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Fluids

Basic Properties
Pressure
! Unit – Pascal (N/m2)
Density
! Unit – kg/m3
Viscosity
! Unit – poise (Pa·s)
Pressure Scales
Factors Affecting Pressure (Liquids)

gaspressure,
Gas pressure ppgas
gas

Liquid density, ρ
P = Pgas + ρgh
Factors Affecting Pressure (gas)

P
m⋅R ⋅T
P= = ρ⋅R ⋅T
V
Laminar and Turbulent Flow

(a) Laminar Flow (b) Turbulent Flow

V V
Laminar Flow
Volumetric Flow Rate
L

Area (A)

• V A⋅L
V= = = A⋅v
t t
Mass Flow

m
ρ= m = V ⋅ρ
V
• •
m = V⋅ ρ = A ⋅ v ⋅ ρ
Continuity Principle

What goes in must come out!


V1
V
1
V2 V
2

A1 A2
• • •
m = constant m1 = m 2
A1 ⋅ v1 ⋅ ρ1 = A 2 ⋅ v 2 ⋅ ρ 2
A1 ⋅ v1 = A 2 ⋅ v 2 for liquids
What is the relationship
between v1 and v2?

A2 =1.2A1

A1

1 2

A1 ⋅ v1 = A 2 ⋅ v 2
A1 1
v2 = ⋅ v1 = ⋅ v1 = 0.833v1
A2 1.2
Temperature and Pressure
What happens to volume flow rates?
! Temperature increase
" Liquid
" Gas
! Pressure Increase
" Liquid
" Gas
Energy In a Flowing Fluid
Kinetic energy of moving fluid
Potential energy due to elevation
Pressure energy
! A measure of the work done on the fluid to push it
into the pipe
! Or a measure of work done by the liquid when it
comes out of the pipe
Internal energy
! Heat, intermolecular forces, intra-molecular forces
Elevation Head
P(A) P(B)

CL

Elevation Head = he = h h Potential Energy = ρgh

Floor Datum
Pressure Head

P(A) P(B)

CL

P(A) static pressure of system


Column of water supported by this pressure
p
Pressure Head h =
p
ρg
Velocity Head

P(A) P(B)

CL

P(B) is the static pressure plus the pressure of stopping the fluid
Change the kinetic energy of the fluid to potential energy
v2
hv =
2g
Total Head
hp hv
P(A) P(B)

CL

he ht=he + hp + hv

Floor Datum
Conservation of Energy
1

he1 + hp1 + hv1 + hadded – h removed = he2 + hp2 + hv2 + hloss


Bernoulli's Equation
he1 + hp1 + hv1 + hadded – h removed = he2 + hp2 + hv2 + hloss

v12 p1 v 22 p2
h e1 + + + h added − h lost = h e2 + +
2⋅g ρ⋅g 2⋅g ρ⋅g

Energy is conserved in a flowing fluid!


Energy Grade Line
v2
2 Pressure Grade Line
p
ρ
CL

gh

datum

Ideal Case
Energy
2
v1
2 v 22
Pressure 2
p1 p2
Potential
ρ ρ

gh1 gh2

datum

Energy Loss Due to Flow


Changes at a reduction
v 12
2
v 22
p1 2
ρ
p2
ρ
Venturi
v 12
2

p1
ρ v 22
2
p2
ρ
Reduction and Venturi
2
V
1
2

E ne
rg y
G rad
e L in
e

P re s s u
re
G ra d
p e L in e 2
1 V
2
ρ
2

p
2

V D a tu m L in e ( e p = 0 ) V2
1

V e n tu ri
N o z z le 2
1
Pump and Discharge Valves

2
V2
Ener 2
Grade gy
2 L in e
V1
2
Press
G ra d e u r e p2
Line
ρ
p1
ρ

Datum Line

1 2
Elevation
2 2
V1 V2
A
2 B 2
A 2
B V3
2
Energy Grade
Line
Pressure
Grade Line
p1 p2
ρ ρ
p3
ρ

B
gh2 gh3
A Datum
2 Line 3
1
Simple System
2
v
2

patm
p ρ
ρ

Energy
A Grade Line
patm A Pressure
ρ Grade Line gh
A Datum Line
Siphon
S

A
B
Dousing
U pp e r
D o us in g Ch a m be r
W ater Ta nk

Rise r

D o w nc o m er

L o w er Sp ray
S e al Tan k H e ad e r

PRV
M an ifold
M ain
C h am b e r

P res su re
R elie f D u ct

B a se m e nt
Other Topics
Loop Seals
Buoyancy
Two Phase Flow
Flow of liquid and gas mixture
How Do We Get 2 Phase Flow?
Generate vapour
! Add heat to liquid
! Drop pressure
Generate liquid
! Remove heat from gas
! Increase pressure
Allow dissolved gas to come out of solution
Entrain gas from a leak in
Forms of 2 phase Flow
Little gas bubbles in a liquid
Large gas bubbles in a liquid
A vapour film between a hot surface
and cooling liquid
Small liquid drops in gas flow
Large liquid slugs in gas flow
Stratified Flow
Cavitation
Pressure in a system drops below the
saturation pressure
Vapour bubbles form
Bubbles flow to a place when the
pressure is higher
Bubbles collapse
High speed jets of water appear
Cavitation 2
Cavitation
Potential Cavitation Sites
Suction channels of pumps
Centrifugal pump impellers
Sharp elbows and tees
Down stream of partly open valves
Sudden changes of flow area
Water Hammer
Quickly stopping water flowing in a
pipe.
Slugs of water thrown down a pipe by
steam flow hitting something solid
Water Hammer From Water Slugs
Steam Flow
Waves form on Surface

Low spot at drain Water slugs picked up


exaggerated by rapid moving steam
flow
Closed Drain Valve

Drain Line
Minimizing Water Hammer
Orifice Plate
Water hammer arrestors
Standpipes
Stand Pipe
Pressure build-up
limited by height
of standpipe Spill Spill
Standpipe above normal
level

Normal Liquid Level Original Level

Flow
Valve
Closed
Steam Hammer
Steam bubbles collapse and water at
high speed rushes in and then hits
something solid
Good Operational Practices
Draining of a steam or gas system
Venting and slow priming a liquid
system
Slow valve operation
Starting centrifugal pumps with
discharged valve closed
Delays between pump starts or stops
Apply cool water to Hx first
Solid Operation
Liquid System completely full of water
or other liquid
! Non-compressible
Susceptible to fast pressure transients
! Water hammer
! Velocity Changes
Flow Induced Vibrations
High turbulence
Cavitation
Pressure pulsation
After effects of steam or water hammer

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