SMK SAUJANA IMPIAN,KAJANG

Manufactured Substances
In Industry
FORM 4 CHEMISTRY: CHAPTER 9
NURINA AZYAN BT AMIR SUHARMAN
5 CENDEKIA
PN MARINA
 Sulphuric Acid
USES OF SULPHURIC ACID

1. Sulphuric acid is one of the most important industrial chemicals. About 140 millions
tones are manufactured in the world every year.
2. It is used in most industries ranging from agriculture fertilizers to paints, soap and
the cleaning of rust.
3. The main use of sulphuric acid is in producing fertilizers, particularly
“superphosphate” and ammonium sulphate.

a. Superphosphate fertilizer:
It is manufactured from the reaction between sulphuric acid and calcium
phosphate.

2H2SO4 (l) + Ca3 (PO4)2 (s)  Ca (H2PO4)2 (l) + 2CaSO4 (s)

b. Ammonia sulphate fertilizer:

It is manufactured by the reaction between sulphuric acid and ammonia.

2NH3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq)  (NH4)2SO4 (aq)

c. Potassium Sulphate:
It is manufactured by the neutralization of sulphuric acid and potassium
hydroxide.

2KOH (aq) +H2SO4 (aq)  K2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

4. Initially, sulphonic acid is produced by the reaction between sulphuric acid and
hydrocarbon compounds.
5. Sulphonic acid then reacts with the sodium hydroxide to form sodium alkyl
sulphonate, which is a detergent.
6. Accumulators need an electrolyte to carry charges and to react with the positive and
negative plates during the charging and discharging processes.
7. In the acid accumulator, sulphuric acid acts as the electrolyte.

USES OF EXAMPLE
SULPHURIC
ACID
Drying agent Concentrated sulphuric acid is generally used to dry gas in the
laboratory. However it is not suitable to dry alkaline gases such as
ammonia.
Oxidising agent Concentrated sulphuric oxidizes copper to form copper (II) sulphate.
2H2SO4 (l) + Cu (s)  CuSO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l) + SO2 (g)
However dilute sulphuric acid does not react with copper.
Dehydrating agent When concentrated sulphuric acid is added to sugar, a violent reaction
occurs. The water content in the sugar is extracted by the acid and the
sugar becomes carbon.
C6H12O6 (l)  6H2O (l) + 6C (s)
Strong acid It reacts with the salt of the weak acid such as sodium ethanoate to
form a weak acid.
2CH3COONa (s) + H2SO4 (l)  2CH3COOH (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq)
Table of uses of sulphuric acid in the laboratory
 fertilisers

paint and fibres and

pigments colors

Sulphuric
acid
plastic and leather
chemicals industry

cleaning soap and

materials detergents

Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid

Today, sulphuric acid is made from sulphur dioxide, by the Contact Process. There are three
stages for the production of sulphuric acid by the Contact Process.

STAGE 1

a) In the furnace, sulphur is burnt in dry air to produce sulphur dioxide.

S (l) + O2 (g)  SO2 (g)

b) In the Contact Process, sulphur powder is sprayed inside a furnace at a temperature of

100 C. Here sulphur is converted to sulphur dioxide.
c) Sulphur dioxide can also be produce by heating metal sulphides such as zinc sulphide.

2ZnS (s) + 3O2 (g)  2ZnO (s) + SSO2 (g)

STAGE 2 (Preparation of sulphur dioxide)

a) Sulphur dioxide and air are passed over a catalyst called vanadium (V) oxide, (V2O5).
b) The temperature used here is about (450-500)C. If the temperature is less than this
range, the vanadium (V) oxide may not be able to catalyse.
c) The reacting pressure is about 2 to 3 atmospheres.
d) At this stage, sulphur trioxide is produced.
e) This reaction will produce about 98% sulphur trioxide.

STAGE 3 (Formation of sulphuric acid)

a) The sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form a product

called oleum, H2S2O. This is carried out until the concentrated sulphuric acid has
reached a concentration of 99.5%.

SO3 (g) + H2SO4 (aq)  H2S207 (l)

b) The product, oleum will not show any property of acid. This is because, oleum will
‘not ionise’ without the presence of water.
c) Water is then added to the oleum to produce concentrated sulphuric acid.
 H2S2O7 (l) + H2O (l)  2H2SO4 (l)

d) The reaction (a) and (b) is equivalent to dissolving sulphuric trioxide in water.

SO3 (g) + H2O (l)  H2SO4 (aq)

e) However, this reaction is not carried out in industry. This is because the reaction is
too vigorous.
f) It produces a large cloud of sulphuric acid mist. This mist is corrosive and polluted
the air.

Contact Process

Sulphur or metal sulphide

Burnt in air

Sulphur dioxide, SO2

a) The presence of a vanadium (V) oxide as a catalyst.

b) A temperature of between 450°C to 550°C.

c) a pressure of one atmosphere

Sulphur trioxide, SO3

Dissolved in sulphuric acid, H2SO4

Oleum,
Diluted withH2equal
S2O7 volume of water H O
2

Dilute with water

Concentrated sulphuric acid H2SO4

Flow chart of Contact Process

Sulphur dioxide and Environmental Pollution

1. Sulphur dioxide is present to some extent in the natural unpolluted atmosphere. The
sulphur dioxide sources are from bacterial decay of organic matter, volcanic gases,
and forest fires. However, their concentrations are low and they are normally
considered as non-polluting.
2. Sulphur is found in coal and petroleum. When these fossil fuels burn they produce
sulphur dioxide. When this gas is released to the atmosphere, they pollute the air. In
fact, the burning of coal and oil is the major source of sulphur dioxide pollution in our
environment. This gas is considered as the most serious health hazard among the
pollutants. This is true especially for people with respiratory difficulties.
3. When SO2 dissolves in water or rain, they form sulphurous acid H2SO3.
4. Atmospheric SO2 can be oxidised to SO3 also. When SO3 dissolves in water, it forms
sulphuric acid, H2SO4. Both types of acid will cause acid rain.
5. Acid rain affects marine and forest ecology. In an acidic environment, less fish will
breed in polluted lakes. More tress will die in the forests.
6. Sulphur dioxide is harmful to human health and property. Many of the environmental
effects are actually due to the reactions of sulphuric and sulphurous acids.
7. Acids react with metals and carbonates. Thus, acid rain is corrosive both to metals and
to building materials made of carbonates. For example, marble buildings and marble
statues will be corroded by acid rain. This will make them less beautiful.
8. The release of SO2 gas to the atmosphere can be reduced by reacting the gas with
calcium carbonate and calcium oxide.
9. Some gases released from industries also contain sulphur dioxide. These gases are
mainly produced from the burning of fossil fuels. They are also produced from the
burning of fossil fuels. They are also produced during the manufacture of sulphuric
acid.

Bad effects of acid rain

 Damage of marble structures
 Damage to metal structures
 Threat to aquatic life
 Damage to the soil nutrients of plants

Reducing acid rain

1. Most acids causing acid rain are from sulphuric acid, sulphurous acid and
carbonic acid.
2. Acid rain can be reduced by reducing all the sources of these acids.
3. Present technology is able to remove the sulphur content in fossil fuel. The
removal of sulphur will mean less sulphur is burnt to form sulphur dioxide and
sulphur trioxide. However, the cost of removal is high.
4. A cheaper way to remove sulphur dioxide directly is by reacting them with
calcium carbonate.
CaCO3 (s) + SO2 (g)  CaSO3 (s) + CO2 (g)

5. The calcium sulphite reacts with the oxygen in the air to form calcium sulphate.
2CaSO3 (s) + O2 (g)  2CaSO4 (s)

6. Another chemical that can be used to react with sulphur dioxide is calcium oxide.
CaO (s) + SO2 (g)  CaSO3 (s)
2CaSO3 (s) + 02 (g)  2CaSO4 (s)
7. The by-product is calcium sulphate. This compound can be used to make Plaster
of Paris.

Reducing the Acidity in the Soil, Rivers and Lakes

The acidity in these areas can be reduced with the following chemicals
 Calcium oxide
CaO (s) + 2H+ (aq)  Ca2+ (aq) + H2O (l)
 Calcium hydroxide
Ca (OH) 2 (s) + 2H+ (aq)  Ca2+ (aq) + 2H2O (l)
 Calcium carbonate
CaCO3 (s) + 2H+ (aq)  Ca2+ (aq) + H2O (l) CO2 (g)
The chemicals can be spread in the soil so that the acid (H+) will be neutralised.
 Ammonia and Its Salts
USES OF AMMONIA

1. Nitrogen fertilisers and nitric acid.

2. Ammonia is used to produce nitric acid as shown in the
following series of reactions.
4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) platinum/rhodium 4NO (g) + 6H2O (g)

2NO (g) + O2 (g) catalyst, 850 C 2NO2 (g)

4NO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)  4HNO3 (aq)
Ammonium nitrate, made from ammonia and nitric acid, is a
widely used fertiliser.
3. Used in the manufacture of many households cleaning agents.
4. An important refrigerant (cooling agent) in refrigerators. It is suitable because it has a
low boiling point and is very volatile.
5. In Ostwald Process, ammonia is used to produce nitric acid.
6. To make explosive chemicals such as TNT. This explosive produced when ammonia
reacts with toluene.
7. Prevent coagulation of latex.
8. Used in the manufacture of fertilisers.

Ammonium nitrate
Ammonia sulphate
- NH44NO33
- (NH44)22 SO44
- Used as explosives
- Used as fertilisers and fertilisers

Ammonium
Ammonium chloride
carbonate
(sal-ammonia)
- (NH44)22 CO33
- NH44Cl
- Used as smelling
- Used in dry batteries Uses of salts
ammonium
compounds

PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA

Physical Properties

1. Colourless and pungent gas.

2. Less dense than air.
3. Highly soluble in water.
4. Melts at -77.7 C and boils at -33.35C.
5. Its density is 0.68 (at its boiling point and at 1 atmosphere of pressure).

Chemical Properties

1. Dissolves into water to give an alkaline solution with a pH value of 9-10.

 2. It turns moist red litmus paper blue.
3. It will neutralise acids to make ammonium salts.
4. Gaseous ammonia reacts with gaseous hydrogen chloride to form white fumes of
ammonium chloride.
5. Ammonia dissolves in water to form ammonium hydroxide.
6. Ammonia reacts with metallic ions (except Na+, K+ and Ca2+) to form metallic
hydroxides.
Fe3+ (aq) + 3NH3 (aq) + 3H2O (l)  Fe (OH) 3 (aq) + 3NH4+ (aq)
Brown precipitate
Mg (aq) + 2NH3 (aq) + 2H2O (l)  Mg (OH) 2 (aq) + 2NH4+ (aq)
2+

White precipitate

Using a Catalyst to Oxidise Ammonia

The concentrated ammonia solution releases ammonia gas. With the help of platinum
catalyst, ammonia gas burns in the presence of oxygen. Here the ammonia is oxidised by the
oxygen to give nitrogen monoxide.
4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g)  4 NO (g) + 6H2O (g)

The nitrogen monoxide reacts with oxygen again to give a brownish gas called nitrogen
dioxide.
2NO (g) + O2 (g)  2NO2 (g)
The nitrogen dioxide dissolves in water to form nitric acid and nitrous acid. This series of
reactions is used to prepare nitric acid in the Ostwald Process.

Decomposition of Ammonia

When ammonia gas is passed over heated iron wool, some of the gas decomposes into the
elements nitrogen and hydrogen. This process is actually the reverse of Haber process.

MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIA (HABER PROCESS)

1. Ammonia is made by synthesis through Haber process.

2. Nitrogen and hydrogen are combined directly together to form ammonia.
3. To supply the Haber process:
 Nitrogen gas can be distilled from liquid air.
  Hydrogen is produced by electrolysing brine (sea water).
4. Nitrogen and hydrogen can also be obtained from natural gas (methane).
a. Methane is heated with steam over a catalyst of nickel at a high pressure
CH4 (g) + H2O  CO (g) + 3H2 (g)
b. Carbon monoxide and hydrogen are mixed with air and again heated at high
pressure over nickel acting as a catalyst. Some of the hydrogen reacts with the
oxygen in the air and leaves behind nitrogen
N2/O2
[CO + H2] H2O + N2 + CO
the steam (H2O) and carbon monoxide are removed, leaving just the nitrogen
and hydrogen.
5. These two gases are the mixed under 300 atm of pressure and at a temperature
between 450 C and 500C.
6. This hot high-pressure mixture is then fed into a reaction chamber containing an iron
catalyst.
7. The iron catalyst speeds up the reaction. Three hydrogen molecules combine with one
nitrogen molecule to produce an ammonia molecule.
8. The temperature, pressure and catalyst help to produce as much ammonia as possible.
9. The gases from the reaction chamber are passed over the catalyst several times so as
to enable more nitrogen and hydrogen to combine to form ammonia.
10. The gaseous ammonia is quickly cooled below the boiling point of ammonia. At this
low temperature, ammonia gas condenses as a liquid, and is collected and stored.
11. Unconverted nitrogen and hydrogen gas are recycled through the reaction chamber.

The percentage of nitrogen by mass can be calculated using this formula:

Mass of nitrogen
X 100%
Molar mass of fertilizers
 Alloys
MEANING OF ALLOY

1. Alloys are materials that contain more than one element.

2. Usually, alloys are mixtures of metallic elements – two or more metals.
3. Pure aluminium is light but not strong enough to make aeroplane bodies. If a small
amount of manganese and magnesium are added then an alloy duralumin is formed.
This alloy is hard and strong for aeroplane frames.
4. Thus, an alloy is a mixture of metals made for a certain purpose.

ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN METALS

1. In pure metals, the atoms are all of the same size.

2. They are arranged in layers as shown in the figure below.

Force Force

3. When the pure metals are hit with a hammer, the layers of atoms can slide over each
other easily.
4. Thus, pure metal can easily change its shape. They are said to be
 Ductile
 Malleable

ARRANGEMENT OF ATOM IN ALLOYS

Alloys have more than one kind of atoms. These different atoms are of different sizes. They
are mixed when they are in the molten state (liquid). The layers of atoms in an alloy cannot
slide over each other as easily as shown in the above figure. The movement of atoms get
jammed up. This makes them difficult to move. This makes the alloy not ductile and not
malleable. However, alloys are harder and stronger than the original constituent metals. There
are different ways of arranging the different atoms in alloys. First, solution alloys are
homogeneous alloys in which the different atoms are distributed uniformly throughout.
Second, in heterogeneous alloys, the different atoms are not distributed uniformly.
Homogeneous alloys have definite properties and compositions.

AIM OF PRODUCING ALLOYS

1. The basic aim of making alloys is to modify the properties of the pure metal elements.
Sometimes this is necessary to make ornaments.
2. Pure gold is too soft to be used in jewellery. However, an alloy of copper and gold is
quite hard for this purpose.
3. To prevent of minimise corrosion
 Iron is easily corroded especially in polluted, acidic and damp industrial areas.
 An iron alloy will be less likely to rust if carbon, nickel, or chromium is added
to it.
 Stainless steel is an alloy of iron. It will not rust even under extreme
conditions.
 The presence of chromium in it, will form chromium (III) oxide.
 The presence of nickel in it will form nickel (IV) oxide.
 The presence of layers of these oxides will prevent corrosion and oxidation.
4. To improve the physical appearance
 Fresh metal surfaces are usually shinning.
 These shining surfaces are usually tarnished if they are coated with a layer of
oxides.
 Alloys are not easily oxidised. This is because the oxide layers are not easily
formed. Thus, surfaces of alloys will remain shinning for a longer time.
 Stainless steel utensils are more shinning then iron utensils.

COMPOSITION, PROPERTIES AND USES OF ALLOYS

1. Conductors of heat and electricity.

2. Have shinning surfaces. They have a lustrous appearance. However, most alloys are
shinier than pure metals if they are kept for a long time. This is because alloys do not
corrode or oxidise easily. Metals tend to have a layer of oxides after some time.
3. Alloys are less ductile than metals.
4. Alloys are less malleable-not easily hammered into sheets.
 ALLOYS PARENT OTHER SPECIAL MAIN
METAL METALS PROPERTIES SUITABLE
USES
Alnico Fe: (75-49)% Al: (6-12)% Strongly Permanent
Ni: (14-13)% magnetic magnets
Co: (5-35)%
Constantan Cu: 60% Ni: 40% High resistance Thermocouple
Copper-nickel Cu: 75% Ni: 25% Hard, shining Coins
and lasting
Brass Cu:70% Zn:30% Does not Ship boilers
corrode easily
Bronze Cu:90% Sn:10% Very hard and Ship propellers
strong
Duralumin Al:95% Cu:3% Strong and light Aircraft bodies
Mn:1%
Mg:1%
Magnaleum Al:70% Mg:30% Hard but light Aircraft
structures
Pewter Sn:97% An and Cu:3% Hard and Decoration
shinning items and gifts
Solder Pb:70% Sn:30% Low melting Soldering wire
point
Stainless steel Fe:74% Cr:18% Strong and does Hospital and
Ni:8% not rust chemical
equipment,
cutlery
Soft steel Fe:99.8% C:0.2% Malleable, Cables, nails,
ductile chains
Medium steel Fe:(99.8-99.4)% C:(0.2-0.6)% Stronger than Railways,
soft steel cantilevers
High carbon Fe:(99.4-98.5)% C:(0.6-1.5)% Very hard Knives, springs
steel
 Synthetic
Polymers
MEANING OF POLYMERS

1. Polymers are large molecules made up of

identical repeating sub-units of monomers
which are joined together by covalent
bonds.
2. The process of forming polymers is called polymerisation.
3. If the molecules simply join together, then this type of polymerisation is called
additional polymerisation.
4. There are two main groups of polymers:
 Synthetic polymers
 Natural polymers

NATURAL POLYMERS

Rubber is an example of a natural polymer. Other natural polymers are fat in cells,
carbohydrate in cells, and protein in cells. All these substances are large molecules made
from smaller molecules that are joined together. Thus, fats, carbohydrates and proteins are
natural polymers.

 Natural rubber polymer

 Fat polymer
 Carbohydrate polymers
 Protein polymers

SYNTHETIC POLYMER

1. Synthetic polymers are widely used today.

2. Examples of synthetic polymers are polythene, Perspex, polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
polystyrene and nylon.

Pvc
-drain
Nylon pipes Polythene
-fishing -plastic
line begs,

Synthetic Terylene
Perspex polymers
-lenses and their -Plastic
uses bottles

Polyprop
Polystyrene
ene
Teflon -insulation
-bottles
-as a coating
for non-stick
pots and pans

Synthetic Rubber
There are two main types of synthetic rubber:
a. SBR rubber or styrene-butadine
b. Neoprene

Importance of Polymers

 Used in making households

 Textile materials
 Replaced many natural materials for several reasons:
o Cheap
o Strong
o Last for a long time
o Easy to be moulded or shaped
o Very stable and do not corrode

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION FROM SYNTHETIC POLYMERS

 Lang pollution
 Air pollution
 Green house effect

Reducing Pollution of Plastics

 Recycling plastics

 Using biodegradable plastics

 Disintegrate plastic by pyrolysis
 Disintegrate plastic in closed furnace
 Glass and Ceramics
GLASS

1. Sand mixed with limestone can be melted into a thick, hot liquid.
2. When sand is heated to about 1600C, it flows like a thick liquid.
3. If this liquid cools, it forms a clear, solid material with no crystal structure. This solid
material is called glass.
4. Here are some types of glass and their uses.
 Fused silica glass: laboratory glass apparatus.
 Soda-lime glass: windows, mirrors, bottles.
 Borosilicate (Pyrex glass): used as cooking glassware.
 Optical glass: lenses in cameras, spectacles.
 Lead crystal glass: bowls, vases.
5. If boron oxide is added, the glass is able to resist heat better than ordinary glass. This
type of glass is used to make cooking pots and laboratory glassware.
6. Coloured glass is made by adding various metals. For example adding selenium and
gold will produce red glass and cobalt makes beautiful, dark blue glass.

SPECIAL USES OF GLASS

 Optical fibres for communication

 Photo chromic glass
 Conducting glass: glass is not a conductor of electric. It will conduct electricity if
it is coated with a film of conducting materials.

General Properties of Glass  Easy to clean

 Not porous
 Transparent or translucent  Can be easily broken
 Can refract light
 Hard General Uses of Glass
 Brittle
 Non reactive to chemicals  Scientific equipment
 Good heat insulators  Household equipment
 Good electric insulators  Industrial equipment
 Building materials
CERAMICS

1. Made from clays such as kaolin.

2. Hardened by heating them at high temperatures.

Composition of Ceramics

 Aluminosilicate
 This compound contains aluminium, silicon and oxygen.
 Silicon is added into kaolin to harden it during the process of making porcelain.

General Uses of Ceramic  Some specialised ceramic can be

made to conduct electricity. They
 Store food are silicon carbid SiC and
 Protect food from moisture aluminium carbide Al4C3.
 Roofing tiles  Same ceramics are made to
 Bricks function as semiconductors. They
 Sewer pipes are used in microchips.
 Insulators in light fixtures
 Used in electric equipment such as
plugs and lamp holders

General Properties of Ceramic

 Hard and strong

 Brittle
 Cannot be compressed
 Easily crack when temperatures
changes too quickly
 Resist moisture
 Do not conduct electricity
 Do not conduct heat
 Cant withstand very high
temperatures New Uses of Ceramics
 Resistant to action by chemicals
 Superconductors
Modified Properties of Ceramics  Engine block

Glass Ceramic
Transparent or translucent Opaque
Soften when heated No changes
Non-porous porous
Can be melted and remelted as often as Once harden it cannot be melted
desired
Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Non-crystalline “frozen liquid” Minute crystals of silicates that are
suspended in a glassy cement
Differences between glass and ceramics
 Uses of Composite Materials
MEANING OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

1. A composite material is a structural material formed by combining

two or more materials with different physical properties, producing a complex mixture.
2. The composite material produced will have different properties far
more superior to the original materials.
3. The composite material produced is harder, stronger, lighter, and
more resistant to heat and corrosion and also for specific purposes.
4. When composite material is formed, the weakness of the components
will not exist anymore.

The Needs for New Materials

New materials are needed today to supply the high demand for the new industries.
New technology needs materials which are harder, tougher, last longer, easier and more
convenient to use, and able to withstand high temperatures and high pressures.

Natural Composite Materials

 Wood
 The combination of cellulose and lignin

Composite material Component Properties of Properties of

component composite
Concrete Hard but brittle, Stronger, higher
With low tensile tensile strength, not
strength so brittle, does not
Reinforced concrete Steel Hard with high corrode easily, can
tensile strength but withstand higher
expensive and can applied forces and
corrode loads, relatively
cheaper
Glass of low Transparent, does Reflect light rays
refractive index not reflect light and allow light rays
Fibre optics rays. to travel along the
Glass of high Heavy, strong but fibre
refractive index brittle and non-
flexible
Glass Heavy, strong but Light, strong, tough,
brittle and non- resilient and
Fibreglass flexible flexible, with high
Polyester plastic Light, flexible, tensile strength and
elastic but weak and not flammable
inflammable
 Glass Transparent and not Sensitive to light:
sensitive to light darkness when light
Photochromic glass Silver chloride, or Sensitive to light intensity is high,
silver bromide becomes clear when
light intensity is low

Composite material and their new properties