CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Tollgates have been very common in countries aboard with the

rise in private participation in roads infrastructure building in India,
tollgates are becoming very common in India too. Mostly in all the
existing tollgates a particular staff (watchman) will be assigned the duty
to continuously monitor the vehicles that are passed by. It involves the
various steps like vehicle authentication, toll payment etc. This really a
huge consuming process for the users and it also obstructs the free
traffic flow or the road.

1.1 OBJECTIVE

In order to overcome the above stated problems the concept of

automated vehicle identification system is being introduced. Using
RFID’s it is possible to authenticate vehicle. The ultimate goal of our
project is to minimize the overall time consumptions in the solutions of
the above problems stated.

Our project will be designed under the consideration that all the
vehicles will be placed with a unique tag and to uniquely the identify
vehicle. This unique tag will be placed at the appropriate position on the
vehicle by the manufactures.

1
1.2 ABOUT OUR PROJECT

It involves the various steps like vehicle authentication, toll

payment etc. This really a huge consuming process for the users and it
also obstructs the free traffic flow or the road. Nowadays, the aspect of
security check is becoming more and important. The vehicle checking
process, that is being carried out currently involves, stopping each
vehicle, asking its owners to produce the required documents like road
tax, vehicle insurance, pollution etc. This is really a time consuming
task.

It’s also a tedious job for the officials, as they have to check each
and every document of all the vehicles at the same time, here RFID
readers will be placed along the roads, which can get the tag ids of all
vehicles that pass through it these by alleviating the overhead in vehicle
checking and carrying out the documents needed for a vehicle.

1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW

1.3.1 RFID DEFINITION

Radio frequency identification, or RFID, is a generic term for

technologies that use radio waves to automatically identify people or
objects. There are several methods of identification, but the most
common is to store a serial number that identifies a person or object, and
perhaps other information, on a microchip that is attached to an antenna
(the chip and the antenna together are called an RFID transponder or an
RFID tag). The antenna enables the chip to transmit the identification
information to a reader. The reader converts the radio waves reflected

2
back from the RFID tag into digital information that can then be passed
on to computers that can make use of it.

The radio frequency part of RFID is the communication medium

between tags and readers. With passive RFID tags, radio frequency is
also used to deliver power to the tag, as they do not have on-board
power systems.

RFID systems are designed to be asymmetric: readers are

expensive and power hungry, whilst tags are cheap and require
comparatively low levels of energy. In addition, there are three key
elements that need to be borne in mind in any discussion of RFID
systems: energy source (which determines if a tag is passive or active),
frequency and memory.

RFID tags come in a variety of different types according to their

functionality, and these types have been defined in an RFID Class
Structure by the Auto-ID Center (and later through EPC Global) (Engels
and Sarma, 2005), which has been subsequently refined and built on.

1.3.2 RFID tags common characteristics

 Low cost, high volume manufacturing to minimize investment

required in implementation.

 Minimal security with tags able to be read by any compactable

reader.

3
  Disposable or one-time use.

 Minimal data storage comparable to bar code, usually a fixed

format written.

 Once the tag is manufactured.

 Read ranges optimized to increase speed and utility.

1.3.3. Advantages of RFID over optical reader (Barcodes)

 Better storage capacity and the fact that they can be reprogrammed.

 Contact less transfer of data between the data carrying device and its
reader.

 The power required to operate to the electronic data carrying device

would also per transferred from the reader using contact less
technology.

An RFID system can be visualized as the sum of the following

three components.

1. RFID tag or transponder

2. RFID reader transceiver
3. Memory
An RFID tag is composed of antenna, a wireless transceiver and
encapsulating material. RFID tags come in three general varieties;

4
Passive, Active, or Semi passive (also known as battery-assisted) active,
semi-passive and passive RFID tags are making RFID technology ore
accessible and prominent in our world. These tags are less expensive to
produce and they can be made small enough to fit on almost any
product.

Most passive RFID tags cost between 7-20 cents. Each [source:
active and semi-passive tags] are more expensive, and RFID
manufactures typically do not quote their range, storage type and
quantity the RFID industry’s goal is to get the cost of a passive RFID
tag down to 5 cents each once more merchandisers adopt it.

An RFID reader consists of an antenna, transceiver and decoder,

which send periodic signals to enquire about any tag in vicinity. On
receiving any signal from a tag it passes on that information to the data
processor.

High frequency (850 MHz-950Mhz and 2.4 GHz-2.5 GHz)

systems, offering long read ranges (greater than 90 fetes) and high
reading speeds, are used for such application as railroad car tracking and
automated toll collection. However, the higher performance of high
frequency RFID system incurs higher system costs.

The specified bands are

• Very long wave(Low frequency) 9-135KHZ
• Short wave(Intermediate frequency) 13.56MHZ
• UHF 400-1200MHZ
• Microwave 2.45-5.8GHZ

5
Various frequencies and their application domain are shown in Table 1.1
FREQUENCY TYPICAL
CHARACTERISTIC
BAND APPLICATION
Access control, Animal
Low Short to medium read range
identification, Inventory
140-500KHZ inexpensive, low reading speed
control, Car immobilizer
Short to medium range,
Intermediate
Potentially inexpensive, Access control, Smart Cards
10-15MHZ
medium reading speed

High Long read range, High reading

Rail road car monitoring,
850-950MHZ speed, Line of sight required,
Toll collection System
24-58GHZ Expensive

Table 1.1 Frequency and Their Application Domain

1.4 RFID APPLICATIONS IN EDUCATION

It is clear that the majority of envisaged commercial applications

for RFID revolve around improving the supply chain, stock control and
logistics and that as consuming entities universities and colleges will
increasingly be handling and working with physical equipment and
resources that involve RFID labelling and tagging (for example,
expensive medical equipment is beginning to be tagged in large
hospitals to allow tracking and prevent loss).

It should be noted that, although it is beyond the scope of this report,

there are health and safety implications for workers using RFID

6
equipment, especially those with active, implanted medical devices such
as cardiac pacemakers.

1.5 EXISTING SYSTEM

Tollgates have been very common in countries aboard with the rise
in private participation in roads infrastructure building in India,
tollgates are becoming very common in India too. Mostly in all the
existing tollgates a particular staff will be assigned the duty to
continuously monitor the vehicles that are passed by. It involves
the various steps like vehicle authentication, toll payment etc. This
really a huge consuming process for the users and it also obstructs
the free traffic flow or the road.

1.6 PROPOSED SYSTEM

The system vehicle identification using RFID levels sample

scope for any further enhancements according to the future demands.
Automated vehicle parking system can be implemented by extending the
capabilities of our project. Making a provision for storage facilities .The
tags can be extended to store the details about the goods carrying
vehicle at the borders of status or counters. The information regarding
the vehicle owner’s validity of license can be also be included as an
enhanced feature. The security mechanism can be implements not only
in company building but also in other institutions.

7
 CHAPTER 2

BLOCK DIAGRAM AND DESCRIPTION OF

RFID BASED HIGHWAY TOLL COLLECTION

2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Memory

Stepper
RFID Motor
Reader

Stepper
Keypad Motor Driver
PIC 16F873A
Microcontroller
IR LCD
TRANSMITTER IR Receiver

Power Supply

Figure 2.1 Block Diagram

2.2 COMPONENTS REQUIRED

1. RFID tag (with unique ID number).

2. RFID reader (for reading the RFID tag).
3. Microcontroller.
4. LCD

8
5. Stepper Motor
6. Stepper Motor Driver
7. Power supply
8. Key Pad
9. Memory
10. IR Sensor

2.2.1 RFID tag

Is a microchip combined with an antenna in a compact package;

the packaging is structured to allow the RFID tag to be attached to an
object to be tracked. "RFID" stands for Radio Frequency Identification.
The tag's antenna picks up signals from an RFID reader or scanner and
then returns the signal, usually with some additional data (like a unique
serial number or other customized information). RFID tags can be very
small - the size of a large rice grain. Others may be the size of a small
paperback book.

2.2.2 RFID reader

Is a device that is used to interrogate an RFID tag. The reader has
an antenna that emits radio waves; the tag responds by sending back its
data.

2.2.3 Microcontroller

The microcontroller is the heart of this project. The

Microcontroller controls all the hardware components. This project uses
an 8-bit micro controller. Almost all mid range family PIC Micro
Controllers will be suitable for this project.

9
2.2.4 LCD

Here we are using a 16 x 2 character LCD to displaying Highway

user information's, settings & instructions to the user.

2.2.5 Stepper Motor

A stepper motor is a brush less, synchronous electric motor that

can divide a full rotation into a large number of steps. The motor's
position can be controlled precisely. Here stepper motor is used for
operating gate.

2.2.6 Stepper Motor Driver

Stepper motor driver used to drive the Stepper Motor.

2.2.7 Power supply

The power supply module will provide the necessary power to

work all the modules. Here we are using +5v dc regulate power supply

2.2.8 Key Pad

Keys are used for operating and setting the module.

2.2.9 Memory
The memory module is used to store the database, i.e. RFID's.
Codes.

10
 CHAPTER 3

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND OPERATION OF RFID

BASED HIGHWAY TOLL COLLECTION

3.1 MAIN CIRCUIT BOARD

Figure 3.1 Circuit Diagram of RFID Based Highway Toll Collection

This is the diagram showing the main board which is having PIC
and LCD interfacing. First of all the voltage from the main supply is
step down using step down transformer and it is further step down to 12
v and it is given to the bridge rectifier and by using voltage regulator
and capacitors it is providing 5 v constant supply to the micro controller.
Power led is used to show the current indication in the board. The reset

11
switch is connected in the first pin. then the crystal oscillator is
connected in the 13 and 14th pin. The LCD is connected to the port D by
using a 10 pin connector. The 10th and 9th pin of the connector is
connected to the vcc and ground.

3.2 LCD DISPLAY

Figure 3.2 Circuit Diagram of LCD Display

This diagram shows the detailed connection of LCD to the port D

of the micro controller. The LCD is having 32 bit character in 2 line, so
that it will show the details having 32 bits in 2 lines. The 4th pin is not
connected to any where of the LCD port.

12
3.2.1 PHYSICAL DATA

3.2.1.1 Item Nominal Dimensions / Available Options Unit

Number of Characters: 16 characters x 2 line -

Character Format: 5 x 7 dots with cursor -
Overall Module Size (W x H x D) : 84.0 x 44.0 x max 14.5 for LED
backlight version : 84.0 x 44.0 x max 9.5 for reflective or EL backlight
version mm
Dot Size (W x H) : 0.55 x 0.65 mm
Dot Pitch (W x H): 0.60 x 0.70 mm
Duty : 1/16
Controller: IC KS0066
LC Fluid Options: STN
Polarizer Options : Reflective, Transflective, Transmissive
Backlight Options : EL, LED
Temperature Range Options: Standard, Wide temp

3.2.2 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS

3.2.2.1 Item Symbol Min Typ Max Unit

Operating temperature (Standard) : Top 0 - 50 °C
Storage temperature (Standard): Tst -20 - 70 °C
Operating temperature (Wide temp) : Top -20 - +70 °C
Storage temperature (Wide temp): Tst -30 - +80 °C
Input voltage : VI VSS - VDD V
Supply voltage for logic : VDD-VSS 0 5.0 6.5 V
Supply voltage for LCD drive (Standard) : VDD-VO 0 - 6.5 V

13
Supply voltage for LCD drive (Wide temp) : VDD-VO 0 - 13.5 V
3.2.3 OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS (Ta = 25°C, VDD = 5.0V ±
0.25V, STN LC Fluid)

3.2.3.1 Item Symbol Condition Min Typ Max Unit

Viewing angle (horizontal): q Cr ³ 2.0 ±30 - ±45 deg

Viewing angle (vertical): f Cr ³ 2.0 60 - 80 deg
Contrast Ratio: Cr f=0°, q=0° 4.5 - 10
Response time (rise): Tr f=0°, q=0° - 120 240 ms
Response time (fall) : Tf f=0°, q=0° - 155 310 ms

3.3 STEPPER MOTOR

Figure 3.3 Circuit Diagram of Stepper Motor

14
 A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts
electrical pulses into discrete mechanical movements. The shaft or
spindle of a stepper motor rotates indiscrete step increments when
electrical command pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence. The
motors rotation has several direct relationships to these applied input
pulses. The sequence of the applied pulses is directly related to the
direction of motor shafts rotation. The speed of the motor shafts rotation
is directly related to the frequency of the input pulses and the length of
rotation is directly related to the number of input pulses applied.

3.3.1 Stepper Motor Advantages and Disadvantages

3.3.1.1 Advantages

1. The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.

2. The motor has full torque at standstill (if the windings are
energized)
3. Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good
stepper motors have an accuracy of3 – 5% of a step and this error
is on cumulative from one step to the next.
4. Excellent response to starting/stopping/reversing.
5. Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor.
Therefore the life of the motor is simply dependant on the life of
the bearing.
6. The motors response to digital input pulses provides open-loop
control, making the motor simpler and less costly to control.
7. It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with
a load that is directly coupled to the shaft.

15
8. A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed It
is proportional to the frequency of the input pulses.

3.3.1.2 Disadvantages
1. Resonances can occur if notproperly controlled.
2. Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds.

3.4 SENSOR BOARD

Figure 3.4 Circuit Diagram of Sensor Board

16
3.5 Flow Chat and descriptions

start

Initialize Port

Welcome Message

Yes
Is
recharge
Mode C
Selected?

No

Is Yes
delete
mode
selected D
?

No

Is lost
mode Yes
selecte E
d?

No

No Is
normal
mode
selecte
d?

Display normal mode

A
Is
RFID
Present
No
?
Yes

Is
number
present B
in data
base?

17
 1

No
Is card
numbe B
r

Yes

Is No
sufficient Display Sufficient balance
balance
available
?
Yes

Reduce tax amount from balance and store in memory

Open gate

No Is exist
sensor
interrupted
?

Yes
Close Gate

18
 C

Is RFID
present?

Is code No
number
present in
data base?

Yes

Add recharge amount in our existing amount and store in memory Store the code number with
minimum recharge
amount

19
 D B

Display invalid card

Delete all data base content

A
STOP

Firstly in our projects we initialize the various ports in our system.

After that welcome message will be displayed on the LCD Panel. Now
Toll Operator must select the various modes in our projects. The various
modes consist of
1. Recharge mode

2. Delete mode

3. Normal mode

4. Report lost

In the recharge mode firstly checks whether RFID card is read by

the RFID reader. If the card exist it checks whether the card is
already present in the data base. If yes, recharge amount is added in
to the account and stored in the memory. If no, the new card is added
in to the data base with the minimum recharge amount.

If delete mode is selected the datas from the data base is

completely removed.

20
 If normal mode is selected in the display normal mode is shown.
There after the RFID Reader checks whether card is present. If no the
above operation is repeated. If yes it checks whether card is present
in our data base. If card is not present LCD displays a message
showing “Invalid Card” . if card is present it checks whether
sufficient balance is available. If no display the message showing
“Insufficient Balance”. If yes reduce toll amount from the balance
and store in memory. There after the toll gate would be opened. If the
vehicle passes the tollgate and if the sensor is interrupted the tollgate
c loses.

In Report lost mode the customer has the option to delete his /her
RFID tag details. When Report lost mode selected it ask for the id of
the customer. If id is entered the RFID would be removed from the
data base.

21
 CHAPTER 4

ABOUT PIC MICROCONTROLLER

4.1. Introduction
The PIC Microcontrollers are supported with a full range of

Hardware and software development tools. The used PIC16F873A

device comes in 28 pin package. To communicate with the PIC we are

using RS-232 standard port of computer. In personal computer, data

transfer takes place serially. RS-232 standard is used for serial

communication. PIC Microcontroller is linked to PC through the RS-

232 port. The PC displays the menu for selecting the calibrating

equipment and all the calibration results graphically and in tabular form.

The user can access the calibration reports, comparison graphs etc at any

time using the menu offered in the PC. To communicate with the PIC

we are using RS-232 port of the computer. So we have to initialize the

port before using it. To initialize and to communicate with the PIC, the

file COM.C defines and uses several functions.

22
4.2. PIN DIAGRAM:

Figure. 4.1 PIN DIAGRAM OF PIC16F873A/876A

4.2.1. DESIGN OVERVIEW

This document contains device specific information about the
following devices:
• PIC16F873A
• PIC16F874A
• PIC16F876A
• PIC16F877A
All devices in the PIC16F87XA family share common
architecture with the following differences:
• The PIC16F873A and PIC16F874A have one-half of the total on-
chip memory of the PIC16F876A and PIC16F877A
• The 28-pin devices have three I/O ports, while the 40/44-pin
devices have five The 28-pin devices have fourteen interrupts,
while the 40/44-pin devices have fifteen

23
• The 28-pin devices have five A/D input channels, while the 40/44-
pin devices have eight

The available features are summarized in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1. PIC16F87XA DEVICE FEATURES

Block diagrams of the PIC16F873A/876A devices are provided in

Figure 4.1 .

24
The pinouts for these device families are listed in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2. PIC16F873A/876A Pinout Description

4.3. MEMORY ORGANIZATION

There are three memory blocks in each of the PIC16F87XA
devices. The program memory and data memory have separate buses so
that concurrent access can occur and is detailed in this section. The
EEPROM data memory block is detailed in “Data EEPROM and Flash
Program Memory”.

25
4.3.1 PROGRAM MEMORY MAP AND STACK
4.3.1.1. Program Memory Organization
PIC16F873A/874A devices have 4K words x 14 bits. Accessing a
location above the physically implemented address will cause a
wraparound. The Reset vector is at 0000h and the interrupt vector is at
0004h.

Figure 4-2: PIC16F873A/874A Program Memory Map And Stack

26
4.3.1.2 Data Memory Organization
The data memory is partitioned into multiple banks which contain
the General Purpose Registers and the Special Function Registers. Bits
RP1 (Status<6>) and RP0 (Status<5>) are the bank select bits. Each
bank extends up to 7Fh (128 bytes). The lower locations of each bank
are reserved for the Special Function Registers. Above the Special
Function Registers are General Purpose Registers, implemented as static
RAM. All implemented banks contain Special Function Registers. Some
frequently used Special Function Registers from one bank may be
mirrored in another bank for code reduction and quicker access.

Table. 4.3 Data Memory Organization

4.4. SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS

The Special Function Registers are registers used by the CPU and
peripheral modules for controlling the desired operation of the device.
These registers are implemented as static RAM. A list of these registers
is given in Table 4-3. The Special Function Registers can be classified
into two sets: core (CPU) and peripheral. Those registers associated with
the core functions are described in detail in this section.

27
4.5. STATUS REGISTER
The Status register contains the arithmetic status of the ALU, the
Reset status and the bank select bits for data memory. The Status
register can be the destination for any instruction, as with any other
register. If the Status register is the destination for an instruction that
affects the Z, DC or C bits, then the write to these three bits is disabled.
These bits are set or cleared according to the device logic. Furthermore,
the TO and PD bits are not writable, therefore, the result of an
instruction with the Status register as destination may be different than
intended. For example, CLRF STATUS, will clear the upper three bits
and set the Z bit. This leaves the Status register as 000u u1uu (where u =
unchanged). It is recommended, therefore, that only BCF, BSF, SWAPF
and MOVWF instructions are used to alter the Status register because
these instructions do not affect the Z, C or DC bits from the Status
register as Table 4.4.

Table 4. 4 Status Register

bit 7 IRP: Register Bank Select bit (used for indirect addressing)
1 = Bank 2, 3 (100h-1FFh)
0 = Bank 0, 1 (00h-FFh)
bit 6-5 RP1:RP0: Register Bank Select bits (used for direct addressing)
11 = Bank 3 (180h-1FFh)
10 = Bank 2 (100h-17Fh)
01 = Bank 1 (80h-FFh)
00 = Bank 0 (00h-7Fh)

28
Each bank is 128 bytes.
bit 4 TO: Time-out bit
1 = After power-up, CLRWDT instruction or SLEEP instruction
0 = A WDT time-out occurred
bit 3 PD: Power-down bit
1 = After power-up or by the CLRWDT instruction
0 = By execution of the SLEEP instruction
bit 2 Z: Zero bit
1 = The result of an arithmetic or logic operation is zero
0 = The result of an arithmetic or logic operation is not zero
bit 1 DC: Digit carry/borrow bit (ADDWF, ADDLW,SUBLW,SUBWF
instructions)
(for borrow, the polarity is reversed)
1 = A carry-out from the 4th low order bit of the result occurred
0 = No carry-out from the 4th low order bit of the result
bit 0 C: Carry/borrow bit (ADDWF, ADDLW,SUBLW,SUBWF
instructions)
1 = A carry-out from the Most Significant bit of the result occurred
0 = No carry-out from the Most Significant bit of the result occurred

4.6 INDIRECT ADDRESSING, INDF AND FSR REGISTERS

The INDF register is not a physical register. Addressing the INDF
register will cause indirect addressing. Indirect addressing is possible by
using the INDF register. Any instruction using the INDF register
actually accesses the register pointed to by the File Select Register, FSR.
Reading the INDF register itself, indirectly (FSR = 0) will read 00h.
Writing to the INDF register indirectly results in a no operation
(although status bits may be affected). An effective 9-bit address is

29
obtained by concatenating the 8-bit FSR register and the IRP bit
(Status<7>).

Figure. 4.3 Indirect Addressing, INDF and FSR Registers

4.6.1. Reading Data EEPROM Memory

To read a data memory location, the user must write the address
to the EEADR register, clear the EEPGD control bit (EECON1<7>) and
then set control bit RD (EECON1<0>). The data is available in the very
next cycle in the EEDATA register; therefore, it can be read in the next
instruction EEDATA will hold this value until another read or until it is
written to by the user (during a write operation). The steps to reading the
EEPROM data memory are:
1. Write the address to EEADR. Make sure that the address is not
larger than the memory size of the device.

30
2. Clear the EEPGD bit to point to EEPROM data memory.
3. Set the RD bit to start the read operation.
4. Read the data from the EEDATA register.

4.6.2. Writing to Data EEPROM Memory

To write an EEPROM data location, the user must first write the
address to the EEADR register and the data to the EEDATA register.
Then the user must follow a specific write sequence to initiate the write
for each byte. The write will not initiate if the write sequence is not
exactly followed (write 55h to EECON2, write AAh to EECON2, then
set WR bit) for each byte. We strongly recommend that interrupts be
disabled during this code segment. Additionally, the WREN bit in
EECON1 must be set to enable write. This mechanism prevents
accidental writes to data EEPROM due to errant (unexpected) code
execution (i.e., lost programs). The user should keep the WREN bit
clear at all times, except when updating EEPROM. The WREN bit is
not cleared by hardware After a write sequence has been initiated,
clearing the WREN bit will not affect this write cycle. The WR bit will
be inhibited from being set unless the WREN bit is set. At the
completion of the write cycle, the WR bit is cleared in hardware and the
EE Write Complete Interrupt Flag bit (EEIF) is set. The user can either
enable this interrupt or poll this bit. EEIF must be cleared by software.

The steps to write to EEPROM data memory are:

1. If step 10 is not implemented, check the WR bit to see if a write is
in progress.
2. Write the address to EEADR. Make sure that the address is not
larger than the memory size of the device.

31
3. Write the 8-bit data value to be programmed in the EEDATA
register.
4. Clear the EEPGD bit to point to EEPROM data memory.
5. Set the WREN bit to enable program operations.
6. Disable interrupts (if enabled).
7. Execute the special five instruction sequence:
• Write 55h to EECON2 in two steps (first to W, then to EECON2)
• Write AAh to EECON2 in two steps (firstto W, then to EECON2)
• Set the WR bit
8. Enable interrupts (if using interrupts).
9. Clear the WREN bit to disable program operations.
10. At the completion of the write cycle, the WR bit is cleared and the
EEIF interrupt flag bit is set. (EEIF must be cleared by firmware.) If
step 1 is not implemented, then firmware should check for EEIF to be
set, or WR to clear, to indicate the end of the program cycle.

4.7. Power-down Mode (Sleep)

Power-down mode is entered by executing a SLEEP instruction.
If enabled, the Watchdog Timer will be cleared but keeps running, the
PD bit (Status<3>) is cleared, the TO (Status<4>) bit is set and the
oscillator driver is turned off. The I/O ports maintain the status they had
before the SLEEP instruction was executed (driving high, low or high-
impedance).

For lowest current consumption in this mode, place all I/O pins at
either VDD or VSS, ensure no external circuitry is drawing current from
the I/O pin, power down the A/D and disable external clocks. Pull all
I/O

32
pins that are high-impedance inputs, high or low externally, to avoid
switching currents caused by floating inputs. The T0CKI input should
also be at VDD or VSS for lowest current consumption. The
contribution from on-chip pull-ups on PORTB should also be
considered.
The MCLR pin must be at a logic high level (VIHMC).

4.8. WAKE-UP FROM SLEEP

The device can wake-up from Sleep through one of the following
events:
1. External Reset input on MCLR pin.
2. Watchdog Timer wake-up (if WDT was enabled).
3. Interrupt from INT pin, RB port change or peripheral interrupt.

External MCLR Reset will cause a device Reset. All other events
are considered a continuation of program execution and cause a “wake-
up”. The TO and PD bits in the Status register can be used to determine
the cause of device Reset. The PD bit, which is set on power-up, is
cleared when Sleep is invoked. The TO bit is cleared if a WDT time-out
occurred and caused wake-up. The following peripheral interrupts can
wake the device from Sleep:

1. PSP read or write (PIC16F874/877 only).

2. TMR1 interrupt. Timer1 must be operating as an asynchronous
counter.
3. CCP Capture mode interrupt.
4. Special event trigger (Timer1 in Asynchronous mode using an
external clock).

33
5. SSP (Start/Stop) bit detect interrupt.
6. SSP transmit or receive in Slave mode (SPI/I2C).
7. USART RX or TX (Synchronous Slave mode).
8. A/D conversion (when A/D clock source is RC).
9. EEPROM write operation completion.
10. Comparator output changes state.
Other peripherals cannot generate interrupts since during Sleep,
no on-chip clocks are present.

When the SLEEP instruction is being executed, the next

instruction (PC + 1) is prefetched. For the device to wake-up through an
interrupt event, the corresponding interrupt enable bit must be set
(enabled). Wake-up is regardless of the state of the GIE bit. If the GIE
bit is clear (disabled), the device continues execution at the instruction
after the SLEEP instruction. If the GIE bit is set (enabled), the device
executes the instruction after the SLEEP instruction and then branches
to the interrupt address (0004h). In cases where the execution of the
instruction following SLEEP is not desirable, the user should have a
NOP after the SLEEP instruction.

4.9. WAKE-UP USING INTERRUPTS

When global interrupts are disabled (GIE cleared) and any
interrupt source has both its interrupt enable bit and interrupt flag bit set,
one of the following will occur:
• If the interrupt occurs before the execution of a SLEEP
instruction, the SLEEP instruction will complete as a NOP. Therefore,
the WDT and WDT postscaler will not be cleared, the TO bit will not be
set and PD bits will not be cleared.

34
• If the interrupt occurs during or after the execution of a SLEEP
instruction, the device will immediately wake-up from Sleep. The
SLEEP instruction will be completely executed before the wake-up.
Therefore, the WDT and WDT postscaler will be cleared, the TO bit
will be setand the PD bit will be cleared. Even if the flag bits were
checked before executing a SLEEP instruction, it may be possible for
flag bits to become set before the SLEEP instruction completes. To
determine whether a SLEEP instruction executed, test the PD bit. If the
PD bit is set, the SLEEP instruction was executed as a NOP. To ensure
that the WDT is cleared, a CLRWDT instruction should be executed
before a SLEEP instruction.

35
 CHAPTER 5

DESCRIPTION OF HARDWARE COMPONENTS

5.1 POWER SUPPLY

A power supply is a device that supplies electrical energy to one

or more electric loads. The term is most commonly applied to devices
that convert one form of electrical energy to another, though it may also
refer to devices that convert another form of energy (e.g., mechanical,
chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one
that controls the output voltage or current to a specific value; the
controlled value is held nearly constant despite variations in either load
current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source.
Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as
well as any energy it consumes while performing that task, from an
energy source. A power supply may be implemented as a discrete,
stand-alone device or as an integral device that is hardwired to its load.
In the latter case, for example, low voltage DC power supplies are
commonly integrated with their loads in devices such as computers and
household electronics.

An AC powered unregulated power supply usually uses a

transformer to convert the voltage from the wall outlet (mains) to a
different, nowadays usually lower, voltage. If it is used to produce DC, a
rectifier is used to convert alternating voltage to a pulsating direct
voltage, followed by a filter, comprising one or more capacitors,
resistors, and sometimes inductors, to filter out (smooth) most of the

36
pulsation. A small remaining unwanted alternating voltage component at
mains or twice mains power frequency (depending upon whether half-
or full-wave rectification is used) ripple is unavoidably superimposed on
the direct output voltage.

For purposes such as charging batteries the ripple is not a

problem, and the simplest unregulated mains-powered DC power supply
circuit consists of a transformer driving a single diode in series with a
resistor.

Before the introduction of solid-state electronics, equipment

used valves (vacuum tubes) which required high voltages; power
supplies used step-up transformers, rectifiers, and filters to generate one
or more direct voltages of some hundreds of volts, and a low alternating
voltage for filaments. Only the most advanced equipment used
expensive and bulky regulated power supplies.

5.2 MICROCONTROLLER:
5.2.1 DEFINITION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

It is any computer system or computing device that performs a

dedicated function or is designed for use with a specified embedded
software application. It is also defined as some combination of hardware
and software either in capability or programmable that is designed for
specific application. Certain operating system or language platforms for
embedded systems are embedded java and windows xp embedded.

37
5.2.2 IMPORTANCE OF MICROPROCESSOR
A microprocessor is a multipurpose programmable clock driven,
register based electronic device that reads binary instruction from a
storage device called memory, accept binary data as input and processes
data according to those instruction, and provides result as output. A
typical programmable machine can be represented with three
components microprocessor, memory and I/O. These three components
work together or interact with each other to perform a given task. The
physical components of the system are called hardware. A set of
instruction written for the microprocessor to perform a task is called
program, and a group of program is called software.
Microprocessor can be divided into three segments. They are
1) ALU
2) Register array
3) Control unit

5.2.3 Arithmetic logic unit

This is the area of the microprocessor where various computing

functions are performed on data. The ALU performs arithmetic
operations such as addition, subtraction and the logical operations such
as AND, OR, XOR etc,

5.2.4 Register array

The microprocessor consists of various registers identified by

letters such as B, C, D, E, and H & L .These registers are primarily used
to store data temporarily during the execution of the program and are
accessible to the user through instruction.

38
5.2.5 Control Unit

The control unit provides the necessary timing and control signals
to all the operation in the microcomputers. It controls the flow of data
between the microprocessor, memory and peripherals.

5.2.6 Memory
There are two types of memory, they are ROM & RAM.
ROM is used to store the user programs and data.
RAM is to read and write the program.

5.2.7 Input/Output

Input/output communicates with the outside world. I/O includes

two types of devices; they are inputs and also known as peripheral
devices.
The system bus is a communication path between the
microprocessor and peripherals. It is nothing but a group of wires to
carry bits. All the peripherals share the same bus.

5.2.8 IMPORTANCE OF MICRO CONTROLLER

Micro controller can be defined by many ways. One such

definition is a microprocessor on a single integrated circuit intended to
operate as an embedded system. As well as a CPU, a micro controller
includes small amounts of RAM, ROM, timers and input/output ports.
One such example is Intel 8751, which is designed by Intel but
manufactured by Philips, AMD, and Siemens etc.

39
 Usually micro controller have two different architectures, they are
RISC and CISC architectures. Intel designs RISC based micro
controllers whereas CISC based micro controllers are given by
Motorola. The micro controllers are available in N-channel Metal Oxide
Silicon (NMOS) and complementary Metal Oxide Silicon (CMOS)
construction in a variety of package types. The first micro controller is
8031 within built ROM and it is programmed using UVEPROM but it
took around 30ms for clearing and programming.

5.2.9 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN µC & µP

 The µp are used intended to be general purpose digital computers

whereas µc are untended to be special purpose digital controllers.
 The µp contains only CPU but µc consists of CPU, timers,
Parallel and serial I/O.
 The µp has few bit manipulating instructions whereas the µc has
large number of bit manipulating instructions.
 No SFR is available in µp but in µc SFR are available.
 In µp no external memory are added but in µc the external
memory can be added.

5.2.10 ADVANTAGES OF THE MICROCONTROLLER

 Microcontroller contains all the essential elements of a
microcomputer on a single chip and hence can functions as a
computer with the addition of no external digital parts.

 For building simple products use of microcontroller reduce the

cost, space. PCB size and cost of design.

40
 The pins of microcontroller are “programmable” that is, capable of
having several different function depends on the programmer.

 Microcontroller has many bit handling instructions and hence

controlling is more effective.
 Time taken to complete a control function using microcontroller is
less.
 The system is more reliable
 The overall system cost is low
 The µc size is very small
 The system is very easy to
troubleshoot and maintain
 Additional RAM,ROM and I/O ports
can be interfaced

5.2.11 APPLICATIONS OF THE MICROCONTROLLER

 Used to engine control in auto mobiles like cars, two wheelers,
etc.,
 The microcontroller is used in home, office, and industries as
security systems.
 Used in climate control in Air Conditioners.
 Used in laser printers as well as color printers
 Used in cellular phones, home computers, TVs, etc.,

5.3 RFID READER

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Card Readers provide a
low-cost solution to read passive RFID transponder tags up to 7 cm

41
away. This RFID Card Reader can be used in a wide variety of hobbyist
and commercial applications, including access control, automatic
identification, robotics navigation, inventory tracking, payment systems,
and car immobilization. The RFID card reader read the RFID tag in
range and outputs unique identification
code of the tag at baud rate of 9600. The data from RFID reader can be
interfaced to be read by microcontroller or PC.

5.3.1 Features
· Low-cost method for reading passive RFID transponder tags
· 9600 bps serial interface at 5V TTL level for direct interface to
microcontrollers
· Buzzer & LED indicate valid RFID Tag detection
· Range up to 7 cm for 125 Khz RFID Cards

5.3.2 Information

Each transponder tag contains a unique identifier (one of 240, or

1,099,511,627,776 possible combinations) that is read by the RFID Card
Reader and transmitted to the host via a simple serial interface.

42
5.3.3 Communication
When the RFID Card Reader is active and a valid RFID
transponder tag is placed within range of the activated reader, the unique
ID will be transmitted as a 12-byte printable ASCII string serially to the
host in the following format:

The start byte and stop byte are used to easily identify that a
correct string has been received from the reader (they correspond to a
line feed and carriage return characters, respectively). The middle ten
bytes are the actual tag's unique ID.

For example, for a tag with a valid ID of 0F0184F07A, the

following ASCII data would be sent 0F0184F07A
Same data in HEX bytes can be interpreted as:
0x0A, 0x30, 0x46, 0x30, 0x31, 0x38, 0x34, 0x46, 0x30, 0x37, 0x41,
0x0D

All communication is 8 data bits, no parity, 1 stop bit, and least

significant bit first (8N1).The baud rate is configured for 9600 bps, a
standard communications speed supported by most any microprocessor
or PC, and cannot be changed. The RFID Card Reader initiates all
communication. This allows easy access to the serial data stream from
any programming language that can open a COM port.

5.3.4 Using RFID Reader

When powered on the RFID reader will activate a RF field
waiting for a tag to come into its range. Once tag is detected, its unique
ID number is read and data is sent via serial interface. The valid tag

43
detecting is indicated by LED blink and Buzzer beep. The face of the
RFID tag should be held parallel to the front of the antenna (where the
majority of RF energy is focused). If the tag is held sideways
(perpendicular to the antenna) you may have difficulty getting the tag to
be read. Only one transponder tag should be held up to the antenna at
any time. The use of multiple tags at one time will cause tag collisions
and confuse the reader. The tags available with us have a read distance
of approximately 7 cm. Actual distance may vary slightly depending on
the size of the transponder tag and environmental conditions of the
application.

5.3.5 Connecting to Microcontroller

Connect data output pin of RFID reader to RXD pin of any
microcontroller and configure your MCU to receive data at 9600 baud
rate. You also have to keep common ground signal between RFID
reader and microcontroller.

5.3.6 Connecting to PC Using Serial Port

Since the PC uses RS232 level you cannot directly connect the
data output of RFID reader. This might damage the reader. The reader
outputs 5V level signal. You can use a MAX232 level conversion to
convert 5V signal to RS232 level signal.

5.3.7 RFID Technology Overview

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a generic term for non-
contacting technologies that use radio waves to automatically identify
people or objects. There are several methods of identification, but the
most common is to store a unique serial number that identifies a person

44
or object on a microchip that is attached to an antenna. The combined
antenna and microchip are called an "RFID transponder" or "RFID tag"
and work in combination with an "RFID reader" (sometimes called an
"RFID interrogator").

An RFID system consists of a reader and one or more tags. The

reader's antenna is used to transmit radio frequency (RF) energy.
Depending on the tag type, the energy is "harvested" by the tag's
antenna and used to power up the internal circuitry of the tag. The tag
will then modulate the electromagnetic waves generated by the reader in
order to transmit its data back to the reader. The reader receives the
modulated waves and converts them into digital data. There are two
major types of tag technologies. "Passive tags" are tags that do not
contain their own power source or transmitter. When radio waves from
the reader reach the chip’s antenna, the energy is converted by the
antenna into electricity that can power up the microchip in the
tag(known as "parasitic power"). The tag is then able to send back any
information stored on the tag by reflecting the electromagnetic waves as
described above. "Active tags" have their own power source and
transmitter. The power source, usually a battery, is used to run the
microchip's circuitry and to broadcast a signal to a reader. Due to the
fact that passive tags do not have their own transmitter and must reflect
their signal to the reader, the reading distance is much shorter than with
active tags. However, active tags are typically larger, more expensive,
and require occasional service. This RFID Card Reader is designed
specifically for passive tags. Frequency refers to the size of the radio
waves used to communicate between the RFID system components. Just
as you tune your radio to different frequencies in order to hear different

45
radio stations, RFID tags and readers must be tuned to the same
frequency in order to communicate effectively.

There really is no such thing as a "typical" RFID tag. The read

range of a tag ultimately depends on many factors: the frequency of
RFID system operation, the power of the reader, environmental
conditions, physical size of the tags antenna and interference from other
RF devices. Balancing a number of engineering trade-offs (antenna size
v. reading distance v. power v. manufacturing cost), this RFID Card
Reader's antenna was designed with a RFID operation at a tag read
distance of around 7 cm.

5.4 STEPPER MOTOR

A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts

electrical pulses into discrete mechanical movements. The shaftor
spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete step increments when
electrical command pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence. The
motors rotation has several direct relationships to these applied input
pulses. The sequence of the applied pulses is directly related to the
direction of motor shafts rotation. The speed of the motor shafts rotation
is directly related to the frequency of the input pulses and the length of
rotation is directly related to the number of input pulses applied.

5.4.1 Stepper Motor Advantages and Disadvantages

5.4.1.1 Advantages
1. The rotation angle of the motor isproportional to the input pulse.

46
2. The motor has full torque at standstill(if the windings are
energized)
3. Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good
stepper motors have an accuracy of 3 – 5% of a step and this
error is non cumulative from one step to the next.
4. Excellent response to starting/stopping/reversing.
5. Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor.
Therefore the life of the motor is simply dependant on the life of
the bearing.
6. The motors response to digital input pulses provides open-loop
control, making the motor simpler and less costly to control.
7. It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with
a load that is directly coupled to the shaft.
8. A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is
proportional to the frequency of the input pulses.

5.4.1.2Disadvantages
1. Resonances can occur if not properly controlled.
2. Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds.

5.4.2 Open Loop Operation

One of the most significant advantages of a stepper motor is its
ability to be accurately controlled in an open loop system. Open loop
control means no feedback information about position is needed. This
type of control eliminates the need for expensive sensing and feedback
devices such as optical encoders. Your position is known simply by
keeping track of the input step pulses.

5.4.3 Stepper Motor Types

47
There are three basic stepper motor types. They are :
• Variable-reluctance
• Permanent-magnet
• Hybrid

5.4.3.1 Variable-reluctance (VR)

Figure 4.4.1 Cross-section of a variable reluctance

(VR) motor.

This type of stepper motor has been around for a long time. It is
probably the easiest to understand from a structural point of view.
Figure 1 shows a cross section of a typical V.R. stepper motor. This type
of motor consists of a soft iron multi-toothed rotor and a wound stator.
When the stator windings are energized with DC current the poles
become magnetized. Rotation occurs when the rotor teeth are attracted
to the energized stator poles.

5.4.3.2 Permanent Magnet (PM)

48
 Often referred to as a “tin can” or “canstock” motor the
permanentmagnet step motor is a low cost andlow resolution type motor
with typicalstep angles of 7.5° to 15°. (48 – 24steps/revolution) PM
motors as the name implies have permanent magnets added to the motor
structure.The rotor no longer has teeth as with the VR motor. Instead the
rotor is magnetized with alternating north and south poles situated in a
straight line parallel to the rotor shaft. These magnetized rotor poles
provide an increased magnetic flux intensity and because of this the PM
motor exhibits improved torque characteristics when compared with the
VR type.

5.4.3.3 Hybrid (HB)

The hybrid stepper motor is more expensive than the PM stepper
motor but provides better performance with respect to step resolution,
torque and speed. Typical step angles for the HB stepper motor range
from 3.6° to 0.9°

(100 – 400 steps per revolution). The hybrid stepper motor

combines the best features of both the PM and VR type stepper motors.
The rotor ismulti-toothed like the VR motor and contains an axially
magnetized concentric magnet around its shaft. The teeth on the rotor
provide an even better path which helps guide the magnetic flux to
preferred locations in the airgap. This further increases the detent,
holding and dynamic torque characteristics of the motor when compared
with both the VR and PM types. The two most commonly used types of
stepper motors are the permanent magnet and the hybrid types. If a
designer is not sure which type will best fit his applications requirement
she should first evaluate the PM type as it is normally several times less

49
expensive. If not then the hybrid motor may be the right choice.There
also exist some special stepper motor designs. One is the discmagnet
motor. Here the rotor is designed disc with rare earth magnets. This
motor type has some advantages such as very low inertia and a
optimized magnetic flow path with no coupling between the two stator
windings. These qualities are essential in some applications.

5.4.4 Size and Power

In addition to being classified by their step angle stepper motors
are also classified according to frame sizes which correspond to the
diameter of the body of the motor. For instance a size 11 stepper motor
has a body diameter of approximately 1.1 inches. Likewise a size 23
stepper motor has a body diameter of 2.3 inches (58 mm), etc. The body
length may however, vary from motor to motor within the same frame
size classification. As a general rule the available torque output from a
motor of a particular frame size will increase with increased body
length.

5.4.5 Torque Generation

The torque produced by a stepper motor depends on several factors.
• The step rate
• The drive current in the windings
• The drive design or type
In a stepper motor a torque is developed when the magnetic
fluxes of the rotor and stator are displaced from each other. The stator is
made up of a high permeability magnetic material. The presence of this
high permeability material causes the magnetic flux to be confined for
the most part to the paths defined by the stator structure in the same

50
fashion that currents are confined to the conductors of an electronic
circuit. This serves to concentrate the flux at the stator poles. The torque
output produced by the motor is proportional to the intensity of the
magnetic flux generated when the
winding is energized. The basic relationship which defines the intensity
of the magnetic flux is defined by:
H = (N ´ i) ¸ l where:
N = The number of winding turns
i = current
H = Magnetic field intensity
l = Magnetic flux path length

This relationship shows that the magnetic flux intensity and

consequently the torque is proportional to the number of winding turns
and the current and inversely proportional to the length of the magnetic
flux path. From this basic relationship one can see that the same frame
size stepper motor could have very different torque output capabilities
simply by changing the winding parameters. More detailed information
on how the winding parameters affect the output capability of the motor
can be found in the application note entitled “Drive Circuit Basics”.

51
 TIN-CAN STEPPER MOTOR

Figure 5.4.2 Principle of a PM or tin-can stepper motor

52
 HYBRID STEPPER MOTOR

Figure 5.4.3 Cross-section of a hybrid stepper motor

A pole can be defined as one of the regions in a magnetized body

where the magnetic flux density is concentrated. Both the rotor and the
stator of a step motor have poles. Figure 2 contains a simplified picture
of a two-phase stepper motor having 2 poles (or 1 pole pairs) for each
phase on the stator, and 2 poles (one pole pair) on the rotor. In reality
several more poles are added to both the rotor and stator structure in
order to increase the number of steps per revolution of the motor, or in
other words to provide a smaller basic (full step) stepping angle. The

53
permanent magnet stepper motor contains an equal number of rotor and
stator pole pairs.

5.5 LCD DISPLAY

A liquid crystal display (commonly abbreviated LCD) is a

thin, flat display device made up of any number of color or monochrome
pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. It is often utilized in
battery-powered electronic devices because it uses very small amounts
of electric power.

Liquid Crystal Display. A type of display used especially in small

portable electronic devices. A type of display, usually numerical, used in
electronic equipment. Dark characters are formed on a lighter
background. Requires external back lighting to be visible under low-
light conditions.

One of the most popular output devices for embedded electronics

is LCD. The LCD interface has become very simple. This is due to the
availability modules for LCDs. The LCD along with necessary
controller (LCD Controller) and mounting facility is made available in
the module itself. The LCD controller takes care of everything necessary
for the LCD. We communicate with the LCD controller with the help of
a command set provided by the manufacturer.

5.5.1 FEATURES
 Wide viewing angle and high contrast.
 5 to 7 dot character matrix with cursor.

54
  Compact and light weight for easy assembly to the host

instrument.
 Operable on single 5 V power supply.
 Low power consumption.
5.5.2 OVERVIEW

Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules

aligned between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters,
the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases)
perpendicular to each other. With no liquid crystal between the
polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked
by the second (crossed) polarizer.

The surfaces of the electrodes that are in contact with the liquid
crystal material are treated so as to align the liquid crystal molecules in a
particular direction. This treatment typically consists of a thin polymer
layer that is unidirectional rubbed using, for example, a cloth. The
direction of the liquid crystal alignment is then defined by the direction
of rubbing.

Before applying an electric field, the orientation of the liquid

crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces. In a
twisted pneumatic device (still the most common liquid crystal device),
the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular
to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical
structure, or twist.

Because the liquid crystal material is bi refringent, light passing

through one polarizing filter is rotated by the liquid crystal helix as it

55
passes through the liquid crystal layer, allowing it to pass through the
second polarized filter. Half of the incident light is absorbed by the first
polarizing filter, but otherwise the entire assembly is transparent.

When a voltage is applied across the electrodes, a torque acts to

align the liquid crystal molecules parallel to the electric field, distorting
the helical structure. This reduces the rotation of the polarization of the
incident light, and the device appears gray. If the applied voltage is large
enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center of the layer are almost
completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not
rotated as it passes through the Liquid crystal layer. This light will then
be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be
blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage
applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed
to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of
gray.

The optical effect of a twisted pneumatic device in the voltage-on

state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that
in the voltage-off state. Because of this, these devices are usually
operated between crossed polarizer’s such that they appear bright with
no voltage. These devices can also be operated between parallel
polarizer’s, in which case the bright and dark states are reversed. The
voltage-off dark state in this configuration appears blotchy, however,
because of small thickness variations across the device.

Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material
contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is
applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the

56
 surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by
applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the
electric field as the device is addressed.

When a large number of pixels is required in a display, it is not

feasible to drive each directly since then each pixel would require
independent electrodes. Instead, the display is multiplexed. In a
multiplexed display, electrodes on one side of the display are grouped
and wired together (typically in columns), and each group gets its own
voltage source. On the other side, the electrodes are also grouped
(typically in rows); with each group getting a voltage sink. The groups
are designed so each pixel has a unique, unshared combination of source
and sink. The electronics or the software driving the electronics then
turns on sinks in sequence, and drives sources for the pixels of each
sink.

5.5.3 SPECIFICATIONS
Important factors to consider when evaluating an LCD monitor

• Resolution: The horizontal and vertical size expressed in pixels

(e.g., 1024x768). Unlike CRT monitors, LCD monitors have a native-
supported resolution for best display effect.
• Dot pitch: The distance between the centers of two adjacent
pixels. The smaller the dot pitches size, the fewer granularities are
present, resulting in a sharper image. Dot pitch may be the same both
vertically and horizontally, or different (less common).
• Viewable size: The size of an LCD panel measured on the
diagonal (more specifically known as active display area).

57
• Response time: The minimum time necessary to change a pixel's
color or brightness.
• Matrix type: Active or Passive.
• Viewing angle: (coll., more specifically known as viewing
direction).
• Color support: How many types of colors are supported (coll.,
more specifically known as color gamut).
• Brightness: The amount of light emitted from the display (coll.,
more specifically known as luminance).
• Contrast ratio: The ratio of the intensity of the brightest bright to
the darkest dark.
• Aspect ratio: The ratio of the width to the height (for example,
4:3, 16:9 or 16:10).
• Input ports (e.g., DVI, VGA, LVDS, or even S-Video and
HDMI).

5.6 Positive Voltage Regulator

5.6.1 Features

• Output Current up to 1A
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V
• Thermal Overload Protection
• Short Circuit Protection
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

5.6.2 Description

The KA78XX/KA78XXA series of three-terminal positive

regulator are available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several

58
fixed output voltages, making them useful in a wide range of
applications. Each type employs internal Current limiting, thermal shut
down and safe operating area protection, making it essentially
indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver
over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain
adjustable voltages and currents.

Figure.5.4. Pin diagram of Voltage Regulator

59
 Figure. 5.5. Block diagram of Voltage Regulator

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION & FUTURE ENHANCEMENT

6.1. CONCLUSION

Toll gate automation using RFID has been a successful project

with all its hits and pits. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) provide
a low-cost solution to read passive RFID transponder tags. This RFID
can be used in a wide variety of hobbyist and commercial applications,
including access control, automatic identification, robotics navigation,
inventory tracking, payment systems, and car immobilization. The RFID
read the RFID tag in range and outputs unique identification code of the
tag. The data from RFID reader can be interfaced to be read by
microcontroller or PC.

By using radio frequency technology and employing the use of

RFID tag reader to initiate radio signals, RFID tags make it possible to
collect toll from the highway customers.

In our project by RFID technology we can automatically collect

payment from the RFID card holders. Here we can also display the user
balance through the LCD panel. So it helps in reducing the Traffic
block found near the toll gate.

60
 RFID tags have completely revolutionized the way we live.
However the scheme can be readily implemented in field of Tollgate
system is Security system. Theft detects as well as in the field of
automated vehicle identification system can be extended to several areas
in the coming days.
6.2. FUTURE ENHANCEMENT
The system vehicle identification using RFID levels sample scope
for any further enhancements according to the future demands.

 Automated vehicle parking system can be implemented by

extending the capabilities of our project.

 Making a provision for storage facilities .The tags can be extended

to store the details about the goods carrying vehicle at the borders of
status or counters.

 The information regarding the vehicle owner’s validity of license

can be also be included as an enhanced feature.

 The security mechanism can be implements not only in company

building but also in other institutions.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] S. Lauren, B. Mariko (2007, June 20). Electronic Toll Collection

[Online]. Available: http://www.atm.com

[2] M. Ayoub Khan, S. Manoj and R. B. Prahbu “A Survey of RFID

Tags”, International Journal of Recents Trends in Engineering,
vol 1, no 4, May 2009

[3] Electronic Toll Collection, America’s Transportation Network.

[4] N. Gabriel, I. Mitraszewska, K. Tomasz, “The Polish Pilot Project

of Automatic Toll Collection System”, Proceedings of the 6th
International Scientific Conference TRANSBALTICA, 2009.

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[5] R. Weinstein, RFID: a technical overview and its application to the
enterprise, IT Professional, Vol. 7, no. 3,pp. 27-33, May-June
2005.

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