2 TWO-SLIT INTERFERENCE

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The interference of light was fundamental to the Wave Theory becoming the accepted model
for the transmission of light in the early 19th century. This lab will demonstrate the interference
of light through three different experiments: Young’s Double Slit, Fresnel’s Biprism and
Lloyd’s Mirror.

2.2 MICROMETER CALIBRATION

2.2.1 OVERVIEW
Measurements of the fringe spacing in the interference patterns that will be investigated are
made using a micrometer attached to a telemicroscope. To ensure the measurements are
accurate, the micrometer must be calibrated to determine what the change in the position of
the micrometer correlates to in terms of real distance across the imaging plane.

2.2.2 BACKGROUND THEORY

a) Calibration
The micrometer has markings from 0-99 on the dial, however these numbers cannot be
interpreted as a real distance across the plane where the interference fringes will be
formed. A calibration is required to determine what the numbers on the dial actually
represent, which can be done by viewing an object that has markings of known
spacing. The number of micrometer units counted as the dial moves between the
markings on the reference object will determine the calibration factor.

2.2.3 APPARATUS

a) Sodium Lamp
The Sodium lamp emits light at wavelength λ = 0.5893 µ m. The lamp will need to
warm up for about 5 minutes before it can be used. Do not turn the lamp off during the
course of the lab session.

b) Single Slit
The single slit is mounted on a large black
plate with posts set at right angles to each
other allowing it to be mounted vertically and
horizontally. The slit itself is symmetrically
adjustable using the thumbscrew at the top of
the plate. The carriage that holds the plate has
controls to adjust the position of the slit
horizontally with respect to the optical bench.

c) Optical Bench and Components Figure 2.1 Schematic of single slit.

The optical bench is approximately 1 metre
long, sufficient length for these experiments. The components used can be mounted on
carriages that slide along the bench and have calibrated vernier scales to enable
accurate determination of their position. The carriage height can be adjusted, but the
horizontal position of the mount is fixed. The components have slots in their base to fit
onto the carriages. Actual separation of the optical components is achieved using a

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 spacer rod of length 25.0± 0.1cm. Instructions on the use of the rod can be found in
Section x.3.3c of the Fraunhofer Diffraction lab.

d) Graticule Slide
The graticule slide is a glass slide
with markings spaced at 1mm
intervals across the surface. The
mount used to hold the slide has
spring clips to keep it in position.
This mount can be then attached to
a carriage on the optical bench.

e) Telemicroscope
The telemicroscope has a fixed
mounting onto a carriage that allows
it to slide along the optical bench.
The separation between the
objective and eyepiece lenses is Figure 2.2 Telemicroscope with micrometer in
fixed, requiring the telemicroscope vertical position.
to be moved in order to bring
objects into focus. The height and rotation can be adjusted by loosening the screw near
the base of the mount. Attached to the telemicroscope is a micrometer, which is
rotatable around the optical axis of the system. Loosening the locking screw allows the
assembly to not only rotate, but also to slide backward. When rotating the micrometer,
ensure it is also positioned as far onto the telemicroscope as possible. The dial on the
micrometer ranges from 0 to 99, and it controls the movement of a set of crosshairs
across the viewing plane. There are also numbered lines in the viewing field, which can
be ignored for the purposes of this experiment.

2.2.4 EXPERIMENTAL WORK

a) Initial Adjustment
Turn on the sodium lamp and ensure the single slit is mounted in the vertical position
and the micrometer on the telemicroscope is in the horizontal position. Once the
sodium lamp has warmed up, adjust the position of the telemicroscope so that an
image of the slit can be seen. Slide the telemicroscope back and make sure that light
from the slit can still be observed. Check this is the case along the length of the optical
bench.

b) Calibration
Insert the graticule slide into the spring mount and place it on one of the carriages.
Position the carriage on the optical bench about 10-15 cm from the slit, then move the
telemicroscope so that the objective lens is only a few centimetres from the slide.
Looking through the eyepiece, move the telemicroscope back until the lines marked on
the graticule slide come into sharp focus. Align the crosshairs on the left-most line and
record the position of the micrometer. Move the crosshairs until they are aligned with
the next marking on the slide, taking careful note of the number of revolutions the dial
has turned, and record the new position of the micrometer. Repeat this for all the lines
in the field of view.
Question (a) Based on the average number of micrometer units required
to move from one line to the next, what is the calibration factor for the
micrometer?

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c) Working Distance
Using the spacer rod, determine the actual separation between the front of the
telemicroscope lens and the graticule slide while it is in focus. This is the distance in
front of the lens that the telemicroscope is focussed and is known as the working
distance. This value will be important for all measurements made with the
telemicroscope during the experiment.
Question (b) Why is the working distance an important value for all future
measurements made with the telemicroscope?

2.3 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT

2.3.1 OVERVIEW
If the significance of an experiment was to be measured by the number of times it had been
repeated, then Young’s double slit would surely rank very highly. This experiment is
fundamental in demonstrating wave properties, and since first being done for visible light, has
been demonstrated many times with sources such as microwaves, lasers, X-rays, and most
notably, electrons. The double slit interference of electrons was crucial to the modern
understanding of wave-particle duality, while the original experiments were significant in the
development of the wave model of light.

2.3.2 BACKGROUND THEORY

a) Young’s Double Slit

Consider first, the arrangement as shown in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3 Setup for Young’s

double slit experiment.

A light source, in this case the

sodium lamp, illuminates a
single slit S , which then acts
as a source of spherical
waves. If d >> a , then the
path difference for the light
arriving at the double slits
S1 and S 2 will be minimal
and the two-slits act as
sources of coherent spherical waves. Light travelling to the point P in the image
plane will have a path difference ∆r , which, for small θ , is given by
y Eq. 2.1
∆r = aθ = a .
D
The phase difference δ induced by this path difference is then
 2π  ay  Eq. 2.2
δ = k ∆r =   ,
 λ  D 

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 where λ is the wavelength of the light. The phase difference will modulate the
intensity of the light measured at P due to the superposition of waves, with the
resulting intensity distribution given by
I = 2 I 0 (1 + cos δ ) . Eq. 2.3

Pre-lab Question (a) Show that the intensity distribution given

λD λD
in Eq. 2.3 leads to bright and dark fringes at y = m and y = ( m + 12 )
a a
respectively, where m is an integer.

The spacing between successive bright or dark fringes is then

λD Eq. 2.4
y= .
a

2.3.3 APPARATUS

a) Double Slit
The double slit used is made by scratching two parallel lines very close together into a
painted glass slide. The slide is mounted against a second piece of glass to protect the
painted region and the two taped together. Several double slits are available with
different slit separations labelled on them. The markings do not necessarily accurately
represent the slit separations and should be used as a guide only.

2.3.4 EXPERIMENTAL WORK

a) Alignment
Replace the graticule slide with the chosen double slit slide, and ensure light from the
single slit illuminates the region where the slits are. Place your eye behind the double
slit and move as necessary to observe the interference pattern.
Question (c) Draw the pattern observed. How does it compare to the
pattern expected from Eq. 2.3?

Bring the telemicroscope into position and focus on the double slit. Use the crosshairs
to measure the distance from the left edge of one slit to the left edge of the other,
hence determining the slit separation a .

b) Two-Slit Interference
Looking into the telemicroscope, move it away from the double slit slowly and observe
the fringe pattern develop. The width of the single slit may need to be narrowed to
improve the contrast of the pattern, which is best done by observing the pattern as the
slit is adjusted. The slit should be as narrow as possible while still letting sufficient light
through.

The central region of the pattern should have about 5 fringes. Align the crosshairs on
one edge of the left most fringe and record the micrometer position. Move the
micrometer until the crosshairs are on the corresponding edge of the right most fringe
and determine the displacement of the micrometer.
Question (d) What is the average fringe spacing?

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 Using the spacer rod, determine the separation between the front of the telemicroscope
and double slit, and then using the value obtained earlier for the working distance,
calculate the distance D between the double slit and the point of observation.
Question (e) Based on the values measured for the slit separation a and
the distance D determine the theoretical fringe spacing and compare it to
the value measured.

2.4 FRESNEL’S BIPRISM

2.4.1 OVERVIEW
While the results of Young’s double slit experiment quite clearly indicate interference and the
wave nature of light, when the experiment was first done objections were raised that the
results were not conclusive since there could have been diffraction effects from the edge of
the slits. To counter this, Augustin Fresnel proposed a series of interference experiments that
would have no diffracting edges. The most notable of these is the Fresnel Biprism, where two
virtual sources are created by refraction through a biprism.

2.4.2 BACKGROUND THEORY

a) Fresnel’s Biprism
Fresnel’s biprism is made by joining two thin prisms at their base to create a single
triangular shape. Light from single slit S forms spherical waves incident on the
biprism. Light passing through the lower section is refracted up, while light going into
the top section is refracted down, forming a region where the beams interfere. This
creates two virtual sources S1 and S 2 , with an apparent separation a .

In the small angle approximation, the separation between the virtual sources is given
by
a = ( N −1)(α1 + α 2 )d , Eq. 2.5
where N is the refractive index of the biprism. The shape of the interference pattern is
the same as for the two-slit case, hence the fringe spacing will be determined by Eq.
2.4.
Pre-lab Question (b) The fringe spacing takes on a special form
in the case where the biprism is illuminated with parallel light, which can be
achieved by letting d → ∞ . Show that in this case, the fringe spacing is given
by
λ Eq. 2.6
y=
( N −1)(α1 + α 2 )
The separation of the light into virtual sources forms a region from where no light
seems to originate. This is a geometrical effect and is referred to as the geometrical
shadow.

Pre-lab Question (c) Show that the width of the geometrical

shadow z
, is related to the distance behind the biprism x , by
z = ( N −1)(α1 + α 2 ) x. Eq. 2.7

Figure 2.4 Arrangement of

Fresnel’s Biprism.

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2.4.3 APPARATUS

a) Biprism
The biprism is fixed into a brass
mount that sits on one of the
carriages. The transverse position of
the biprism can be adjusted using the
thumbwheel on the mount. This
allows the vertex of the biprism to be
aligned with the single slit. The
refractive index of the biprism is
N = 1.516 , and the angles are
Figure 2.5 Fresnel biprism.
(α 1 + α 2 ) = 2°16′ ± 0.5′ .

b) Microscope Objective Lens

A microscope objective lens with twice the magnification of the current lens is available.
The current lens can be unscrewed and replaced with the high power objective,
although this is best done after the system is aligned and the fringe pattern viewable,
since the high power objective has a narrower field of view. The unused lens should be
screwed into the holder and put aside so as to prevent damage. Care should be taken
when unscrewing either lens from the telemicroscope to ensure they are not
dropped or collect fingerprints.

c) Collimation Lens
The collimating lens is used to
produce parallel light from the
single slit source. The diverging
light from the single slit is
incident on the lens. If the lens is
positioned at it’s focal length
away from the slit, then the
transmitted light will be parallel.
Placing a mirror after the lens
can check this, since the parallel
light will be reflected, and if the
lens is positioned correctly, it will
be focussed back into the slit.
Offsetting the mirror by a slight
angle will produce an image of Figure 2.6 Autocollimation of lens.
the single slit in the same plane
as the slit. This process is
referred to as autocollimation, with the arrangement shown in Figure 2.6.

2.4.4 EXPERIMENTAL WORK

a) Source Separation
Remove the double slit and slide the telemicroscope up until the single slit is in focus
then place the biprism between the slit and the telemicroscope. Position the tracing
paper provided in front of the biprism and locate the bright line in the intensity. This
corresponds to the vertex of the biprism, and the transverse control should be adjusted
so that this sits in the centre of the illuminated region.

Look into the telemicroscope and view the two virtual sources, adjusting the position of
the telemicroscope as necessary to improve the focus. With the slits as narrow as

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 possible, measure the separation of the virtual sources. Use the spacer rod to then
measure the distance from the single slit to the biprism.
Question (f) Using the values measured and Eq. 2.5, what is the value for
the quantity ( N −1)(α1 + α2 ) ?

b) Parallel Illumination
Slide the biprism away from the single slit and using the procedure outlined above,
autocollimate the lens. The lens fits onto one of the carriage mounts, and the mirror sits
on a mount with a flat top. Remove the mirror and position the biprism near the lens,
again checking that the vertex is evenly illuminated. Bring the telemicroscope into
position with the front of the objective about 5 cm from the biprism. View the pattern
and adjust the position of the telemicroscope until two bright regions separated by a
dark band is observed.

Slide the telemicroscope back while viewing the pattern until the fringe pattern
develops. Keep moving until about 15-20 fringes are viewable and position these in the
centre of the field of view. Replace the standard objective with the high power
objective.
Question (g) If the high power objective has twice the magnification, what
will be the effect on the micrometer calibration obtained earlier?

Measure the fringe spacing across 15 fringes using the micrometer. Repeat this five
times, starting, where possible, on a different fringe each time. Determine the average
spacing across 15 fringes, with the standard deviation of the measurements being the
error, and hence calculate the average fringe spacing.
Question (h) Using Eq. 2.6, what value do these measurements give for
the quantity ( N −1)(α1 + α2 ) ?

c) Geometrical Shadow
Remove the autocollimation lens and position the biprism a few centimetres from the
single slit. Replace the high power objective with the standard objective and move the
telemicroscope up to the biprism so that the virtual sources are again in focus. Looking
into the eyepiece, slide the telemicroscope back and observe the geometric shadow.
Position the telemicroscope anywhere that allows the geometric shadow to be
observed and measure its width. Use the spacer rod to determine the separation
between the telemicroscope and the biprism.
Question (i) Using the working distance measured earlier, determine the
distance from the biprism x , at which the geometric shadow was measured.
Hence, what value for ( N −1)(α1 + α2 ) does this indicate?

d) Theoretical
Use the values given for the biprism to determine the theoretical value for
( N −1)(α1 + α2 ) . Compare this to the three measured values obtained.

2.5 LLOYD’S MIRROR

2.5.1 OVERVIEW
Lloyd’s mirror is another arrangement that demonstrates two-slit interference. It also
has no diffracting edges, so is not open to any of the objections raised about Young’s
experiment. This simple experiment is further proof of the wave model of light.

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2.5.2 BACKGROUND THEORY

a) Lloyd’s Mirror
A front silvered mirror is positioned
so that light from the single slit is
incident at grazing angles. Part of
the spherical wave emitted from
the slit is reflected and forms the
second beam. This leads to a
virtual source located at position
S1 , with an apparent source
separation of a . The beam
reflected off the mirror will undergo a Figure 2.7 Arrangement of Lloyd’s mirror.
π phase shift due to the grazing
incidence reflection. The phase difference then, between two beams arriving at a point
P on the image screen will be given by
δ = k ∆r ±π. Eq. 2.8

This will effect the intensity distribution, but the spacing of the fringes will remain
unchanged, with the separation between successive bright or dark fringes determined
by
λD Eq. 2.9
y= .
a

Pre-lab Question (d) What form does the intensity distribution

given in Eq. 2.3 take if this new phase difference is substituted? How will the
observed interference pattern compare to that for the two-slit case?

2.5.3 APPARATUS

a) Mirror
The mirror used has a front silvered surface, hence care should be taken to avoid
scratching or dirtying the surface. The mirror sits on a carriage mount with a flat, felt
covered platform. The height of the mirror is adjustable using the controls on the
carriage. Since the mirror is not fixed to the mount, try to avoid knocking the carriage,
which may cause the mirror to fall.

2.5.4 EXPERIMENTAL WORK

a) Initial Alignment And Source Separation

Remove the single slit from its mount and reposition it into place so that the slit is
horizontal. Remove any other remaining optical components except the
telemicroscope, which should be moved into place to obtain an image of the single slit.
Rotate the micrometer by 90º so that the crosshairs travel perpendicular to the slit.

Place the mirror mount between the single slit and the telemicroscope and position the
mirror so that it sits below the level of the slit. Looking through the telemicroscope,
adjust the height of the mirror until a duplicate image of the single slit comes into the
field of view. Use the crosshairs to measure the apparent separation of the slits.

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b) Fringe Spacing
While looking into the telemicroscope, move it away from the slit until a fringe pattern
becomes visible. Using approximately 5 fringes, determine the average fringe spacing
of the pattern. Measure the actual separation between the telemicroscope and the
single slit using the spacer rod, and determine the slit to fringe pattern distance D .

Question (j) Using the measured values of D and a , what is the

expected fringe spacing? How does this compare to the value obtained
directly?

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