BIO104S: Introductory lectures

Objectives of the course

Introduction to the concepts of

- biodiversity
- what it is and why it matters
- distribution of organisms on Earth
- evolution: the central theory in biology
- explains how biodiversity arose
- explains adaptation: complexity and simplicity
- explains puzzling aspects of biology (eg resistance of bugs to insecticides)
- form and function: adaptations to environment.

Content: kinds of organisms; kinds of structures; mechanisms of evolution

Lab skills: observation; dissection; recognition of major taxa and their characteristics; relating
function to form

What is biodiversity?
Number of taxa (= ‘types’); number of ‘species’; genetic diversity; ecological diversity

Definition by the Convention for Biological Diversity (1992): “the variability among living
organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems
and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species,
between species and of ecosystems”.

Why does biodiversity matter? (Does it matter?)

- ecological stability (sustainability of the Earth)
- indication of biological integrity (‘ecosystem health’)
- efficient biogeochemical cycling (eg functions of rivers, production of oxygen ...)
- useful species (medicines, crops, ...)
- heritage for future generations (including medicines, crops, ...)
- aesthetics
- precautionary principle
- ethics

This is the assembly of life that took a billion years to evolve. It has eaten the storms - folded them
into its genes - and created the world that has created us. It holds the world steady.’
Edward O. Wilson (1992)

Why study biodiversity?

Curiosity; academic interest: ecology, evolution, conservation; management of the biosphere.

‘BIOdiversity’ : the diversity/variety of life. How do we distinguish living things from things
that have never been alive (e.g crystals), how do we distinguish living from dead things, and how
do we define ‘life’?

STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF LIVING ORGANISMS

- complexity & regularity of structure
- made of cells
- organic compounds (particularly DNA)
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF LIVING ORGANISMS
- energy flow (conversion of sun’s energy to complex tissue)
- sensitivity & response to stimuli
- homeostasis (regulation: feedback)
- assimilation/growth

DEVELOPMENTAL PROPERTIES OF LIVING ORGANISMS

transfer of information (DNA) allows
- development (egg/seed to adult)
- reproduction
- evolution by natural selection

So we can define life in relation to properties shown by living (or once-living) things.

THE FIVE KINGDOMS

The word “microbe” is an informal term for a very small organism. (See Dr Mike Lucas’s lectures
for details.) Microbes include bacteria and bluegreens, protozoans, unicellular algae & yeasts
(i.e. representatives of various different kingdoms) (viruses are not microbes – see later)

The ‘five kingdoms’ scheme: Domain Prokaryota Monera

(Archaea = 6th)
Domain Eukaryota Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
NB: other schemes have also been proposed - see Campbell & Reece but do not learn!

Domain Prokaryota: minute (usually < 10μm)

single-celled
no organelles
no nucleus
DNA circular

Kingdom Monera Subkingdom(?) Eubacteria (‘true’ bacteria)

Subkingdom Cyanobacteria = “Cyanophyta” = photosynthetic bacteria
= “blue-greens” = “blue-green algae”

Kingdom Archaea ‘extremophiles’: halophiles & thermophiles; often methanogens

- unusual environments
- unusua biochemistry
- unusual composition
- earliest organisms: probably ancestral to all others

Domain Eukaryota: cells contain organelles, including mitochondria, ribosomes, chloroplasts

(if photosynthetic), nucleus with chromosomes

Kingdom Protista eukaryotes that are not plants, animals or fungi! Includes the
protozoans and algae (both unicellular algae and macro-algae - i.e.
seaweeds)

Kingdom Fungi heterotrophic, non-motile (usually) with cell walls (yeasts are
microbes)

Kingdom Plantae autotrophic, non-motile, with cell walls (few are very small)
 Kingdom Animalia heterotrophic, motile, no cell walls (many are very small)
Biological classification

What is classification? Grouping like objects into categories or classes

Why classify? To aid memory; to extract general principles; to make sense of diversity

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.): Scala naturae (the ‘ladder of nature’)

If it moves it’s an animal (= ‘zoon’: Gr.)
If it’s green it’s a plant (= ‘phyton’)
If it is neither it is a ‘zoophyte’.

Carolus Linnaeus [Carl von Linné] (1708-1778): Systema Naturae, 1735: hierarchical
classification

[Phylum] Chordata [Division] Tracheophyta

Class Mammalia Class Angiospermae
Order Primata Order Proteaceae
[Family] Hominidae
Genus (plural = genera) Homo Genus Zea
Species sapiens Species mays
Subspecies/variety sapiens

i.e. Homo sapiens sapiens, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, Zea mays OR H. sapiens, H. sapiens
sapiens, Z. mays.

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

Latin binomial (“Latin name’) recognised universally: e.g Pomatomus saltatrix (saltatrix is the
specific epithet).

NB: ALWAYS write binomial in italics or underlined.

NB: Scyphozoa, Diptera but a scyphozoan, a dipteran larva.

Taxonomy and systematics

taxon = category (e.g. Hominidae, Proteaceae, Helix, Monera)
taxonomy = classification (literally, the naming of the categories)
taxonomist = one who classifies
systematics ≡ study of biological classification systems
systematist = one who studies or develops classification systems

Higher taxa are pretty well known; often reflect relationships (because similarities result from
descent from a common ancestor); are not universally agreed upon (i.e. details of phylogeny:
‘family trees’): e.g. ‘5 kingdoms’ is one of several schemes (see prac. 1). Many new species,
genera, even families described every day (and old ones re-described). Species distinguished on
the basis of morphology (outer structure); anatomy (internal structure);; physiology (internal
functioning - more rarely); biogeography; biochemistry (especially genetic info - DNA).

International Code of Zoological (or Botanical) Nomenclature ensures that

- descriptions of all new species are published
- provides rules for naming (e.g. Latin endings)
- requires illustrations (usually of a particular specimen)
- requires ‘holotype’ to be deposited in a recognised museum (for protection and loan to
taxonomists)
- prevents one species being named twice.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

How many species are there on Earth?

Robert May (1992):

- No centralised index of species.
- Rate of speciation presently estimated to be about a million times slower than rate of
extinction.
- ‘Conservation biology is a science with a time limit, with the clock ticking faster as the
human population continues to increase.’
- ‘I believe future generations will find it blankly incomprehensible that we are devoting so
little money and effort to the study of [biodiversity].’

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an International treaty:

- adopted at the Earth Summit, Rio de Janiero, 1992
- entered into force Dec. 1993 (The USA has signed but has still not ratified the treaty.)

MAIN GOALS of the CBD:

- conservation of biological diversity (biodiversity)
- sustainable use of its components
- fair & equitable sharing of benefits deriving from genetic resources
(i.e. development of national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity,
thus a key document regarding sustainable development)

CBD issues include:

- Measures and incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.
Regulated access to genetic resources
Education and public awareness.
National reporting on implementation.
Protocol for transboundary movement of genetically modified organisms.
The Biosafety Protocol (2002) seeks to “protect biological diversity from the
potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern
biotechnology”.