- -
I
RADIATOR
LECTRON FLOW
HEAT REJECTED
e __._
INSULATING SEAL
ESIUM RESERVOIR
ELECTRIC CIRCUITRY
ELECTRON FLOW
15
high temperature and keep the other one cooler.
Electrons boil off the hot electrode and collect at
the cooler one. If the two electrodes are connected
through a load, current flows. The operation is
improved if cesium vapor is introduced between
the electrodes. The vapor neutralizes the retarding
effects of the emitter on the electrons being
emitted and prevents the accumulation of elec-
trons in the gap.
Laboratory experiments have indicated that up
to 15 per cent of the heat can be converted into
electricity and that as much as 100 watts of power
per square inch of electrode area may be possible.
High power levels may be possible a t very low con-
version system weight. By keeping the cooler col-
lector electrode at a high temperature, the size
and weight of the system waste-heat radiator is
greatly reduced. Its high conversion efficiency
and low overall weight make it potentially very
attractive for space applications.
The heat may be furnished by either an isotope
heater or a nuclear reactor. The reactor has the
greatest potential for providing high power levels.
It may be possible to build the electrodes as con-
centric cylinders with the fuel elements of a
nuclear reactor inside. Hundreds of these units
would be incorporated into a single reactor. In
theory, thousands of kilowatts can be produced at
16
a weight not much more than that of the reactor.
The technical problems that have to be solved
are formidable. Maintaining material strength and
other material properties (electrical, heat transfer,
etc.) a t the high temperatures and in high radiation
fields are difficult. Keeping gases released by the
fission process from building up large pressures
and rupturing the fuel elements is another serious
problem. If these obstacles can be solved, high
power levels at low specific weights are possible.
Heat can be converted to electricity by using
a gas turbine to drive a generator. A heated gas
is used to drive the turbine with an isotope heater
providing the heat.
This system-called the Brayton Cycle-uses
an inert gas, such as neon or argon. As it passes
through the heater (in the space system) its tem-
perature is raised to about 1600 degrees Fahren-
heit. It is expanded through a turbine which
drives an alternator and a compressor. The alter-
nator produces electricity.
The gas passes through a recuperator (used to
recover “waste” heat) which reduces its tempera-
ture to about 350 degrees Fahrenheit-then
through a heat exchanger where it transfers heat
to a liquid that circulates through the space ra-
diator. In the heat exchanger, the gas temperature
is reduced to about 50-100 degree? Fahrenheit.
It is next compressed and forced through the re-
cuperator where it is heated to about 1300 degrees
Fahrenheit and returned to the heat source to
repeat the cycle.
The Brayton Cycle may convert from 20 to 30
per cent of the heat input to electricity. But it
gets this efficiency partly by reducing the working
gas to 50 to 100 degrees Fahrenheit at the com-
pressor inlet. This low temperature can be at-
tained only by using a relatively large radiator
which adds to the overall system weight. At the
low radiator temperature used, it takes about 80
square feet of radiating surface per kilowatt. The
radiator weight is the primary factor that limits
the power level.
As the working gas is inert there is no problem
of corrosion. And as it is not liquefied at any
point, there is no problem of erosion. But since
it does stay in a gas form, some of the components
and piping are bigger and heavier than they would
be if liquid were used during part of the cycle.
No isotope/ Brayton conversion system for space
has yet been built or tested but it is being
seriously considered for some long missions that
A technician is shown making adjust-
ments to SNAP-8 nuclear reactor.
need between 5 and 10 kilowatts of power.
The Rankine Cycle
For higher power levels (over 10 kilowatts), the
weight per kilowatt can be brought down consider-
ably by operating the radiator and, perforce, the
turbine, at higher temperatures. This can be at-
tained by a conversion system using the Rankine
Cycle.
The SNAP-8* is a typical “first-generation” type
system which operates from this thermodynamic
heat engine cycle.
Here, a liquid sodium-potassium alloy circulates
through a nuclear reactor where it is heated to
1300 degrees Fahrenheit. It then passes through
a heat exchanger-boiler and returns to the reac-
tor at about 1100 degrees Fahrenheit for reheat-
ing.
In the heat exchanger-boiler, heat is transferred
t c a second “liquid metal,” liquid mercury and the
mercury is vaporized. The mercury vapor a t a
temperature of 1270 degrees Fahrenheit then ex-
pands through a turbine which drives an electric
alternator.
* SNAP-System for Nuclear Auxiliary Power
17
 The vapor then passes to another heat ex-
changer where it is condensed; the liquid con-
densate then returns to the boiler to be reheated
and the cycle continues. The temperature cf the
mercury is reduced to about 55 degrees Fahren-
heit. Since it is a liquid, and therefore relatively
incompressible, power is not needed to compress
the mercury. Only a small amount of power is
needed to increase its pressure.
In the condenser, liquid sodium-postassium al-
loy picks up the mercury’s heat of condensation
and takes it through a third and final heat transfer
coolant, transferring the heat to space at a tem-
perature of about 600 degrees Fahrenheit. At
this high temperature the heat radiated per watt
of radiator size is quite high so the radiator size
and weight is greatly reduced at a given power
level.
The nuclear reactor is the preferred heat source
for Rankine conversion at electrical power levels
above 25 kilowatts. The principal reason is that
above this power level, the reactor is able to gen-
erate more power per pound than can isotopes.
Insertion of the Electric Fuel Capsule Simulator into the To develop this technology, NASA is operating
SNAP-27 Generator Assembly for test.
a (SNAP-8) 35 kilowatt Rankine power conver-
This view, at left, of the SNAP-1OA reactor and thermo- sion system for ground testing individual compo-
electric converter-radiator indicates its actual size. The
unit is about five feet in diameter at the base and eleven nents and the entire system. Additionally, the
feet high. Atomic Energy Commission has built and tested a
600 kilowatt thermal reactor which is the size
needed for the NASA power conversion system.
Results obtained indicate that the reactor and
power conversion system eventually may be com-
bined into a useful system that can be flown in
a spacecraft.
The Advanced Rankine Cycle
For putting heavy loads into deep space, NASA
scientists envision the need for electrically pro-
pelled spacecraft requiring up to 10 million watts
(10 megawatts), at specific weights as low as 25
pounds per kilowatt. It is doubtful that the
mercury Rankine system can ever attain this goal.
A much higher radiator temperature is needed so
that its size and weight can be reduced still fur-
ther.
By substituting lithium in the reactor loop, the
operating temperature a t this point can be raised
to about 2300 degrees Fahrenheit and possibly
even higher. And by substituting potassium for
mercury, the higher temperature in this loop can
be raised to 2100 degrees Fahrenheit-the temper-
This is an artist’s conception of the Mercury Rankine Re- ature at which potassium vaporizes under system
actor Power System.
conditiops. This permits the radiator temperature to
19
 It e

be raised to about 1300 degrees Fahrenheit and
a great reduction in its size and weight results.
If metals can be developed that will contain
lithium and potassium a t these high temperatures
for months and years, the ultimate goal of 25
pounds per kilowatt for big space power supplies
may be attained. A vigorous effort is under way
to solve these problems.
The rapidly increasing requirements for power-
ful and reliable electric power sources to pro-
vision the future of man in space varies from just
a few watts to millions of watts, and from a few
hours to weeks, months, and years. To provide
0
adequate power for safe exploration of the space
frontier requires the use of many different sources
of energy development or techniques of energy
conversion.

Artist's conception of how an isotope-Mercury Rankine System might be integrated into an earth-orbiting space station.
Note the twr? spacecraft berthed at the aft end of the space station.

PHOTO CREDITS

General Electric Corporation, Photos 1, 11, 20

Gulton Industries, Photos 5, 6.

Yardney Electric Corporation, Photos 7, 8.

Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Division, United Aircraft Corporation. Photos 12, 13.
Atomics International Division. North American Aviation. I n c , Photos 14, 19, 21, 22

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