organelle is a specialized

subunit within a cell that has a

specific function exemple:
Golgi apparatus sorting and
modification of proteins
mitochondria energy
production from the oxidation
of food substances and the
release of adenosine
triphosphate
nucleus DNA maintenance,
controls all activities of the
cell, RNA transcription

eukaryote is an organism
whose cells contain complex
structures enclosed within
membranes. The defining
membrane-bound structure
that sets eukaryotic cells
apart from prokaryotic cells is
the nucleus, or nuclear
envelope, within which the
genetic material is carried.[1]
[2][3] The presence of a
nucleus gives eukaryotes their
name

Ploidy is the number of sets

of chromosomes in a
biological cell.
Human sex cells (sperm and
egg) have one complete set of
chromosomes from the male
or female parent. Sex cells,
also called gametes, combine
to produce somatic cells.
Somatic cells therefore have
twice as many chromosomes.
The haploid number (n) is
the number of chromosomes
in a gamete. A somatic cell
has twice that many
chromosomes (2n).
Humans are diploid. A human
somatic cell contains 46
chromosomes: 2 complete
haploid sets, which make up
23 homologous chromosome
pairs. However, many
organisms have more than
two sets of homologous
chromosomes and are called
polyploid.
prokaryotes are a group of
organisms that lack a cell
nucleus (= karyon), or any
other membrane-bound
organelles. The organisms
that have a cell nucleus are
called eukaryotes.

DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid

(/diˌɒksiˌraɪbɵ.njuːˌkleɪ.ɨk
ˈæsɪd/ ( listen)), or DNA, is a
nucleic acid that contains the
genetic instructions used in
the development and
functioning of all known living
organisms (with the exception
of RNA viruses). The main role
of DNA molecules is the long-
term storage of information.
DNA is often compared to a
set of blueprints, like a recipe
or a code, since it contains the
instructions needed to
construct other components
of cells, such as proteins and
RNA molecules. The DNA
segments that carry this
genetic information are called
genes, but other DNA
sequences have structural
purposes, or are involved in
regulating the use of this
genetic information.

The nucleotide repeats

contain both the segment of
the backbone of the molecule,
which holds the chain
together, and a base, which
interacts with the other DNA
strand in the helix. A base
linked to a sugar is called a
nucleoside and a base linked
to a sugar and one or more
phosphate groups is called a
nucleotide. If multiple
nucleotides are linked
together, as in DNA, this
polymer is called a
polynucleotide.[9]
The backbone of the DNA
strand is made from
alternating phosphate and
sugar residues.[10

O moleculă de ADN conține

zone numite gene, zone
fără funcție, precum și
zone cu un rol încă
necunoscut;
ADN-ul este un acid nucleic.
Este o polinucleotidă, adică un
compus în structura căruia se
repetă un set limitat de
macromolecule numite
nucleotide; în acest sens, el
este definit ca fiind un
„copolimer statistic”:
un „copolimer” este un
polimer în compoziția
căruia se repetă mai multe
„motive” (monomeri); în
cazul ADN-ului, monomerii
sunt nucleotidele.
iar „statistic” înseamnă că
monomerii se repetă de
manieră aleatorie în lanțul
polimer, fără ca ei să fie
dispuși alternativ sau după
 oricare alt aranjament
repetitiv (așa cum se
întâmplă, de exemplu, în
etilen-acetatul de vinil
(EVA) sau în acronitril-
butadien-stiren (ABS).
Nucleotida, ce reprezintă
unitatea de bază a ADN-ului,
este o macromoleculă
organică (o N-glicozidă)
compusă (prin
policondensare) din:
un carbohidrat, adică o
glucidă (mai exact o
monozaharidă) de tipul
„pentoză” (în formă
furanozică)
o bază azotată heterociclică
(„inel” sau „ciclu” aromatic
 în 6 atomi) de tipul
pirimidinei, sau o variantă a
acesteia condensată cu
inelul imidazolic, numită
purină
și un rest de acid fosforic
(esterificat cu unul din
hidroxilii pentozei), adică
un „grup fosfat”.[A]
Pentozele care intră în
structura ADN-ului sunt D-2-
dezoxiriboza (pentru acidul
nucleic tip ADN) sau D-riboza
(pentru acidul nucleic tip
ARN).[B] Două dintre bazele
heterociclice azotate ale ADN-
ului sunt purinice (adenina și
guanina), iar celelalte două
sunt pirimidinice (citozina și
timina). În ARN uracilul
înlocuiește timina. În cadrul
elicei caracteristice, în formă
de scară spiralată, resturile
pirimidinice ale monomerului
sunt orientate spre interior,
formând cu resturile purinice
ale celuilalt monomer
„treapta” scării, în timp ce
pentozele formează brațele
acesteia, de la o dublă unitate
la alta (adică de la un cuplu
purinic-pirimidinic la
următorul), legătura fiind
realizată de grupările fosfat
(prin atomii lor de oxigen).
Legăturile dintre resturile de
purine și pirimidine sunt de
natură moleculară și nu
chimică, ele fiind legături de
hidrogen.
Mutațiile nu sunt altceva
decât imperfecțiuni în
procesul de sinteză al ADN-
ului: o bază este în mod
accidental ignorată
(„sărită”), introdusă sau
copiată imperfect, sau
lanțul este tăiat prea
devreme sau i se adaugă
baze la capete; aceste
„operații” de bază
generează toate mutațiile
posibile.
Mutațiile genetice sunt
practic o alterare a unei
părți din informația din
molecula ADN. Este
suficient ca, de exemplu, să
se șteargă doar o pereche
de baze azotate dintr-o
genă, pentru ca toată
funcția genei să fie abolită.
Dacă este ștearsă o
pereche de baze azotate,
codonul din care făcea
parte aceasta va codifica
alt aminoacid, care va
codifica altă proteină, fapt
ce, în cele din urmă (așa se
întâmplă probabil cel mai
adesea, însă nu în mod
obligatoriu), poate să-i
altereze acesteia din urmă
funcția biologică. Mutațiile
pot avea trei feluri de
efecte: negative, pozitive
 sau neutre (nu influențează
funcțiile nici în bine, nici în
rău).
Aceste mutații sunt
provocate fie de așa numiții
factori mutageni (radiațiile
cosmice, substanțe chimice
ș.a.), fie de fidelitatea
imperfectă a enzimei ce
asigura sinteza ADN-ului.
Mutațiile genetice pot fi și
induse intenționat de către
specialiști.
ADN-ul se găsește practic în
orice celulă:
de la organisme
unicelulare cum ar fi
bacteriile sau
protozoarele,
 până la organismele
pluricelulare (fungi,
vegetale sau animale),
precum și în structura
internă a unor virusuri.
Structura ADN-ului este unică
nu numai pentru o specie
anume ci și pentru orice
individ al oricărei specii
animale sau vegetale.
La om ADN-ul conține circa
3,27 miliarde de perechi de
baze (3,27 miliarde de
„trepte” în helixul dublu).
Cantitatea de ADN conținută
în celule (numită uneori și
patrimoniu genetic) nu este
corelată cu complexitatea
organismului. Astfel, de
 exemplu, există specii mai
puțin „complexe” decât
omul, dar cu un patrimoniu
genetic mai bogat
cantitativ decât cel al
omului.

backbone chain or main

chain of a polymer is the
series of covalently bonded
atoms that together create
the continuous chain of the
molecule.

genes have regulatory

regions in addition to regions
that explicitly code for a
protein or RNA product. A
regulatory region shared by
almost all genes is known as
the promoter, which provides
a position that is recognized
by the transcription
machinery when a gene is
about to be transcribed and
expressed.
GENE-A segment of DNA.
Genes are like sentences
made of the "letters" of the
nucleotide alphabet, between
them genes direct the
physical development and
behavior of an organism.
Genes are like a recipe or
instruction book, providing
information that an organism
needs so it can build or do
something - like making an
eye or a leg, or repairing a
wound.
A chromosome contains a
single, long DNA molecule,
only a portion of which
corresponds to a single
gene. Humans have
approximately 23,000
genes arranged on their
chromosomes.
Each gene consists of a
specific sequence of
nucleotides encoded in a
DNA (or sometimes RNA)
strand.
genetic code is the set of
rules by which a gene is
translated into a functional
protein.
genome is the entirety of an
organism's hereditary
information.

allele is one of two or more

versions of a gene. An
individual inherits two alleles
for each gene, one from each
parent. If the two alleles are
the same, the individual is
homozygous for that gene. If
the alleles are different, the
individual is heterozygous.
Though the term "allele"_ was
originally used to describe
variation among genes, it now
also refers to variation among
non-coding DNA sequences.
allele (UK /ˈæliːl/ or US /əˈliːl/)
is one of two or more forms of
a gene.[1][2] Sometimes,
different alleles can result in
different traits, such as color.
Other times, different alleles
will have the same result in
the expression of a gene.

polymer is a large molecule

(macromolecule) composed of
repeating structural units.
These subunits are typically
connected by covalent
chemical bonds. Although the
term polymer is sometimes
taken to refer to plastics, it
actually encompasses a large
class of natural and synthetic
materials with a wide variety
of properties.
Because of the extraordinary
range of properties of
polymeric materials,[2] they
play an essential and
ubiquitous role in everyday
life.[3] This role ranges from
familiar synthetic plastics and
elastomers to natural
biopolymers such as nucleic
acids and proteins that are
essential for life.
Natural polymeric materials
such as shellac, amber, and
natural rubber have been
used for centuries. A variety
of other natural polymers
exist, such as cellulose, which
is the main constituent of
wood and paper. The list of
synthetic polymers includes
synthetic rubber, Bakelite,
neoprene, nylon, PVC,
polystyrene, polyethylene,
polypropylene,
polyacrylonitrile, PVB, silicone,
and many more.
Most commonly, the
continuously linked backbone
of a polymer used for the
preparation of plastics
consists mainly of carbon
atoms. A simple example is
polyethylene, whose
repeating unit is based on
ethylene monomer. However,
other structures do exist; for
example, elements such as
silicon form familiar materials
such as silicones, examples
being silly putty and
waterproof plumbing sealant.
Oxygen is also commonly
present in polymer
backbones, such as those of
polyethylene glycol,
polysaccharides (in glycosidic
bonds), and DNA (in
phosphodiester bonds).
Polymerization is the
process of combining many
small molecules known as
monomers into a covalently
bonded chain. During the
polymerization process, some
chemical groups may be lost
from each monomer.The
distinct piece of each
monomer that is incorporated
into the polymer is known as a
repeat unit or monomer
residue.

Biopolymers are polymers

produced by living organisms.
Since they are polymers,
Biopolymers contain
monomeric units that are
covalently bonded to form
larger structures. There are
three main classes of
biopolymers based on the
differing monomeric units
used and the structure of the
biopolymer formed.
Polynucleotides long polymers
which are composed of 13 or
more nucleotide monomers,
Polypeptides short polymers
of amino acids, and
Polysaccharides which are
often linear bonded polymeric
carbohydrate structures. [1]
[2] [3] [4]
Cellulose is the most common
organic compound and
biopolymer on Earth. About 33
percent of all plant matter is
cellulose. The cellulose
content of cotton is 90
percent and that of wood is 50
percent.
Biopolymers often have a well
defined structure, though this
is not a defining characteristic
(example:ligno-cellulose): The
exact chemical composition
and the sequence in which
these units are arranged is
called the primary structure,
in the case of proteins. Many
biopolymers spontaneously
fold into characteristic
compact shapes (see also
"protein folding" as well as
secondary structure and
tertiary structure), which
determine their biological
functions and depend in a
complicated way on their
primary structures.

polynucleotide molecule is a
biopolymer composed of 13 or
more[1] nucleotide monomers
covalently bonded in a chain.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
and RNA (ribonucleic acid) are
examples of polynucleotides
with distinct biological
function. The prefix poly
comes from the ancient Greek
πολυς (polys, many). DNA
consists of two chains of
polynucleotides, with each
chain in the form of a helical
spiral.The genome of an
organism consists of
complementary pairs of
enormously long
polynucleotides wound around
each other in the form of a
double helix.

Nucleotides are molecules

that, when joined together,
make up the structural units
of RNA and DNA.
They form the rungs of the
DNA ladder and are the
repeating units in DNA. There
are four types of nucleotides
(A, T, G and C) and it is the
sequence of these nucleotides
that carries information.A
nucleotide is composed of a
nucleobase (nitrogenous
base), a five-carbon sugar
(either ribose or 2'-
deoxyribose), and one to
three phosphate groups.
Together, the nucleobase and
sugar comprise a nucleoside.
The phosphate groups form
bonds with either the 2, 3, or
5-carbon of the sugar, with
the 5-carbon site most
common. Cyclic nucleotides
form when the phosphate
group is bound to two of the
sugar's hydroxyl groups.[1]
Ribonucleotides are
nucleotides where the sugar is
ribose, and
deoxyribonucleotides contain
the sugar deoxyribose.
Nucleotides can contain either
a purine or a pyrimidine base.
Nucleic acids are polymeric
macromolecules made from
nucleotide monomers. In DNA,
the purine bases are adenine
and guanine, while the
pyrimidines are thymine and
cytosine. RNA uses uracil in
place of thymine. Adenine
always pairs with thymine by
2 hydrogen bonds, while
guanine pairs with cytosine
through 3 hydrogen bonds,
each due to their unique
structures.
Sets of three nucleotides,
known as codons, each
correspond to a specific amino
acid or to a signal;
molecule (pronounced /
ˈmɒlɪkjuːl/) is an electrically
neutral group of at least two
atoms held together by
covalent chemical bonds.[1][2]
[3][4][5][6] Molecules are
distinguished from ions by
their electrical charge.
However, in quantum physics,
organic chemistry, and
biochemistry, the term
molecule is often used less
strictly and applied to
polyatomic ions.
In the kinetic theory of gases,
the term molecule is often
used for any gaseous particle
regardless of its composition.
According to this definition
noble gas atoms are
considered molecules despite
the fact that they are
composed of a single non-
bonded atom.[7]
A molecule may consist of
atoms of a single chemical
element, as with oxygen (O2),
or of different elements, as
with water (H2O). Atoms and
complexes connected by non-
covalent bonds such as
hydrogen bonds or ionic
bonds are generally not
considered single molecules.
[8]
Molecules as components of
matter are common in organic
substances (and therefore
biochemistry). They also make
up most of the oceans and
atmosphere. A large number
of familiar solid substances,
however, including most of
the minerals that make up the
crust, mantle, and core of the
Earth itself, contain many
chemical bonds, but are not
made of identifiable
molecules. No typical
molecule can be defined for
ionic crystals (salts) and
covalent crystals (network
solids), although these are
often composed of repeating
unit cells that extend either in
a plane (such as in graphene)
or three-dimensionally (such
as in diamond or sodium
chloride). The theme of
repeated unit-cellular-
structure also holds for most
condensed phases with
metallic bonding. In glasses
(solids that exist in a vitreous
disordered state), atoms may
also be held together by
chemical bonds without any
definable molecule, but also
without any of the regularity
of repeating units that
characterises crystals.

covalent bond is a form of

chemical bonding that is
characterized by the sharing
of pairs of electrons between
atoms, and other covalent
bonds. In short, the stable
balance of attractive and
repulsive forces between
atoms when they share
electrons is known as covalent
bonding.[1

ionic bond is a type of

chemical bond formed
through an electrostatic
attraction between two
oppositely charged ions. Ionic
bonds are formed between a
cation, which is usually a
metal, and an anion, which is
usually a nonmetal. Pure ionic
bonding cannot exist: all ionic
compounds have some
degree of covalent bonding.
Thus, an ionic bond is
considered a bond where the
ionic character is greater than
the covalent character. The
larger the difference in
electronegativity between the
two atoms involved in the
bond, the more ionic (polar)
the bond is. Bonds with
partially ionic and partially
covalent character are called
polar covalent bonds.
Ionic compounds conduct
electricity when molten or in
solution, but not as a solid.
They generally have a high
melting point and tend to be
soluble in water.
ion is an atom or molecule in
which the total number of
electrons is not equal to the
total number of protons,
giving it a net positive or
negative electrical charge.
The name was given by
physicist Michael Faraday for
the substances that allow a
current to pass ("go")
between electrodes in a
solution, when an electric field
is applied. It is from Greek ιον,
meaning "going."
An anion (pronounced /
ˈæn.aɪ.ən/ AN-eye-ən), from
the Greek word ἄνω (ánō),
meaning "up", is an ion with
more electrons than protons,
giving it a net negative charge
(since electrons are
negatively charged and
protons are positively
charged). Conversely, a
cation (pronounced /
ˈkæt.aɪ.ən/ KAT-eye-ən), from
the Greek word κατά (katá),
meaning "down", is an ion
with fewer electrons than
protons, giving it a positive
charge. Since the charge on a
proton is equal in magnitude
to the charge on an electron,
the net charge on an ion is
equal to the number of
protons in the ion minus the
number of electrons.
An ion consisting of a single
atom is an atomic or
monatomic ion; if it consists
of two or more atoms, it is a
molecular or polyatomic
ion.

chromosome is an organized
structure of DNA and protein
that is found in cells. It is a
single piece of coiled DNA
containing many genes,
regulatory elements and other
nucleotide sequences.
Chromosomes also contain
DNA-bound proteins, which
serve to package the DNA and
control its
functions.Chromosomes vary
widely between different
organisms. The DNA molecule
may be circular or linear, and
can be composed of 10,000 to
1,000,000,000[1] nucleotides
in a long chain. Typically,
eukaryotic cells (cells with
nuclei) have large linear
chromosomes and prokaryotic
cells (cells without defined
nuclei) have smaller circular
chromosomes, although there
are many exceptions to this
rule. Also, cells may contain
more than one type of
chromosome; for example,
mitochondria in most
eukaryotes and chloroplasts in
plants have their own small
chromosomes.
In eukaryotes, nuclear
chromosomes are packaged
by proteins into a condensed
structure called chromatin.
This allows the very long DNA
molecules to fit into the cell
nucleus. The structure of
chromosomes and chromatin
varies through the cell cycle.
Chromosomes are the
essential unit for cellular
division and must be
replicated, divided, and
passed successfully to their
daughter cells so as to ensure
the genetic diversity and
survival of their progeny.
Chromosomes may exist as
either duplicated or
unduplicated. Unduplicated
chromosomes are single linear
strands, whereas duplicated
chromosomes (copied during
synthesis phase) contain two
copies joined by a centromere
Chromosomes are long,
stringy aggregates of genes
that carry heredity
information. They are
composed of DNA and
proteins and are located
within the nucleus of our cells.
Chromosomes determine
everything from hair color and
eye color to sex. Whether you
are a male or female depends
on the presence or absence of
certain chromosomes.

Human cells contain 23 pairs

of chromosomes for a total of
46. There are 22 pairs of
autosomes and one pair of
sex chromosomes. The sex
chromosomes are the X
chromosome and the Y
chromosome.
chromosome consists of a
single, very long DNA helix on
which thousands of genes are
encoded

Transcription
The process of genetic
transcription produces a
single-stranded RNA molecule
known as messenger RNA,
whose nucleotide sequence is
complementary to the DNA
from which it was transcribed.
Translation
Translation is the process by
which a mature mRNA
molecule is used as a
template for synthesizing a
new protein. Translation is
carried out by ribosomes,
large complexes of RNA and
protein responsible for
carrying out the chemical
reactions to add new amino
acids to a growing polypeptide
chain by the formation of
peptide bonds. The genetic
code is read three nucleotides
at a time, in units called
codons, via interactions with
specialized RNA molecules
called transfer RNA (tRNA).
DNA replication and
inheritance
The growth, development,
and reproduction of organisms
relies on cell division, or the
process by which a single cell
divides into two usually
identical daughter cells. This
requires first making a
duplicate copy of every gene
in the genome in a process
called DNA replication. The
copies are made by
specialized enzymes known as
DNA polymerases, which
"read" one strand of the
double-helical DNA, known as
the template strand, and
synthesize a new
complementary strand.
Because the DNA double helix
is held together by base
pairing, the sequence of one
strand completely specifies
the sequence of its
complement; hence only one
strand needs to be read by
the enzyme to produce a
faithful copy. The process of
DNA replication is
semiconservative; that is, the
copy of the genome inherited
by each daughter cell
contains one original and one
newly synthesized strand of
DNA.[8]
After DNA replication is
complete, the cell must
physically separate the two
copies of the genome and
divide into two distinct
membrane-bound cells.
Interactions with
proteins
All the functions of DNA
depend on interactions with
proteins. These protein
interactions can be non-
specific, or the protein can
bind specifically to a single
DNA sequence. Enzymes can
also bind to DNA and of these,
the polymerases that copy the
DNA base sequence in
transcription and DNA
replication are particularly
important.
Structural proteins that bind
DNA are well-understood
examples of non-specific DNA-
protein interactions. Within
chromosomes, DNA is held in
complexes with structural
proteins. These proteins
organize the DNA into a
compact structure called
chromatin.

Chromatin
 Mass of genetic material
composed of DNA and
proteins that condense to
form chromosomes during
eukaryotic cell division.
Chromatin is located in the
nucleus of a cell.