Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
aware of the necessary work still needed to felt thanks to the Director General of Public
complete this guide and are, at present, under- Works Malaysia for his permission to publish
taking research to make this possible. this guide. Thanks are also due to Tan Kee
Hock and Mooi Jiann Liang for their assistance
The chapters have been written so that they can in preparing this guide. Finally, special thanks
be read and understood largely independent of are due to C. R. Jones of the Overseas Centre,
each another, but where necessary cross-refer- Transport Research Laboratory, U.K. for his
encing to specific paragraphs should make the advice on specific topics of the guide.
reader's task easier.
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION
This guide aims to be factual but some expres-
sion of opinion is inevitable where gaps in 1.1. BACKGROUND
knowledge exist.
1.1.1 Brief history of Malaysian road
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS pavements 1.1
This guide is prepared by the Pavement 1.1.2 The need for engineering
Research Unit evaluation of the road
pavement 1.1
Head: Ir. Mohamed Shafii Mustafa
lnstitut Kerja Raya Malaysia (IKRAM). 1.1.3 Economic analysis as a part of the
engineering decision
The authors of this guide are : making process 1.2
Of Roads Branch (JKR Headquarters) and 2.2.1 Road users requirements 2.2
Ir Abdul Shokri Mohd. Dalian (JKR Selangor).
The authors would like to express their heart- 2.2.2 Engineering requirements 2.2
4.3.1 Specific survey method 4.2 Figure 2.1 Typical serviceability require-
ments for different class of road
4.4 FORECASTING FUTURE (AASHO Road Test) 2.2
TRAFFIC 4.4
Figure 2.2 Stresses and strains in a bitumi-
4.4.1 Base data 4.4 nous pavement (Asphalt
Institute) 2.4
4.4.2 Methods of predicting
growth and compounding 4.4 Figure 2.3 A typical rate of binder
hardening in service 2.7
4.4.3 Estimating damaging effect 4.4
Figure 2.4 Hardening of binder in the top
4.4.4 Sensitivity and accuracy 4.4 3mm of the road surfacing 2.7
Figure 1.2 Decision making levels in road Figure 3.9 DCP test results 3.23
pavement maintenance 1.3
Figure 3.10. Typical plot of the DCP Table 3.5 Estimates of structural
results 3.23 coefficients, based on DCP
in-situ CBR values. 3.22
Figure 3.11. Micro and macro-lextUre 3.25
Table 4.1 Typical HPU traffic survey
Figure 5.1 General Process for Selecting results 4.3
Appropriate Rehabilitation
Alternatives 5.2 Table 4.2 Axle load survey results for
direction 1, Southbound. 4.6
Figure 5.2 The Spectrum of Pavement
Rehabilitation Alternatives 5.3 Table 4.3 Axle load survey results for
direction 2, Northbound. 4.6
Figure 5.3 Replacement of Loss
Chemical Constituents by Table 4.4 Traffic count results for
Rejuvenation 5.5 direction 1, Southbound. 4.7
Figure 5.5 Surfacing Recycling Using Table 4.6 Summary of traffic counts
Hot Milling Method 5.16 results obtained from HPU.4.9
Figure 5.7 Full Reconstruction Plate 3.2 Surface condition survey 3.7
Options 5.23
Plate 3.3 The Road Rater 3.12
LIST OF TABLES
Plate 3.4 The Falling Weight
Table 2.1 Failure modes, manifestations Deflectometer 3.13
and mechanisms 2.4
Plate 3.5 The Heavy Weight
Table 2.2 Examples of formula and Deflectometer 3.15
coefficients for strain-life
relationship 2.11 Plate 3.6 Pendulum Skid Resistance
Tester 3.26
Table 3.1 Surface condition survey
form. 3.5 Plate 3.7 The Griptester 3.27
Table 3.2 Classification of cracks 3.6 Plate 3.8 Sand Patch test 3.27
Table 3.3 Material condition Plate 3.9 TRRL Minitexture meter 3.28
intrepetation 3.20
Plate 3.10 The Friction Tester 3.28
Table 3.4 Estimated values of structural
coefficients for various conditions Plate 4.1 Axle load weighing 4.3
of asphalt. 3.22
Plate 5.1 Rejuvenating aged Asphalt of the upgrading works carried out were either
Surfacings in Progress 5.7 not designed or designed using methodologies
imported from the various western countries.
Plate 5.2 Crack Sealing 5.8 An engineering-based road management sys-
tem was only introduced in Malaysia in 1974
Plate 5.3 Cutting and Patching 5.10 when a Benkelman Beam survey of 2291 km
of Federal and State roads was carried out by_
Plate 5.4 Cold Milling 5.11 KAMPSAX International.
Plate 5.5 Surface Dressing 5.13 1.1.2 The need for engineering evalu-
ation of the road pavements.
Plate 5.6 Slurry Seal 5.13
In order to ensure that the road network is able
Plate 5.7 Application of Geosynthetic to satisfy the ever increasing demand placed on
Materials 5.19 it due to increased traffic, there is a need for a
systematic approach to the maintenance of the
Plate 5.8 Reconstruction Works 5.21 road network. The lack of proper engineering
records on past construction and maintenance
Plate 5.9 Recycling for Base 5.21 works now . necessitates the need for full
engineering evaluation to be carried out before
CHAPTER l : the design of further road improvements or
INTRODUCTION rehabilitation.
Even though it is the intention of the authors to a) To provide an even, non-skidding and
provide comprehensive and accurate informa- good riding quality surface
tion in this guide, the users are cautioned that b) To resist wear and shearing stress imposed
the procedures and remedial measures by traffic
described in this guide are interim. On-going c) To prevent water from penetrating into the
research work at IKRAM in this field will be underlying pavement layers
able to add more information to the guide in d) To be capable of surviving a large number
the next revision. The behaviour and perform- of repeated loading without distress
ance of the pavements addressed in this guide e) To withstand adverse environmental condi-
is for flexible pavements only. A typical flexi- tions
ble pavement is as shown in Figure 1.3.
The form of bituminous surfacing commonly
1.3 OBJECTIVES used can either be thick or thin. Thick bitumi-
nous surfacings nornally consist of crushed
The aim of this guide is to provide a procedure mixed aggregates. bitumen and filler. Most
for the engineering evaluation of flexible road common types of plant mixed surfacings in
pavements. The objectives are : Malaysia are asphaltic concrete or bituminous
macadam. Currently constricted thin surfacings
(i) To provide a systematic method of pave- are surface dressings and slum seals.
ment evaluation.
Thick bituminous surfacings provide additional
(ii) To assist engineers in identifying primary strength to the pavement and seal the pavement
modes of pavement deterioration. from water ingress. Thin surfacings do not give
direct additional strength. They merely protect
(iii) To assist engineers in selecting appropriate the pavement from water and provide a skid
methods of rehabilitation. resistant riding surface.
compared to that of the road-base. Sand and 2.2.1 Road user requirements
lateftes are commonly used and are easily
available. This layer also serves as a separating A safe and comfortable riding surface is what
layer preventing contamination of the road- the road users nontially require. The aesthetic
base by the subgrade and also acts as a prepara- aspect of it is also a concern but will receive
tory layer for road-base construction. It can considerable attention only on heavily traf-
also act as a drainage layer. ficked pavements. The life of the pavement
perceived by the users will be primarily relate
to its riding quality. Road pavements that do
2.1.4 Subgrade not provide a safe and comfortable riding sur-
face will trigger the road users' awareness as to
The subgrade refers to the soil under the pave- the increase in vehicle operating cost.
ment within a depth of approximately 1 meter
below the subbase. It is the upper layer of The users requirement for a road pavement can
earthworks prepared for subsequent construc- be quantified in ternis of serviceability index
tion of the pavement layers described above.It (1). The terns serviceability was first intro-
can either be natural undisturbed soil or com- duced during the AASHO Road Test to repre-
pacted soil obtained from elsewhere and placed sent pavement performance. The road pave-
as fill material. The strength of the subgrade ment was given a rating in terms of riding
layer is important as the thicknesses of the comfort by various drivers, with a value of 5 as
upper layers are dependent on it. the highest index of serviceability and 0 as the
lowest. A terminal serviceability of 2.5 was
2.2. FUNCTIONS OF FLEXIBLE suggested as the condition when major road
PAVEMENT rehabilitation works. For the rehabilitation of
minor roads, a terminal serviceability of 1.5
The general function of a road pavement is to mvas suggested by AASHO (Figure 2.1).
distortion and disintegration. Fracture nornially tion methodology, it is necessary for a road
occurs in thick bituminous layers. Distortion engineer to understand pavement behaviour
manifests itself in any of the pavement layers especially under local environmental condi-
and will normally appear on the bituminous tions.
surface as netting or other forms of deforma-
tion. Disintegration will normally take place on Repeated axle loading, the environment, soil
the bituminous surfacing. Loss of aggregates is characteristics and drainage, are some factors
a common manifestation of this failure mode. that affect pavement behaviour. Stresses and
strains are induced in the pavement layers by
2.3.2 Failure manifestations both the influences of traffic and environmental
stresses, an example of the latter being diurnal
Each component of the pavement layers may temperature changes (Figure 2.2).
contribute to failures. The most difficult task is
to identify which layer is the cause of primary The bituminous surfacing suffers from tensile
failures of the road. Failure in flexible pave- strains at the bottom and the top of the layer
ments most commonly manifests itself as (2). The road-base, the sub-base and the
cracking or deformation. These defects can subgrade are mainly subjected to compressive
be visually identified and measured using stresses.
appropriate techniques.
Theoretically, pavements will only behave as a
2.3.3 Failure mechanisms composite material under go ideal condition.
This condition exists only when the pavement
Extensive research has established the various materials are homogenous and isotropic and the
mechanisms that cause road failures. Some adhesion between the component layers is per-
common mechanisms are : fect.
Surface dressings mid slurry seals are the com- area that must be emphasised during evaluation
mon types of thin surfacings used to seal road on the performance of this type of road pave-
pavements in Malaysia. These surfacings do ment.
not provide direct structural strength to the
pavement. 2.4.2 Behaviour of the component layers in
a typical flexible pavement.
Bituminous sealed road pavements are normal-
ly used in Malaysia for roads with low traffic Bituminous laver
volumes and axle loads (low class road). There
is limited field experience and knowledge of The deflection experienced by the bituminous
the behaviour of thin surfacings constructed on layers due to a loaded wheel induces tensile
high volume roads in the country. strains underneath the bituminous layer. Under
repeated loading this layer is liable to experi-
Surface dressing have been used by many ence fatigue. Permanent deformation of the
developed countries for highways and high subgrade and fatigue failure of the road surfac-
class road pavements. Theoretically, if the road ing are the two major characteristics that are
base layers can be made to spread the load normally used to predict flexible pavement per-
imposed upon a pavement and meet the expect- formance.
ed structural requirement, then a thin layer is
sufficient to fulfil the functional requirement of The elastic behaviour of the bituminous mix is
a good riding surface. This is the adopted prin- mainly governed by the properties of the bitu-
ciple behind the successful use of surface men. Bitumen in the mix is visco-elastic and its
dressings in developed countries. behaviour is highly dependent on temperature
and the rate of loading (3). At low temperatures
Thin bituminous seals, and in particular surfac- and short times of loading they are essentially
ing dressings, have high bitumen contents that elastic but at high temperatures and long load-
leads to high bitumen film thickness. They are ing times the material undergoes viscous flow.
very flexible and are able to withstand high The effective modulus is defined as the ratio of
pressures from heavy wheel loads if construct- stress to strain at a particular temperature and
ed properly. Furthermore, they should be able loading time and is usually referred to as stiff-
to withstand environmentally induced stresses. ness. In practice, high stress areas such as
Bituminous surfacings with high bitumen con- climbing lanes and junctions suffer long load-
tents will have improved resistance against age ing time at high temperature therefore reducing
hardening. These properties cannot be obtained its modulus value (2). Deformation in the form
from thick bituminous mixes since stability, of shear failure in the surfacing is normally
skid resistance and texture depth decrease with prominent in these areas.
increased bitumen content.
Laboratory tests have been carried out for vari-
Strong adhesion with the road-base is another ous types of bituminous mixes under repeated
important factor which determines the life of loading to estimate fatigue failure. Apart from
thin seals. The proper application and curing of the test procedures (e.g. testing temperature,
the bituminous prime coat on the road base is loading method or cycles), bitumen type, bitu-
therefore vital to its perfornance. men content and air void content in the mix
also influence the fatigue behaviour.
Water can have a deleterious effect on this type
of construction. Serviceability will be reduced The time lapse between loading cycles is also
if water is allowed to penetrate the surfacing. known to affect the test results. The type of
The condition of surface and side drainage will aggregate used is a secondary variable, and is
significantly affect the pavement behaviour and assumed to have negligible effect. Laboratory
performance. Therefore drainage is a major fatigue tests under fully controlled conditions
The strength of a road subgrade is commonly behaviour of the subgrade throughout its serv-
assessed in ternis of the California Bearing ice life. High standards of drainage provision
Ratio (CBR). New pavements are mostly govern the longevity of pavement life at these
designed using subgrade CBR values as the areas.
primary soil strength indicator. It's popular use
in Malaysia has prompted development of rela- 2.5 PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE
tionships to other useful soil-strength indica-
tors. The CBR and in general, the soil strength 2.5.1 Terminal condition
is dependent on the type of the soil, its mois-
ture content and its density. Terminal pavement condition or the end of
pavement life is used to describe its condition
During pavement evaluation, the moisture con- when major maintenance is needed. This con-
ditions primarily govern assessment decision. A dition is predicted to occur at the end of the
well-constructed pavement would have a sub- design period.
grade in equilibrium moisture condition most
of the time and there will be no change in The residual life of a road pavement is depend-
behaviour. This scenario however is not achiev- ent on the definition of the terminal condition.
able in most areas in Malaysia. The subgrade is A pavement will have a residual life if its con-
subjected to variable conditions in the dition has not reached terminal level.
Malaysian environment. Two most common
conditions are : In Malaysia, definition of terminal condition
and prediction of residual life were very
i) Where the water table is near or possibly dependent on experience from other countries.
higher than the formation level. This There are no standards on 'end of life' criteria
water table will influence the subgrade for Malaysian pavements as yet.
moisture content and also the pavement
layers above it. 2.5.2 Users requirements
ii) Where the water table is far from the As mentioned in para. 2.1.1, the users' require-
formation level but seasonal variation ment is for safety and comfort. Only serious
and drainage efficiency will influence its pavement failure can be felt or measured in
moisture conditions. relation to this. The AASHO road test in the
United States suggests a serviceability level of
Pavements under condition (i) above, will be 2.5 as the terminal condition (1). At this level,
weakest when the water table is at the highest riding on the road will be uneconomical and
point. This may happen diurnally (tidal change) uncomfortable. However, the choice of this
or seasonally (monsoon season).Nondestructive level to be used locally needs careful study,
measurements that simulate pavement behav- taking into consideration local pavement
iour taken at these locations should consider behaviour.
this. Measurements are best taken at the wettest
time, when the pavement is probably at its 2.5.3 Engineers and managers requirements
weakest.
Two forms of distress modes can normally be
Heavy rainfall during wet weather allows mois- identified from the road pavement surface (i.e
ture to enter the pavement layers and the sub- cracking and rutting). The degree of cracking
grade through the shoulder and at the edges. or rutting or both are normally used as a gener-
This is more pronounced where earth shoulders al indicator of the overall pavement condition.
are used. Sealed road shoulders substantially These failure manifestations can be used as a
reduce the ingress of water. Drainage is the criterion to quantify an empirical terminal con
most important factor that determines the
dition. One of the empirical terminal condition and the formulae adopted are shown in Table
known (7), suggests the existence of both the 2.2. This terminal condition can be accepted if
the mechanistic model used depict exact field
initial cracking and ten millimetres rutting as behaviour.
failure criteria.
The effect of age hardening in the field that
Theoretical or mechanistic terminal condition induce top-down cracking is not included in
will be based on asphalt strain or subgrade those models. Allowance for this effect must be
strain criteria. The minimum permissible strain made if the above terminal criteria are to be
level is currently based on laboratory findings used. At this juncture, empirical terminal condi-
that can be reduced to mathematical formulae. tion seems to be more realistic and therefore it
Typical examples are shown in Figures 2.5 and is more reliable.
2.6.
2.5.4. Empirical interpretation of
Various authorities had perform similar tests performance
Empirical definitions and constraints local field condition can be very different from
what had been experienced in the road test.
Predicting the field performance of visco-elas-
tic materials under variable loading patterns Environmental effects
and environmental conditions is not a simple
and straight forward task. Material strength and The major constraint in using experimental
behaviour are dependent on many variables results carried out from other countries is the
and involve the combined effect of other mate- existence of different soil types and environ-
rials. The combinations of bitumen and aggre- mental conditions. Local experience is still
gate, on top of other unbound layers makes the regarded as the best guide for the right solution.
material difficult to model theoretically.
Fluctuations in moisture level within the pave- These points had been proven from the various
ment create further uncertainties. Most theoreti- findings from the AASHO road test. Studies
cal models assume an equilibrium moisture carried out by TRRL had shown that common
condition. modes of failure in the tropics are often differ-
ent from those encountered in temperate
Empirical experiments are best carried out regions. These indicate that pavement behav-
where the variables can be measured and con- iour and performance in Malaysia would be
trolled. The performance can be monitored and different and require different treatment and
recorded. The recorded experience can be used emphasis.
for future construction work or to assess exist-
ing pavement conditions provided similar Research work carried out at IKRAM shows
materials and specifications are used. that cracking is the major failure mode on
asphaltic concrete overlays (8). Rutting is not a
The empirical approach has been used widely major problem and only occurs on highly
to design new road pavements and to assess stressed areas. Observations made over four
maintenance needs. The results are absolute but years on pavement o~7erlays throughout the
are only applicable locally and its usage is lim- Peninsular Malaysia have produced sufficient
ited to similar materials and construction speci- data to predict pavement performance in this
fications. Adaptation of this methodology country.
beyond its defined scope needs in-house verifi-
cation and modification especially if the envi- 2.5.5 Mechanistic interpretation of
ronment and materials used in the experiment performance
are different.
The constraints of the empirical design
Past experiments and findings approach have resulted in other methods being
developed to make it possible to predict other
The AASHO Road Test is perhaps the most modes of failure and possible usage of different
comprehensive pavement experiment ever material types.
undertaken. Field behaviour and performance
of bituminous material were studied with con- The structural analysis is to consider the pave-
trolled repeated loading pattern under a specific ment, consisting of different materials. to be
environment. Results from this test have been characterised' by their elastic parameters which
accepted world-wide. One of the major find- are typical of dynamic load conditions. The
ings of the road test was the pavement fatigue layered system concept (or multilayer elastic
life definition in terms of repetition of a stan- system) is normally used. Many assumptions
dard axle load. This principle had been extend- must be made to model field behaviour to a
ed and various other studies on bituminous mechanistic model that can be computed math-
road pavements relate to these findings. ematically. The major assumptions used in the
However, the modes of failure in a particular model are (9) :
i. The component layers are homogenous respond and produce a temporary deflection
and isotropic (the property at a point is known as transient deflection. The deflection
similar to that at another point and is the can be measured in the field by various means
same in any direction) which will be discussed later in Chapter 3.
ii. Complete friction between layers at each If the measured deflection is similar to the the-
interface oretical deflection, then the elastic properties of
the material in the model could be used as an
iii. The stress solutions are characterised by estimate of its actual values in the field. The
the materials Poisson Ratio and modulus analyses use the method of equivalent thick-
values ness, normally required to analyse composite
structures under loading. Comparing the theo-
iv. Each layer has a finite thickness and is retical deflections to the actual field deflection
in ideal condition values is normally ternied 'backcalculation'.
This is an iterative process. Convergence accu-
v. Surface shearing force are not present at racy of the iteration can be chosen as required.
the surface The initial elastic properties for each laver have
to be estimated. The elastic properties of com-
vi. The material is infinite in the horizontal ponent layers obtained are then used to esti-
direction mate the condition of the material.
These assumptions are made clear in this guide It must be emphasised that the theoretical
to caution users on indiscriminate use of the model must be able to predict the actual failure
theoretical methods. Specialised laboratory test mode in the field for it to be used with reason-
needs to be undertaken to support its proper able confidence. Failure to do so may result in
use. Field verification experiment governs the erroneous predictions.
validity of the approach.
Material fatigue problems have been investigat-
Pavement response and model ed in great detail in the laboratory by various
authorities and attention has now been directed
The most common model used to date is the to the relationship between these results and the
three layer model. The road pavement is divid- fatigue performance of bituminous materials on
ed into three component layers : the road. It has been found that the fatigue life
of the bituminous materials under traffic condi-
i. the bituminous surfacings tion in flexible pavements is considered longer
ii. the unbound granular layer and than that found in the laboratory. It is believed
iii. the subgrade that these resulted from the. differences
between conditions in the road and the test pro-
More detailed four layer models that separate cedure adopted in the laboratory. As an exam-
the unbound layer into two layers can also be ple, it has been suggested that a factor of 100
used. However, the practicality and accuracy times is appropriate for condition in the U.K.
obtained is still very subjective. More effort i.e. the field fatigue life is 100 times that in the
should be given in handling variability in the laboratory.
analysis (thickness of material and subgrade
condition) so that the accuracy of the It is also very difficult to model climate related
interpretation can be improved. failure in this approach. At this juncture, practi-
cal application of this approach may remain
In the multilayer model, the pavement acts as a conjectural.
composite structure. In theory, when the pave-
ment is subjected to a wheel load it will Theoretical modes of failure
The most common theoretical mode of failure ships. The strain level closest to the allowable
adopted in the model are fatigue failure at the strain for a given type of material will indicate
bottom of bituminous laver and deformation the critical residual life.
failure on top of the subgrade. Additional fail-
ure on top of the unbound base is often includ- Most stress-strain relationships available are for
ed. Theoretical deflections, stresses or strains at materials that were obtained overseas. There
these locations can be calculated using the are many different variables in the Malaysian
method of equivalent thickness. Research in the environment that must be simulated in order to
laboratory can be used to measure stresses and present actual loading and material conditions.
strains .at which pre-detennined failure condi- A recent research finding indicates a rapid
tions occur and relationships established. change in asphalt properties for the top layer
that are exposed to the environment. These
These failure modes were considered based on impose another consideration in the testing.
experience overseas. Care must be taken in Laboratory fatigue test should also simulate
accepting these as the only failure criteria. field loading frequency, otherwise a discrepan-
Local research work carried out shows that the cy of the length of rest period between loading
top of the bituminous surfacing exposed to will distort simulation.
environmentally induced deterioration should
be considered. On-going research at IKRAM is Uncertainty
looking into this problem.
The major uncertainties using the mechanistic
Materials characterisation approach are :
This chapter deals with pavement evaluation at task. This can be done visually or using a sim-
project and detail level. The choice of equip- ple and cheap methods. A general condition of
ment, information quality requirement, accura- the pavement is recorded. A decision should be
cy, methods of analysis and techniques used are made at this juncture whether the pavement is
given. suffering from structural or non-structural fail-
ure. If it is structurally sound, its functional
The main steps of the evaluation can be sum- condition should be queried. If the pavement is
marized as follows : both structurally and functionally adequate then
the pavement is considered sound, otherwise
i) To divide the road into suitable lengths detail testing will be needed.
of design sections
ii) Predict the mode of failure 3.1.3 Non-destructive testing (NDT)
iii) Identify failure causes and delimit the
failure area Non-destructive testing is currently the state-of
iv) Select suitable short or long term reme the-art method for detailed pavement
dial solutions investigation. The selection of NDT devices is
described in para 3.3.2. NDT allows more data
The above can be carried out efficiently by collection along the road and provides a more
dividing the tasks into two assessment tiers, ini- confident representation of the pavement con-
tial and detail assessments. The scope of work dition. It is necessary not to miss any weak
in the process is shown in Figure 3.1. Brief areas at this level of testing. This testing will
description of the flow of the work is given provide the base data for analysis and rehabili-
below. tation design.
There are two normal mechanisms that initiate The base data from the NDT tests together with
pavement evaluation at the project level : other information that was taken previously is
compiled and analysed at this stage. Additional
i) From network level priority listing tests may be required if the information is not
ii) Specific evaluation request when a sufficient. Suitable methods of analysis are
pavement requires upgrading due to applied to produce recommendations of reme-
special reasons dial measures and the procedure of choosing
the appropriate method is described in para
After a specific budget has been allocated for a 3.3.3.
project in a network priority list, a detailed
pavement evaluation is normally required to 3.1.5 Selection of remedial measures
optimise the budget. This evaluation exercise is
necessary as the condition of the pavement This can be the most important part of the eval-
may have changed since it was evaluated dur- uation exercise. A detailed description and
ing the network level pavement survey. For interim guide for this task is explained in
accurate results, the time lapse between the Chapter 5. The first step is to understand and
evaluation exercise and the commencement of diagnose the pavement problem. This will then
the rehabilitation construction must be min- help to provide the solution. The correct solu-
imised. tion is not always easy to achieve. Longtenn
3.1.2 Physical condition assessment
engineering solution should be chosen at this
Simple physical condition assessment of the juncture. It must be assumed that budget is not
pavement at the beginning of the evaluation a constraint at this stage.
exercise helps efficient organisation of this
tire allocated budget, the rehabilitation solution The results from this initial assessment will be
may require changes. Short terns and long term used to :
remedial measures are selected depending on
the allocated budget. Staged constriction is i) Decide preliminary lengths and loca
another option worth considering in order to tions of `design sections'
reduce initial rehabilitation costs but still fulfills ii) Plan for the frequency and interval of
the engineering requirement. detailed tests
The feasibility of various remedial measures Optimum and economical data collection and
may involve discussions with the appropriate sampling can be carried out following the
authorities before the final options are selected. selection of the design sections. The final rec-
Other feasible remedial methods can be applied ommendation of rehabilitation measures should
if the conventional method are not appropriate be adiusted to suit these individual sections.
or slow.
A minimum length of a selected design section
3.1.7 Implementation should not be less than one kilometre to allow
for efficient construction operation. Preliminary
Projected actual time of implementation of the design sections are chosen first from the initial
evaluation proposal should be considered dur- assessment results. At a later stage, other infor-
ing the evaluation exercise. The estimates of mation such as soil type, topography, hydrolo-
remedial works normally increase if the time gy, deflection and traffic data can influence the
lapse between the evaluation period and the final selection of the design sections. The engi-
implementation phase is expected to be long. neer should carefully review all the available
This is common in Malaysia. where contractual data to judge whether a particular treatment is
arrangements are often lengthy. Allowance for suitable over the entire project length or
this problem should be considered in the evalu- whether shorter design sections using separate
ation exercise. treatments are necessary. Changing remedial
treatments too frequently may result in difficult
3.2 INITIAL ASSESSMENT and expensive construction.
Other information related to the surroundings Visual assessment of cracks using a classifica-
of the pavement helps to ensure a comprehen- tion system simplified in Table 3.2 provide suf-
sive evaluation work. Historical data of the ficient information for further analysis. It is
pavement would be very useful if available. easier to divide each section into short 10
However, it is not mandatorv to have this data metres block for accurate and efficient data col-
to accomplish the pavement evaluation task. lection. Alternative lengths of sections can be
used. A straight edge and a wedge are used to
should be conducted at the time of the year must be emphasised here that the accuracy of
when the pavement is at its weakest due to sea- the results will depend on the experience of the
sonal environmental condition. Relationships user in handling all evaluation information
between environmental factors and deflections described earlier including the NDT results. No
need to be established to know when the pave- in-house study has compared the results pro-
ment will be at its weakest. For a start an duced by each device and its approach.
assumption can be made that the pavement is at Preference in the choice of equipment will
its weakest after the monsoon season. Diurnal depend on speed of test, safety, cost of equip-
temperature variation must be considered as ment, maintenance, reliability and case of use.
well. Deflection reading is best taken close to Another factor that could be important is the
the standardised temperature of 40°C to reduce authority's requirements and emphasis for spe-
temperature correction error. Proper tempera- cific aspects of testing. Safety of the public
ture correction relationships for different types during any testing on the road is of paramount
of surfacing should also be established. importance. Test vehicle sometimes may be
Temperature susceptibility of bituminous mixes disallowed from stopping on the road. A mov-
varies with mix types and conditions. Different ing test equipment (such as Deflectograph)
temperature corrections are required for differ- could be preferred for such case. However, this
ent mixes. Temperature correction becomes type of equipment can be very, expensive and
more significant as the pavement gets hotter not easily maintained.
during the day whereby the deflection response
becomes more sensitive as the surfacing gets Comprehensive understanding of the elements
softer. It is not significant if the surface has involved in the detailed pavement assessment
severely cracked. is critical. Over-emphasizing certain aspects of
the elements can lead to uneconomical deci-
NDT equipment is available in many forms. sions. It inav be necessary to carry out cost-
Broadlv, they can be divided into two major benefit analyses when choosing the most suit-
groups : able NDT equipment for the pavement evalua-
tion.
i) Deflection-based equipment
ii) Non-deflection-based equipment 3.3.2 Choice of NDT devices
There are two ways io measuring the ntaxim- asphalt layer is required. Therefore in principle,
turt dellection using the Benkelman Beam. the test could be considered as destructive.
namely the 'rebound' and the 'transient' method. However, it can be accepted as an NDT since
The transient method is recommended. the damage caused by coring is minimal.
Maximum deflection is measured on the near-
side wheeltrack. Temperature, rut depth meas- The DCP can be used to establish :
urement and visual inspection is also carried
out simultaneously. The deflection is then cor- i) the strength of the granular pavement
rected to a standard temperature of 40°C. layers
ii) pavement layer thickness
Deflection tests should be carried out at regular
intervals. 20 to 50 metre intervals can be cho- The DCP is a penetrometer, suitable for road
sen. The deflection values at those intervals can pavements with unbound granular bases. A
then be plotted along the test chainages to steel rod with a 60° cone is driven through the
check the deflection profile. Simple stastistical unbound pavement layers by using a steel ham-
calculations can be used to find a representative mer applied at constant force (Figure 3.3).
deflection over a selected section. This deflec-
tion value is then compared to a prerecorded The rate of penetration is inversely proportional
deflection history of similar pavements in simi- to the strength of the material. The relationship
lar environments. The residual life of the pave- between the rate of penetration and CBR
ment can then be predicted and the required enables the strength of granular pavement to be
surfacing overlay thickness can also be deter- determined.
mined.
A complete set of DCP costs between
The use of Benkelman Beam is recommended RM1,00000 to RM3,000-00. Maintenance cost
in places where expensive equipment cannot be is low. Only the cone needs frequent replace-
justified such as small rehabilitation projects. ment. A coring machine and a light truck are
needed if testing is done on existing asphalt
Where traffic is light the deflection beam can pavement. The cost of a fully operational
also be used to assess in-situ pavement equipment costs ranges between RM50,000-00
strength. However, it may not be suitable for to RM70,000-00.
testing on a busy road. Some fatal accidents
involving the beam operators have occurred In a typical 8 hours day work on asphalt pave-
when using the Benkelman Beam on such ment more then 10 points can be carried out.
roads in Malaysia. This is the main reason for Cost of testing per point is estimated between
JKR preference for other deflection devices. RM50-00 to RM150-00.
Four velocity transducers are placed at the cen- not require an external reference point for the
tre of the circular loading plate, and at offset measurement of deflection that is needed for
distances of 300, 600 and 900 millimetres. An FWD or Benkelman beam (Figure 3.4).
analogue computer is used to convert the out-
put of the velocity transducers into deflections The Road Rater produces a steady state har-
using a measuring technique normally referred monic loading and a static preload. It induces a
as inertial system. This measuring system does stiffened response of the pavement subgrade
system and can possibly overestimate its true Falling Weight Deflectometer
strength. Allowance for this can be made with
engineering judgement and field experience in The FWD uses an impulse loading system. A
using the device. Previous direct use of the transient force is delivered to the pavement sur-
Road Rater has shown correct results where the faces. The transient pavement response is
deficient aspects of the pavement has been recorded electronically.
accurately identified and repaired.
The force is applied by a mass falling on a cir-
The Road Rater deflections and the FWD cular plate that is connected to a baseplate by
deflection are highly correlated. For this reason a set of rubber springs. There are three ways
and for the purpose of standardising procedures of changing the force amplitude :
it is recommended to convert the Road Rater
i). Changing the mass
deflection into an equivalent FWD deflection ii). Changing the drop height
which is then used for the evaluation analysis. iii). Changing the spring constant (a linear
The relationship to convert the Road Rater spring constant is assumed)
deflection values is :
The force amplitude is measured by a load cell
FWD = 0.0246 + 6.87 Road Rater placed at the baseplated sandwiched between
two steel plates.
At the time of writing, the Road Rater is not
widely manufactured and has become less pop- The transient deflection is measured by geo-
ular as compared to the FWD. Moreover it is phones. A geophone has an internal mass that
cheaper and faster than most FWDs and has moves relative to the casing. The mass velocity
the advantage of low operation cost. Similar to generates an output signal that is integrated to
the FWD it must stop when taking measure- obtain a deflection. One geophone is normally
ments. Therefore adequate traffic control must placed at the centre of the loading plate. The
be provided during testing for maximum safety. other offset geophones can be adjusted accord-
ing to one's own preferences or the manufactur
The results from the FWD are used to estimate The HWD spans a loading range of 30 - 240
the pavement layer moduli. The estimated kN, thus covering the half-axle load imposed
modulus values may indicate the current by a moderately heavy truck upwards through
condition of the pavement materials. the single wheel load of a loaded BOEING 747
aircraft.
Bituminous overlay can be design from these
estimated parameters. Various approaches using HWD generalised data, combined with other
the FWD deflection readings have been devel- related parameters can be used in structural
oped to design bituminous overlays. None of analysis to determine such informations as the
these has been verified in the field or supported bearing capacity of a pavement.
with sufficient laboratory test for confident use
in the Malaysian environment. However, exten- Availability of equipment in Malaysia.
sive work by SHELL laboratories have present-
ed a more convincing approach in the analysis The equipment described above is available at
which was supported by extensive laboratory the Pavement Unit, Research Centre, Public
testings. Other researchers have carried out Works Institute Malaysia (IKRAM). The
field tests to verify the approach. The result Institute is currently undertaking pavement
shows that reasonable estimates of the fatigue research and evaluation prgjects. There are 2
life of asphalt can be obtained from the SHELL sets of Benkelman Beams, 3 units of Road
fatigue curves incor Raters, six sets of the DCP and 3 units of the
light weight Falling Weight Deflectometer. A range between RM30-00 to RM80-00 per test
heavy duty version of the FWD is also avail- point and is capable of covering an estimated
able for further research and the evaluation of 250 points daily in a normal 8 hours working
airport pavements. day. Comparatively the FWD is the more cost-
ly to operate and maintain. However, it is gain-
A Benkelman Beam test costs ranges between ing popularity world-wide with the growing
RMIO-00 to RM40-00 per test point. Road interest in using the mechanistic engineering
Rater testing costs between RM30-00 to approach of pavement analysis.
RM5000 per point for an estimated 300 points
per day work. The FWD testing costs normally
Empirical structural assessment using the Long term monitoring of pavement overlays in
JKR roads has successfully resulted in the
Standard deflection refers to FWD central development of a deflection based performance
deflection at the verge-side (near-side) wheel- prediction. Several design curves have been
path under 700 kPa pressure on a 150 mm developed by IKRAM. The curves depict real
radius plate at 40°C pavement temperature. field situation of current material and construc
tion standard of asphaltic concrete overlays
The temperature is taken at 40 mm depth throughout the country. Terminal condition is
below the riding surface. Deflections obtained defined as crack type 2. Pavement with crack-
from Benkelman Beam and the Road Rater ing more serious than this is deemed unsuitable
requires conversion of their maximum deflec- for resurfacing. These areas can easily be iden-
tion to standard deflection. tified from the surface condition survey.
Standard deflection had been used as a basis of The reduction in deflection before and after
pavement performance prediction. Pavements overlay indicate the improvement of strength if
with similar deflection levels and application of asphaltic concrete or similar overlay is used.
repetitive axle loading will reach terminal con- The required strengtening overlay for the
dition at the same time. High deflections indi expected design traffic can be derive from the
cate weak pavements whilst low deflections relationship as shown in Figure 3.6.
indicate strong pavements. The steps to be adopted for this approach are :
The road can be divided into representative The road between Muar to Tangkak with a con-
sections with respect to the deflection levels nection to the North South Expressway is to be
and checked with the preliminary sections. The upgraded. The last rehabilitation exercise was
standard deflection data is plotted against the carried out five years ago. Surface condition
chainage. Confidence level at 85% is normally survey was carried out during an initial visit to
used to select representative mean deflection the site. The results of cracking and rutting sur-
values within a selected section. Mean deflec- vey was plotted as shown in Figures 3.7.
tions from adjacent sections must not be signif-
icantly similar at 95% confidence level or else Preliminary sections were selected from the
they have to be merge to make up a longer sec- above results. The survey was done at the right
tion. time depicted by the level of rutting and crack-
ing. Cracking is more prominant than rutting. It
Step 3. Traffic estimates is expected that an application of a suitable
thickness of bituminous overlay is a reasonable
Past traffic information provides estimates of solution provided pre-treatment is carried out in
the number of axle loadings that have traversed areas which have localised failure.
the pavement since the last major rehabilitation
exercise. This requires a review of past traffic Traffic is similar throughout the length of the
data collected by the Highway Planning Unit road since there are no major intersections in
(HPU), Ministry of Works. Traffic survey between. Traffic loading estimations have been
records dates to more than 10 years back and is explained in Chapter 4. Traffic would not influ-
sufficient to estimate accurate past traffic load- ence the earlier selected sections.
ing. Estimates of the load equivalency factor
can be made using procedures described in Deflection survey was carried out at 50 and
Chapter 4. 100 metres intervals depending on the condi-
tion of the pavements.
Step 4. Estimate residual pavement life
Inspection and statistical analysis of the deflec-
Estimate the pavement residual life from the tion data normally result in a revision of the
deflection life curve. The residual lives define preliminary sections. The representative deflec-
tion is estimated over a section by statistical the interpretation with respect to the other
calculation. The required overlay thickness can shortcomings of the mechanistic model
be design for each section from this deflection desribed earlier. An interim condition criterion
value. is given in Table 3.3.
Mechanistic structural assessment using the The stresses and strains in the pavement layers
Falling Weight Deflectometer or the Road can also be calculated. The tensile stress below
Rater the surfacing and the compressive stress on the
subgrade are the two critical stresses normally
The deflection readings at the various offsets consider. The calculated stresses in the analysis
when plotted, produced a bowl shape diagram are compared to their respective allowable
shown in Figures 3.8, normally termed as the stresses pre-determined in the laboratory to
deflection bowl. This response from the load- estimate their residual life. The material with
ing system is the basis of a theoretical approach the lowest residual life is normally assumed to
that leads to the estimation of pavement layer represent the residual life of the pavement. This
moduli and residual life described earlier in calculation also requires traffic loading
information that provides an estimate of the
Chapter 2. number of repeated axle loading.
The materials characteristics, such as the mod- In summary, the steps involved in determining
uli of each layer, Poisson ratios, layer thick- the moduli are as follows :
nesses are first estimated. A deflection bowl is
predicted using the multi-layer elastic theory. i) Input parameters are measured deflec
The predicted deflection bowl is compared to tions, layer thicknesses and loading
the actual deflection bowl measured by the characteristics and geophone arrange
FWD. When they are equal or within a prede- ments
termined identical range, the layer moduli satis- ii) Estimate the moduli of surfacing (El),
fying this condition is taken as the estimated base (E2) and sub-base (E3) and the
moduli of the layer. These modulus values can sub-grade.
be used to estimate the condition of the materi- iii) Transform the layers to equivalent
als in the pavement. The ratio of moduli of dif- homogeneous structures using the
ferent layers in the pavement (modular ratio) Method of Equivalent Thickness (MET)
may also be used to interpret its condition. The iv) Calculate a set of deflections.
moduli values can be translated to CBR using a v) Compare computed and measured
relationship given by : deflections.
vi) If the differences in deflections are less
CBR = E/10 ...... (after SHELL than + 5 %, then the moduli values can
International) be accepted, otherwise repeat iteration
Where, CBR = California Bearing Ratio from step 4 onwards.
E = Modulus of material
Many computer programs are available in deal-
The modulus of asphalt surfacing may vary ing with the above computation. Currently
from as low as 500 MN/mm- to more than there are more than 10 available packages.
10,000 MN/mm-. For the Federal Route These programs need proper evaluation and
Network it may be assumed that asphalt modu- verification for correct use and interpretation. It
lus greater than 3500 MN/mm- is sound. Easier is important to bear in mind that the pro-
and clearer interpretation can be made if there grammes demand full understanding of its
are available relationship between modulus of input and output procedure. Most importantly,
asphalt against traffic damage. Research work its approach must be correct for local environ
by IKRAM is currently studying this aspect of
ment and its limitations are clearly outlined. loading and actual field conditions are covered.
At IKRAM, specific focus is given on the
JKR is currently using the PHOENIX program development of a cornputer package called
that was purchased with the FWD and is fully SERF (System for Evaluation and
documented. This program was design com- Rehabilitation of Flexible Pavements) using
plete with moduli estimation, residual life pre- local performance models. These models are
diction and overlay design. The output modulus derived from research at IKRAM and are veri-
values was found to be reasonable and practical fied against established computer packages.
for pavements in Malaysia. Further develop- This package has two main modules on evalua-
ment and verification of the program are in tion and rehabilitation. The evaluation module
progress. is currently in use while the rehabilitation mod-
ule is being designed to incorporate the expert
Areas related to local temperature, moisture, system.
Estomated Structural
Pavement Layer Strength Indication Rating
Coeffecient
CBR < 5% (50MN/m2) Poor 0.10
Subgrade 5 - 10 % Satisfactory 0.20
> 10 % (100 MN/m2) Sound 0.23
Modular ratio (E3/Esg)
< 1.5 Poor 0.23
Sub-base
1.5 - 2.0 Satisfactory 0.30
> 2.0 Sound 0.32
Modular ratio (E2/Esg)
< 1.5 Poor 0.25
Gramular Base
1.5 - 2.0 Satisfactory 0.30
> 2.0 Sound 0.32
Modular value (MN/m2)
< 1500 Very poor 0.60
Bituminous 1500 - 2500 0.70
Poor
Surfacing 2500 - 3500 0.85
Satisfactory
> 3500 Sound 0.95
Structural assessment using the DCP A summary plot of the results will show the
variability of the pavement thickness and esti-
The DCP is portable and lightweight and can mated strength. Similar simple variability
be operated easily. It is a penetration test equip- check procedure can be used as described earli-
ment that directly measures the ability of the er in para. 3.3.3.
material to resists penetration thus indirectly
Step 4.
Estimated of Estimate the existing layer thicknesses and the
CBR structural respective CBR values. The procedures given
coefficients
in the IKRAM DCP guideline, includes meth-
Sub-base ods of determining the layer thicknesses and
> 30 % 0.3 CBR values. A uniform section consists of sig-
20 - 30 % 0.2 nificantly similar layer thicknesses. If the layer
< 20 % 0.1 thicknesses are significantly different, the sec-
Road-base tioning may be adjusted. Pavement layer thick-
> 100 % 0.32 nesses are normally critical in selecting the
80 - 100 % 0.30 remedial measures.
< 80 % 0.25
Surface texture
nomenon called aquaplaning is highly likely to slipperiness of both highways and airport run-
occur and will cause skidding. There is at pres- ways (10).
ent no mandatory minimum surface texture
requirement for new or in-service road surfac- 3.3.6 Other key factors to consider during
ings in Malaysia. A review of the subject is pavement evaluation
being undertaken by IKRAM whereby an
interim specification will be prepared. Moisture variation; drainage and shoulder,
rainfall intensity, seasonal variation
Surface texture can be measured conventional-
ly using the Sand Patch method (Plate 3.8 or Pavement cross section should be design to
the more advanced TRRL Minitexture meter eliminate water from entering the component
(Plate 2.9). The sand patch is cheaper, easily pavement layers at any time. In Malaysia, new
available and simple to use. road pavement would normally have these fea-
tures. However, for old pavement, this seldom
The texture measurements define indirectly the happens and consideration of moisture varia-
probability of the removal of bulk water tion in the pavement layers during the evalua-
trapped between the tyres for safe high speed tion period should be noted. Seasonal variation
driving under wet condition. There are circum- plays a major part in the estimation and predic-
stance where the water film thickness under the tion of performance. Investigation measure-
Malaysian condition can reach a level where ments have to be corrected for seasonal varia-
even the best surface texture will still be flood- tions.
ed with water. Heavy rainfall would normally
lead to this phenomenon. Direct skidding test Environmental effects; rainfall, tempera-
simulating this condition at high speed may be ture, humidity
required. The Friction Tester is an example of
such equipment that can measure skid resist- The main environmental elements perculiar to
ance under such conditions (Plate each country that can affect pavement perform-
ance are temperature, rainfall and humidity.
Figure 3.11 Micro and macro-texture Skid Bituminous material is known to be sensitive to
resistance temperature and other environmental factors.
3.10). IKRAM will be equiped with this equip- Most laboratory standards of testing for this
ment in the near future which can measure the material are at 25°C depicting moderate service
temperature conditions. This should have been bitumen hardening at the surface. Research is
35°C or 40°C that realistically depicts local still in progress to understand and quantify its
conditions. Research findings by TRRL have role. However, at this juncture the combined
shown that there is a significant increase in the effect of environment in relation to ageing is
rate of pavement deterioration during the sum- the best and most practical to consider.
mer period. However there is insufficient Hardening by oxidation plays a more critical
recorded experience in field performance pre- role in the ageing process.
diction above 35°C, covering the Malaysian
range of pavement service temperature. With 3.3.7 Detailed Material Investigation
this difficulty in hand the use of the simplified
approach must be carefully reviewed with General
experience in the field.
Direct material assessment is only necessary if
The average yearly rainfall in Malaysia is 2000 the non-destructive approaches fail to provide
millimetres, higher than any other country sufficient information that confidently guides
known to have full research in pavement per- treatment selection. This scope of works falls
formance. Within the country itself there are under the category of detail material investiga-
differences in rainfall intensity. Hilly areas and tion that usually arise from premature pave-
the eastern region of the country are known ment failures or very serious failures.
to have high rainfall especially in the monsoon.
Due recognition of this must be made. The usual approach to this is to dig a test pit in
Accelerated deterioration of the surfacing in the pavement at selected locations determined
these areas can be expected with the presence from results of the initial assessment. The
of more water. The rate of change of deteriora- materials are sampled for laboratory testing.
tion is also expected to be faster especially Insitu tests that could indicate actual material
those related to cracking. condition on site can also be carried out. The
JKR Standard Specifications for pavement
Little is known of the effect of humidity on material govern the suitability criteria of exist-
pavement performance. However it is predicted ing material. Detailed requirements of material
that the effect of heavy rainfall and temperature standard should also follow this specification.
are more to performance rather than humidity.
Ultra Violet (UV) radiation is an additional fac- Surfacing
tor contributing to pavement deterioration. UV
radiation is thought to accelerate the rate of The strength and weakness of bituminous sur-
facing are its behaviour sensitivity with temper- spreading the traffic load. It must be strong and
ature. The bitumen used in the mix is the main sufficiently thick. Unbound crushed stone, dry-
controlling factor that determine the properties bound macadam and wet-bound macadam
of the mix. The primary functions of the bitu- have been the major types of granular road
men are : base materials used in Malaysia. The specifica-
tions and requirements for strength have been
i) Binding agent described fully in the standard specifications.
ii) Waterproofing The thickness of the road-base layer is the most
iii) Stable important information that must be known in
iv) Durability and oxidation resistance pavernent evaluation. It is mandatory if a
mechanistic analysis is used.
The condition of the existing mix may indicate
deficiency of some of the above requirements. Granite and limestone has been the major type
Bitumen penetration grade 80/100 is normally of aggregates used for road construction in
specified for use in JKR road pavements. Malaysia. There has been no experimental evi-
Laboratory tests can be carried out to investi- dence stating the better types for use as a road-
gate the condition of the bitumen in the exist- base. Compliance to the requirements laid
ing mix. The viscosity and the penetration down in the Standard Specifications is suffi-
value of the bitumen can provide sufficient cient to judge the suitability of the material.
information on the condition of existing During the evaluation, investigation of the den-
asphalt. sity and aggregate grading of the material may
be sufficient to check the quality of the road-
Apart from bitumen, the aggregates used in the base material used.
surfacing mix should be sufficiently strong to
withstand traffic loading and construction oper- In-situ density test can be carried out to meas-
ations. It should also have adequate polishing ure the field density of the road base layer.
resistance. Requirements of the Standard Adequate samples should be taken for laborato-
Specifications should be met. ry CBR test to check the material properties.
DCP tests provide a simpler and cheaper alter-
In summary, the key information related to the native to estimate the in-situ bearing capacity
surfacing that may be required during evalua- of the road-base.
tion are: -
Sub-hase
i) Type and composition of mix
ii) Thicknesses of each layer As a secondary load-spreading layer, thickness
iii) Properties and percentage of bitumen is important, apart from other requirements
iv) Temperature adjustment conditions given in the standard specifications. In-situ
v) Fatigue or deformation relationship with CBR Of the sub-base can provide an accurate
repeated loading indication of its existing strength. Laboratory
vi) Hardening characteristics of the mix tests could indicate its properties and suitability
vii) Aggregate grading, properties and pol - as a sub-base material. DCP tests can also be
ishing resistance used to estimate the bearing capacity of the sub
base layer.
The condition of the existing pavement and the
choice of evaluation techniques govern the Subgrade
necessity of the above information.
The subgrade material that mainly consists of
Road base compacted soil is best studied using conven-
tional soil testing procedures. In-situ tests such
The primary function of the road base is for as density determination, CBR and the DCP
test may not be sufficient to asses the quality of neering judgement is required before digging a
the soil. Laboratory compaction test, moisture trial pit which is normally not recommended.
content, soil classification and CBR provide a Localised reconstruction area could be identi-
clearer indication of the soil compliance to fied from experience and historical evidence.
requirements in the Standard Specification. Rutting and cracking intensities are best used
as a guiding criteria. This will be explained fur-
Samples for moisture determination can be ther in Chapter 5.
taken at various depths below the formation
level to check for the existence of any moisture 3.4 REFERENCES
gradient. Bulk samples can be taken for labora-
tory tests. The testing procedure and the quality 1. M.S HOFFMAN, M.R THOMPSON.
requirements are stated in the JKR Standard Mechanistic interpretation of nondestruc-
Specifications. tive pavement testing deflections.
In-situ measurements Transportation Engineering Series No. 32.
Illinois Cooperative Highway and
hi-situ density of the soil indicates the field Transportation. Illinois 1982.
condition of the compacted soil. The field den-
sity can be compared to the maximum density 2. N.W LISTER, The transient and long term
achieved in the laboratory. Poorly compacted performance of pavements in relation to
soil can be found by this method. Soil density temperature, Proceeding of the 3rd Int.
measurement by the sand replacement method Conference on the Structural Design of
is normally used. Asphalt Pavements, Vol. 1, London, 1972.
In-situ CBR is slow an expensive. The DCP 3. OVERSEAS UNIT. Deflection mesure-
can be used to measure the penetration resist- ments and road strengthening. Department
ance of the subgrade. The CBR values can be of Transport, Overseas Unit Information
estimated using established DCP in-situ/CBR Note. Crowthorne 1986. (Overseas Unit
relationship. TRRL)
8. ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY. (gross weight) will not cause any significant
Instructions for using the portable skid damage to the road pavement. Heavier vehicles
resistance tester. Ministry of Transport, normally fitted with large axles will cause the
Road Research Laboratory, Road Note 27, damage. The weight of an individual axle is
London 1969 (H.M.S.O). called an axle load. A standard axle has been
defined as having an axle load of 8 160 kg
9. SABRI M. Skid Resistance and Surface (8.16 Tonne). The repetition of this standard
Texture of Wearing Courses. MSc. Thesis, axle is used as the quantitative measure of
University of Birmingham 1991 (unpub- damaging effect to the road pavement.
lished).
The extent of the final rehabilitation measures
10. SAAB Friction Tester, Workshop Manual. recommended depends on the expected usage
SAAB Car Division. S-61181 Nykoping. of the improvement. Accurate traffic assess-
1993. ment is needed to study and forecast the impact
resulting from the road improvement. The
BIBLIOGRAPHY changes in traffic movements will determine
the future life of the pavement. Effects of traf-
1. DAVID CRONEY, The Design and fic volume and loading to the pavement service
Performance of Road Pavements, life have been established since the AASHO
Department of Environment, Department road test. It was shown that the pavement life is
of Transport, Transport and Road Research dependent substantially on the amount of heavy
Laboratory. HMSO, London 1977. axle load passes. Prediction of the accumulated
standard axle load requires high degree of
2. YODER E.J., WITCZAK M.W. Principles accuracy. The number of axle loads depends on
of Pavement Design. 1975. the commercial vehicle activities and types of
goods transported along the road.
3. THE SIIEL1, BITUMEN HANDBOOK,
Shell Bitumen U.K.1990. 4.2 TRAFFIC CATEGORIES
In Malaysia, there has been cases where new For specific surveys, traffic counts can be car
economic development has introduced extra
OS29 (JR105) 9630 845 (1700 - 1800) 18.3 13.3 15.0 6.2 3.1 14.1 24.3
S28R (JR107) 18121 1703 (1300 - 1400) 38.4 14.2 10.0 4.0 6.5 26.8 20.5
OS29 (JR105) 11510 1381 (0700 - 0800) 45.3 11.3 12.8 6.1 3.5 21.0 22.4
DISTRICT KELUANG
0042 (JR305) 12100 1024 (1800 - 1900) 42.6 10.4 16.8 14.8 3.5 12.0 35.1
F54R (JR306) 26695 2111 (1700 - 1800) 44.2 12.7 8.4 5.0 2.9 26.8 16.3
0043 (JR304) 1164 7878 (1700-1800) 43.5 8.5 19.7 17.2 4.0 7.1 40.9
DISTRICT MUAR
F42R (JR61 I) 6016 452 (1800 - 1900) 51.3 9.8 12.0 6.0 3.0 17.9 21.0
OF-41 (JR601) 10596 881 (1700 - 1800) 50.4 9.8 12.7 2.5 2.8 21.8 18.0
S26R (JR609) 5055 410 (1500 - 1600) 39.6 8.7 23.8 7.6 3.1 17.3 34.5
DISTRICT SEGAMAT
0038 (JR801) 6444 488 (1400 - 1500) 40.3 12.9 10.9 12.3 2.1 21.6 25.3
0052 (JR802) 5614 442 (1700 - 1800) 43.4 15.4 11.2 12.9 2.0 15.0 26.1
0039 (JR803) 6583 556 (1400 - 1500) 44.7 11.8 10.2 18.3 1.6 13.4 30.1
OS22 (JR804) 4444 416 (1900 - 2000) 42.3 12.5 9.2 4.7 1.5 29.8 15.4
ried out manually using hand-held traffic coun- equivalence single axle load factor for each
ters. The counting operation can be divided into axle weighed is calculated using the relation-
a few groups to count specific vehicle types in ship :
both directions of travel.
EF = (N/8.16)4.55
Portable axle weighing devices can be used to
weigh the axle loads of heavy vehicles Plate Where :
4.1 Weigh-in-motion technique is also available N = Axle load (in Tonnes)
and this could be a better choice since full sam- EF = Equivalent factor of the damaging
pling of heavy vehicles can be made. Both effect
types of equipment normally measure the 4.55 is the load equivalency exponent
wheel load of each axle. The axle load will be 8.16 is the standard axle load in Tonnes
twice the wheel load.
The axle equivalency exponent of 4.5 can be
4.4 FORECASTING FUTURE TRAFFIC used as an interim value. This value was rec-
ommended for use in Malaysia based on over-
4.4.1 Base data seas experience (2). It is sufficient to use this
value to assess the damaging effect.
The base data for forecasting future traffic can If axle load surveys are not possible, estimates
be taken from the specific traffic and axle load of the damaging effect can be chosen from past
survey results. If this is not available, traffic studies of similar survey. The estimates can
information from the HPU can be used (Table also be made using procedures given in Arahan
4.1) Teknik (Jalan) on pavement design.
be faster and produced more samples need to be made for these cases. Using
but it may not be accurate. Thus, it the results from the heavily loaded lane
requires skillful calibration. Any weigh only, can sometimes be adopted. Due
ing method can be used provided the consideration must be made if it is too
above considerations with respect to excessive and becomes uneconomical.
accuracy are carefully noted. Staged rehabilitation may be more
appropriate in such cases where the risk
iii). Conversion to damaging effect can be reduced.
E HEAVY VEHICLES
7 91 77 120 122 30 43 12 5
AVERAGE
139 131 176 156 72 68 47 46
VEHICLES
STANDARD AXLE
PER COMMERCIAL 3.28 1.11 2.86 0.86 2.16 0.50 1.33 0.35
VEHICLE (SA/CV)
CUMULATIVE YEAR-
166410 53075 183726 48968 56765 12410 22816 5877
LY S. AXLE
COMMERCIAL VEHICLE
YEAR COMMENTS
Southbond Northbond
1989 429,717 120,337 Base year
1990 451,202 126,354
1991 473,762 132,671
1992 497,451 139,305 North-south Expressway (Completed)
1993 261,162 175,552
1994 274,220 184,300
1995 287,931 193,516
1996 302,328 203,191
1997 317,444 213,351
1998 333,316 224,018
1999 349,982 235,219 End of analysis period
TOTAL 3,548,798 1,827,477
Average cumulative yearly standard axles (CESA) = 2.69 msa
Without specific traffic or axle load survey ii. The distribution ratio of axle loading on
results the five wheel arrangement is
0.14:0.20:0.20:0.23:0.23 and remains
From the HPU traffic survey results in 1988, similar for lower or higher gross load.
the traffic results as shown in Table 4.8 were
obtained from a recent count in April. iii. Only trucks with minimum of five axles
will be used and trucks returning are
If similar count is available in October, the ennpty resulting in negligible damaging
average values should be used. The yearly effect.
damaging effect = 1326 x 365 = 483,990 stan-
dard axles. This will be the base year traffic. iv. The damaging criteria considered was
Accumulation procedure can be done similarly based on phenomenological theory of
as shown in the previous solution cumulative axle load damage only using
equation given in para. 4.4.3.
Problem 2: Abnormal traffic
Solution :
A road is to be upgraded to transport 900,000
tonnes of goods yearly, from one end to the The gross weight of each vehicle was found to
other. The estimated maximum gross weight be 45 tonnes with maximum axle loads of
per vehicle that will be used is 45 tonne. The more than 10 tonnes, the loading that may be
specification and dimension of the vehicle are used.
available. The vehicle type is a five axle trailer.
The distribution ratio of axle loading on the Amount of goods to be transported yearly is
five wheel arrangement is 900,000 tonnes.
0.14:0.20:0.20:0.23:0.23 on the five axles and
remains similar for lower or higher gross loads. Gross weight of each vehicle = 45 tonnes pay
This additional commercial activity will load = 37 tonnes Maximum axle load will be
increase the damaging effect to the existing 10.35 tonnes.
pavement. Estimate the increase in damaging
effect on the pavement. Therefore number of vehicle trips per year =
900,000/(37) = 24,324
The damaging effect will depend on the config-
uration of the vehicles and the load that they The vehicle type is a five axle trailer that will
will carry. For the purpose of estimating the have an estimated axle load distribution ratio of
damaging effect of this additional commercial 0.14:0.20:0.20:0.23:0.23 on the five axles. It is
assumed that the distribution of goods in the loads in developing countries using a
lorry is uniform and distributed over the full portable weighbridge. TRRL Road Note
length of the trailer, otherwise this figure may No 40. Her Majesty's Stationery Office,
change significantly. For gross weight of 45 London.
tonnes , the damaging effect that this lorry
would provide is 9.33 times standard axle 3. ZAIN ARIFFIN, YOJIRO MIYAOKA,
weight of 8.16 tons or the nunnber of equiva- Axle load survey at Jalan Vantooren, Port
lent standard axles per lorry is 9.33. The accu- Kelang, Selangor. Cawangan Jalan Ibu
mulate yearly standard axle is therefore : Pejabat JKR, Kuala Lumpur 1983.
For each year, the additional number of axle 5.1 SELECTION PROCEDURE
loading that will be experienced by the pave-
ment is 0.227 msa. This additional loading will In the previous chapters, the sources of pave-
increase the rate of deterioration to the pave- ment problems, their failure modes and per-
ment. Other factors controlling the rate of dam- formance forecasting have been described. In
age will depend on the current structural condi- this chapter, the results of the evaluation carried
tion of the pavement and distribution of the out on the pavement are used to establish the
goods in the trailer. The existing condition of most appropriate method of rehabilitation.
the pavement could be evaluated by proper
pavement evaluation if deemed necessary The selection procedure depends heavily on
(Chapter 3). engineering judgement but other factors such
as costs, construction feasibility, effects on the
Existing pavements which have high traffic gradeline and the road user should be consid-
loading inay not experience significant increase ered as well. The general process of selecting
in axle loading or the damaging effect resulting an appropriate treatment is as shown in Figure
from the values calculated above. The normal 5.1.
traffic using the route is already high, therefore
the percentage increase would be small. Stage l: Identifying Prohlein
However for an existing pavement with low
traffic loading and weaker pavement, an As a first step, the mode of failure of the exist-
increase in the axle loading with the above ing pavement needs to be identified. At this
magnitude will accelerate the rate of deteriora- point, constraints on the projects such as the
tion. This is not favourable and due considera- design life of the rehabilitated section should be
tion must be made if the abhormal traffic is to identified.
utilise such roads.
Stage 2: Identifying Prohahle
4.6 REFERENCES Alternaties
1. The AASHO Road Test Report, Highway Based on the results of pavement evaluation. a
Research Board. Report 5: Pavement number of alternative methods of rehabilitation
Research.Special Report 61E. should be selected. These are tested against the
Washington, D.C., 1962 (National feasibility of design, construction constraints,
Academy of Science, National Research and requirement of service life.
Council), Publication No. 954. AASHO
Stage 3: Selecting the Preferred Solution
2. Transport and Road Research Laboratory
(1978) Guide to the measurement of axle Those alternatives which pass these criteria are
* Cost analysis
* Other constuctions
* Select preferred solution
* Detailed design
* Construction
further analysed by considering their life-cycle bilitation for the whole project.
costs and other non-monetary constraints.
Finally, the preferred rehabilitation alternative Each alternative technique is evaluated first on
is selected for detailed design. The engineer the merit of its design and construction feasibil-
should not rule out using different techniques ity. Consideration should be given to the prob-
on one project. It may be more cost effective to lems of construction during monsoon periods,
do this than select a common method of reha for instance. Care must be taken where roads
pass under bridges. For traffic and safety pur- i) rejuvenating the aged surface using
poses, the vertical clearance underneath a chemicals
bridge should be maintained and this will limit ii) scaling the cracks
the allowable overlay thickness. Other factors iii) blinding polished and flushed surfaces
to consider include traffic control requirements, with hot aggregates
disturbance to the public, the need for staged iv) applying thin bituminous overlays
construction, and the availability of plants and v) cutting affected areas and patching with
materials. new bituminous mixes
vi) recycling the affected surface
5.2 REHABILITATIION OPTIONS
The surface recycling and cut and patch alter-
The rehabilitation of flexible pavements natives should be considered especially when
encompasses a broad range of activities which the deterioration of the pavement is more
could be grouped into three categories namely: advanced but has not reached the stage where a
structural overlay is necessary.
i) Restoration
ii) Resurfacing (strucl.ural) Successful restoration work achieves one or
iii) Reconstruction more of the following; it repairs the existing
distress, decreases the rate of increase of rough-
The choice of any specific rehabilitation tech- ness, and slows down the subsequent pavement
nique depends on the condition of the existing deterioration by arresting the mechanism caus-
pavement. The conditions which apply for one ing the distress. For example crack sealing will
project may be different from another. For this preN ent water from entering the pavement
reason, rehabilitation techniques will change thus preventing failure in the lower layers.
from one project to another or within one sin-
gle project. Although other factors are Resurfacing (Structural)
involved, theperformance and cost-effective-
ness of each type of rehabilitation technique As the cumulative traffic load increases the
will depends primarily on the existing pave- fatigue life of the surfacing is exceeded, which
ment condition. As a general guide, the differ- eventually manifests itself in the form of crack-
ent pavement rehabilitation options can be ing in the wheel path (crocodile cracking).
summarised as shown in Figure 5.2 where they When the pavement has suffered severe and
are related to the life of the road. extensive structural damage, restoration works
may not be cost-effective. Structural improve-
In the first phase of the pavement's life, its con- ment would then become a costeffective
dition is good and its rate of deterioration is option. It is therefore important to determine
normally low. At this stage, routine mainte- when a pavement requires structural improve-
nance should be considered as it may be more ments as opposed to restorative work. This can
cost-effective than carrying out major mainte- be done by carrying out a pavement evaluation
nance later in the life of the pavement. excercise to determine the structural integrity of
the pavement.
Restoration
Resurfacing is currently the most popular
As the pavement condition deteriorates further, method of rehabilitating distressed pavements
particularly when distress such as cracking and in Malaysia. It involves the placement of fresh
polishing of the aggregate become apparent, material on the existing surfacing which
the restoration rehabilitation option is warrant- improves riding quality and provides additional
ed. Some techniques that maintain the service- structural strength. It is necessary to design the
ability of the pavement include : overlay thickness in order to achieve the
desired design life.
The most commonly used resurfacing materials of the existing pavement condition. This can be
are: - done using non-destructive methods or by dig-
i) thick asphalt overlays ging trial pits to carry out a more direct exami-
ii) granular overlays nation of the conditions of the lower pavement
layers. However, digging trial pits should be
Resurfacing cm be applied to all types of dis- avoided as much as possible because the rein-
tressed surfacing, but pre-treatment is some- statement works usually do not bring back the
times necessary before resurfacing is pavement to existing conditions. This will
actually carried out. result in a depression on the road surface.
The restoration option is suitable for pavements should be compared to the increased life of
with good structural integrity of standard pavement to establish its cost effectiveness.
deflection lower than l).5 mm. It is best applied
to pavanents with distress limited to the surfac- Construction :
ing. Block cracking, stripping, cracks, ravel- The application of the rejuvenating chemicals
ling, polishing, bleeding and aged surfacing are is simple to carry out. There is no special
the typical types of failure suitable for restora- equipment needed for this work. On a larger
tion techniques. size job, it may be economical to use a
mechanical sprayer (Plate 5.1)
5.3.1 Rejuvenating
Since the chemicals used tend to-leave a layer
Description: Hardened or aged bituminous of residual oils on the road surface, slowing
surfacing can be restored by spraying a laver of down the traffic during the initial period is very
bitumen or polymer modified bitumen to important.
improve its existing condition. Rejuvenating
agents have been introduced as an alternative Cost :
as they can restore the original properties of the Currently, in Malaysia there are not many reju-
bitumen. Figure 5.3 shows the constituents of venating chemicals being marketed. The price
the bitumen in the bitumen suffering from range for a rejuvenating job is about RM 2.00
hardening and the effects of adding lost con- to RM 4.00 per square metre depending upon
stituents. The effect of rejuvenating agents has the area to be rejuvenated.
not been studied in the Malavsian environment.
Currently the available products claimed that Reliability :
the rejuvenating agents could replace the poly- The performance of the rejuvenating chemicals
meric constituents lost as a result of oxidation depends upon how deep the chemicals are
and loss of volatiles. Howevcr the correct drawn down into the bituminous layer. This is
choice of rejuvenating agent depends on care- dependent on the density of the surfacing. A
ful study on the bitumen condition in the exist- dense mix such as the Asphaltic Concrete
ing surface as it will dictate the type and Wearing Course will experience little draw
amount of rejuvenating chemicals to be used. down. Rejuvenating chemicals are useful when
used with other methods such as the surface
Conditions of use : recycling, where the chemicals are used to
AgeHardening had been described earlier as replenish the lost chemical constituents in the
a major cootributary factor to deterioration of asphalt.
bituminous surfacings.
5.3.2 Crack Sealing
The top few millimeters of the surfacing suffer
the most severe hardening. Thin surfacings Description: Crack sealing is a cheap restora-
which suffer from this effect will look dry. For tion alternative which would seal the cracks
thick asphalt, cracks may occur from the top from ingress of water. Small or fine cracks (<
where rejuvenating chemicals can be applied. 3mm wide) may be filled with crack fillers. In
Laboratory tests are needed to identify the addition, fine sand or fine aggregates may be
degree of improvement and thus the most cor- added to fill up larger cracks. The major benefit
rect use of rejuvenating chemicals. Excess to be gained from proper sealing is that it
introduction of polymeric constituents may reduces water infiltration into the cracks.
effect the bitumen properties. As such, precau-
tions should be taken to eliminate the possible Conditions of use :
introduction of other problems such as bleed- Crack sealing is normally carried out for
ing, a slippery surface and weakening of exist- environmentally induced block cracks where
ing asphalt. The cost of rejuvenating agents environment is the major controlling factor of
ciently good properties. The required properties failure is mostly found on climbing lanes and at
are : junctions. The unstable layer must be removed
i) Stability - to resist shoving and rutting prior to being replaced with a stiffer mix.
ii) Cohesiveness - should stick to host
material Construction :
iii) Resistance to water - impermeable Even though the construction of patching does
iv) Durable - resist wear not require special equipment, proper construc-
v) Workability - easily handled and con- tion technique is still important. On many ocas-
structed sions, the construction is not carried out proper-
vi) Storageability - can be stored xvithout ly causing the patched area to fail early. The
deteriorating for immediate works correct construction method is described below.
See also Figure -5.4.
The performance of a bituminous patch
depends on quality of the materials and con- Marking
struction techniques. The boundaries identified to be patched should
be marked. Straight line markings are prefered.
Conditions of use : All deteriorated areas should be included with
For pavements with localised surface failures, allowance for joints. These boundaries can be
cutting out the failed areas and patching it with changed during cutting to allow for initially
new bituminous mix should restore the pave- undetected damage.
ment. The 'cut and patch' method is also a
means of pre-treating the existing pavements Cutting
before a resurfacing work. It is designed to The area marked for patching should be neatly
remove the existing cracks and thereby elimi- cut and removed using a proper asphalt cutting
nate reflection cracks. However, the cracks tools. A vertical unbroken cut will enhance
have to be removed totally as cracks in the adhesion and promote efficient compaction.
lower layers will eventually cause reflection
cracks on the new layer. Cleaning and drying
The surface under the new patch must be clean,
For pavements with rutting caused by the insta- dry and free from loose material. Air blowing
bility of the wearing course mix, the 'cut and followed by vacuum cleaning is recommended
patch' alternative is also suitable. This type of for efficient cleaning and drying.
Tack Coating
A thin bituminous layer is normally sprayed Compaction
uniformly on the prepared surface prior to Vibratory rolling is the best method for com-
patching hot-mix to promote adhesion between pacting patched area. By rolling the edges
the new layer and the cut surface. For small first the filling will pinch into the hole. The
jobs, low pressure hand sprayer can be used, centre of the patch is rolled first, moving out-
whereas a bitumen sprayer is suitable for large wards towards the edges with each succeeding
areas. Tack coat materials available include : passes. This will tighten the adhesion around
the edges. The roller should rest completely on
i) cut-back bitumen the patched area and not partly on the old pave-
ii) bitumen emulsion ment.
iii) synthetic resin
Cleaning up and checking joints
Tack coating should not be applied if cold-mix
asphalt is used, unless the patch surface is Cleaning up is essential for a comprehensive
made of concrete. The tack coat can soften the patching ,job. Checking the finished product
coldmix and promote shoving and stripping. especially the joints should be carried out. The
edge or joints of the patch should be sealed
Filling using bituminous material similar to crack
sealants described earlier. The life of the
The material can be placed in several lifts. A patch is often dependent on how well the joints
single lift should not exceed 100 min thick. are made.
Filling is normally carried out manually.
Shovels should be used and raking is not advis- Cold Milling
able to reduce segregation. Hand tamping at
edges and corners can also be carried out with If extensive patching is required or if the pro-
a hand rammer. The surrounding surface must posed patches are too close to each other, then
be kept clean from spilled filling material. cold milling can be considered as an option. A
i) Surface Dressings
ii) Slurry Seals (Thin seal mixtures)
iii) Thin Hot Mix Overlays.
Surface Dressings
Description :
worry that loose stones may pose hazards to requires the binder to be sprayed using a
the traffic. Furthermore, the long construction mechanical sprayer and the aggregates to be
period may cause traffic distruption. As such it spread by a specially designed chipping spread-
is proposed that the use of surface dressings on er. These are inexpensive and are easily
asphaltic concrete surfaces be limited to low available locally.
volume roads with Average Daily Traffic
(ADT) < 5000. Traffic control immediately after the surface
dressings have been applied, is important. This
When using surface dressings on asphaltic con- is due to the loose chippings which still need
crete surfaces, a proper design needs to be car- kneading by the traffic tyres. During this peri-
ried out. The design guideline from the od, at least 2 hours after application for normal
Transport Research Laboratory Overseas Road bitumen, the speed of the traffic have to be low.
Note 3 specifies the rate of spray of the binder This period may be reduced if modified binders
and the aggregates as important to the perform- are used.
ance of the surface dressings. The hardness of
the existing asphaltic concrete surface and the Cost :
flakiness of the aggregates are important con- The cost of construction of surface dressings on
siderations too. The hard surface will not allow laterite surfaces (usually in the rural areas) is
any penetration of the aggregates for embed- less than half that for Asphaltic Concrete. But
ment and because of this, a suitable binder is to construct it on existing bituminous pave-
needed to ensure the stones are not whipped off ments may cost more since the binders are dif-
by traffic. ferent and the traffic control is more elaborate.
At present, the cost ranges from RM 3.00 to
The use of modified bitumen, fibres or special RM 8.00 per square metre.
aggregate may improve the construction proce-
dure and. enhance the performance of surface Reliability :
dressing. This improved performance will If the surface dressings is constructed on a road
increase its applicability on high volume roads. that is structurally sound,
it will last a long time. The thicker bitumen
Construction : film thickness ensures the flexibility of the
The construction of the surface dressings layer and would reduce age hardening. Because
of this, the use of surface dressings as a restora- It has potential for both corrective and preven-
tion alternative should be encouraged. In tive maintenance of asphalt surfacings.
Malaysia where the intense sunlight does create However, it is not a structural layer.
problems with the rate of ageing, the surface Application of slurry seal is known to retard
dressings wearing course may last longer than the hardening process of the top portion of
a thin asphaltic concrete layer. asphaltic concrete surfacing.
tions. Nominal 4.75 mm aggregate size is spec- RM 4.00 per square metre, whereas the modi-
ified for Type I whilst size 9.5 mm for Type 11 fied slurry seal costs about RM 4.00 to RM
and 111. The emulsion specified should be 8.00 per square meter depending on the size of
checked for compatibility with the aggregate the job.
and the desired setting time. Slow setting
cationic emulsion is normally used. Reliability :
Slurry Seals are effective in areas where the
Conditions of use : primary problem is excessive oxidation and
The nature of the existing surfacing and the hardening of the existing surface. They may
expected traffic level govern the appropriate also be used to improve the friction characteris-
use of slurry seals. It is not suitable for shape tics of polished surfaces at low traffic levels.
correction or for use at heavily loaded pave- However, when used in areas where the pave-
ments with interconnected cracks or more ment deflections are high and the surface is
advanced cracks. Slurry seal should not be suffering from cracks (block and crocodile
applied on structurally, weak areas. cracks), the slurry seal will crack very quickly
Conventional slurry seals using slow setting and should not be used.
emulsion need a long curing time, therefore
application is not advisable when rain is Thin Hot Mix
expected. Rain water can wash away the emul-
sion, breaking aggregate bondage and destroy- Description :
ing the slurry. Localized pavement defects such Thin hot mix asphalt is an asphalt mix which is
as cracks, nits, humps, low pavement edges normally less than 40 mm thick. Any type of
must be repaired before applying the slurry hot asphalt mix or modified mix can be used.
seals. The thin asphalt layer is mainly to correct sur-
face deficiencies and will not add much struc-
Modified emulsion, fibres or special aggregates tural strength to the road.
can improve the properties and performance of
slurry seals. Their conditions of use is similar Apart from the normal asphalt concrete, fibr-
to the surface dressings described above and ereinforced ultra-thin mix and the porous
may be extended to higher class of roads. asphalt mix fall into this category. The fibre-
reinforced ultra-thin mix is popularly used in
Construction : Europe with success. The introduction of the
Constriction of the slurry seals require a special fibres increases the fines in the mix, thereby
paving equipment. A more powerful and faster allowing more binder to be added. This addi-
mixer is required if the modified emulsions are tional binder in the mix will help in preventing
used. It is also desirable to have experienced ageing of the binder.
contractors to do the job.
The porous asphalt mix is also popular in
The long curing tirrnc of about 3 to 4 hours for Europe. This mix is designed with high void
the normal slurry seal makes it necessary for contents to allow for free draining of surface
the provision of proper traffic control. This is water. The high voids are also able to absorb
especially difficult to carry out in built-up traffic tyre noise which makes it popular in
areas. Usaull_v, sand is used to blind the areas built-up areas. To ensure stability of the mix,
where traffic may be travelling over the wet the use of modified binders may be ncccssan-.
slurry. The inclusion of modifiers to the emul-
sion usually shortens the curing time to about Conditions of use.
30 minutes. Thin hot mixes can be applied at areas subject-
ed to low deflection. It is not meant to correct
Cost : structural failures and severe rutting. Surfacing
The normal slurry seals costs about RM 2.00 to that suffer from polishing, stripping, bleeding
can be overlaid with thin hot mixes. Suitable for a couple of hours before opening to traffic.
tack coats must be used prior to laying the thin
overlays. Strong adhesion with the existing sur- Cost :
face is necessary, otherwise delamination and The cost of constructing the thin hot mix vary
flaking can occur. according to the types and mix design. For the
normal asphaltic concrete thin mix, it cost
The present practice of providing a thin overlay about RM 5.00 to RM 8.00 per square metre.
(up to 40 mm overlay) without giving due con- Tlie fibre-reinforced ultra thin mix costs about
sideration to the structural needs is not a good RM 6.00 to RM 8.00 per square metre. But for
practice. If laid on top of the existing asphalt the porous asphalt mix the use of polymer
layer without prior treatment to the cracked modified binders can increase the cost to about
surface, the cracks reflect through the new RM 10.00 to RM 18.00 per square metre.
layer as early as within 3 months depending on
the deflection and the traffic intensity of the Reliability :
road. It is therefore very important that cracked The aggregate gradings and bitumen type and
surfaces must be treated before overlay. amount used in this mix will affect the per-
formance of the layer. Because of its thin
The fibre-reinforced ultra thin mix and the nature, bigger sized aggregates would be
porous asphalt mix are applicable on road sur- crushed by the steel roller resulting in loose
faces with good structural intensity. These aggregates. Apart from that, the bitumen film
mixes are usually used to enhance the surface thickness will influence the life of the layer.
properties of the pavement. In addition, the
porous asphalt mix can drain surface water fast. In Malaysia pavement constructed with porous
asphalt have performed very well. Its reliability
Construction : depends on the design of the mix and the type
No special equipment other than that used in of binder used. The clogging of this type of
the construction of normal hot mixes is neces- mix with time may reduce its ability to drain
sary. Traffic can run on the mix as soon as the water.
rolling is completed. But in the case of the
porous asphalt, it is necessary to leave the mix 5.3.5. Surface Recycling
Description: Pavement surface recycling is the of surface failures provided the causes and
reworking of the pavement surface to improve extent are known. Effectiveness of its applica-
its performance and correct surface failures tion is highly dependent on the accuracy of the
particularly surface cracking. It is a growing pavement evaluation . Surface recycling does
field in pavement rehabilitation but must be not provide a substantial increase in the struc-
used with care. Suitability of its application will tural strength of the pavement. It is a method
depend primarily on the structural conditions of for treating the surface distresses.
the existing pavement. Normally it can be
applied only when the pavement is structurally It is a known fact that heating of fresh bitumen
sound and the mode of failure is corned to the during manufacture of the asphalt causes age
top of the surfacing. hardening, and re-heating it during hot milling
will induce further hardening. Recycling the
In this method, the surfacing material is scari- pavement surface using the hot milling method
fied or pulverized by using a hot milling with the heat application being higher than 200
(heater-planer or heater-scarifier) or cold- deg C, will cause the condition of the bitumen
milling device. The scarified materials are in the asphalt to deteriorate further. To counter
mixed and relaid in a number of ways, either in this, it is advisable to add rejuvenating chemi-
a continuous single pass or in separate opera- cals to the remixed layer apart from the addi-
tions (Figure 5.5). tion of bitumen.
In using the hot milling method, two types of Available equipment in the market today is
heating devices are available ie. the open flame only capable of heating and softening the top
heating or the radiant heating. Various manu- few centimetres, which restrict the depth of cut
facturers have developed equipment for the for a single pass. The usual depth per pass is
above processes, some of which are used as a approximately 25 mm. With this limitation, the
heating unit on its own, while the more sophis- method would be able to eliminate cracks
ticed ones can carry out the heating, remixing which are of the top-down nature and have pro-
and laying in a single pass. The benefit from gressed to a depth of 50 mm. If the cracks have
the use of the equipment is subject to field gone down through the full depth of the surfac-
investigations of their actual pavement per- ing layer, and these are not removed, then there
formance. is a possibility the remaining cracks will reflect
upwards through the new layer.
Another method of recycling the pavement sur-
face is termed as cold recycling. Cold recycling Construction :
is the reworking of a pavement surface by pul- Specialized equipment is necessary for the
verising the top layer using a milling machine recycling of the pavement surface. The size and
followed by reshaping and compaction. The cost of this equipment depend on the nature of
reshaping and mixing can be done in the Field the operations it can carry out. The most expen-
or at a central plant. Stabilisers and additional sive would be the plant which is capable of car-
materials can be included. The top 25 mm is rying out the recycling, re-laving and addition
normally recycled. This is the critical portion of fresh mixes in a single pass.
where surface failures such as ravelling, bleed-
ing, polishing and weathering occurs. This The use of gases to heat the pavement surface
method is only suitable for correcting surface and the intense heat generated during the oper-
distress. The structure of the pavement must be ation may pose a hazardous situation to the
intact and capable of accepting an overlay with road users. Thus proper traffic control is need-
a standard life expectancy. ed during construction. Care should be taken to
ensure that no pedestrians are allowed to come
Conditions of use : near the heating equipment. The operators of
Surface Recycling can be applied for all types the equipment need to be specially trained.
raelled, and those that are bleeding. Proper materials available in the market, the grid and
evaluation of the existing pavement condition the non-woven geotextiles. When using the
is neccessary to determine the extent of pre- grid, care should be taken to reduce the
treatment required. The following paragraphs possibility of the picking up or stretching the
describe some of the aspects that should be grid by lorry tyres. When this happens, the
considered prior to resurfacing. grids will warp and the resultant displacement
of the grids will lead to poor compaction of the
Resurfacing on Cracked Surfaces asphalt layer. This leads to cracking. On the
other hand, if the non-woven materials are
Cracks occur frequently on roads in Malaysia. used, care should be taken on the amount and
These cracks should be treated early to stop type of tack coat used. If used in excess, the
ingress of water into the road base layer there- nonwoven material will become saturated and
by weakening it. The common practice of over- will lead to bleeding. If the bitumen tack coat is
laying the cracked pavements without prior too soft the material can slide at the exsiting
treatment to the cracked surface. causes the road/material interface.
cracks to reflect through the new layer as early
as within 3 months depending on the deflection Other types of Stress Absorbing Membrane
of the road section and the traffic level. It is Interlayers (SAMI) are also available. These
therefore very important that cracked surfaces can be in the forms of aggregate interlayers
must be treated before overlay. Alternatively, (e.g. surface dressings) or modified bitumen
more expensive techniques such as using inter- with or without chippings. At 1KRAM studies
layers to absorb the stresses and strains of the are being carried out on the use of some of
crack tips can be used. these interlayers. Laboratory experiments are
also being carried out on the manufacture of
One common pre-treatment method is to 'cut SAMIs using natural rubber blended into bitu-
and patch' before overlay. This results not only men.
in delaying reflective cracking but it also gives
a slight increase in the strengnh of the pave- Crushed aggregates have also been used as an
ment. interlayer. This method has perform positively
even with crack movements of l.5mm. In one
The rate of progression of the cracks reflecting of the trials constricted by IKRAM, the crushed
through the new asphaltic layer depends on the aggregates were laid on top of segmented con-
structural strength of the pavements. Pavements crete pavement where the movements at the
with higher deflection. causing higher crack joints were substantial. Previously, asphalt
movements, tend to be the first to crack. overlays without prior treatment Nvould only
last about 2 months. But with this method, the
Another method of reducing reflection cracks cracks from the concrete.joints have vet to
is by introducing a separating layer (Figure 5.6) come through after a couple of years.
to absorb the stresses from the crack move-
ments. An example of this stress-absorbing Resurfacing on Rutted Surfaces
layer is the geosynthetic material. There are
many types of geosynthetic materials available, Resurfacing ou existing pavements with sur-
and most of them claimed to be effective in face nits require special considerations. Dense
mitigating reflection cracks. However, the con- bituminous surfacings nit when it loses its sta-
struction procedures have to be properly looked bility properties. These usually occur in areas
into to ensure that the geosynthetic materials where there are prolonged loading periods
are laid in accordance to the manufacturer's of slow moving or stopped heavy vehicles,
specifications. namely at climbing lanes and at intersections.
The high stresses imposed on the asphalt layer
There are basically two types of geosynthetic causes it to densify and with the reduction in
Resurfacing on Ravelling or
Weathered Surfaces
Cost :
voids in the mix, the mix becomes unstable. A major portion of the cost in carrying out a
This layer must be removed by milling prior to structural resurfacing job goes to the pretreat-
overlaying it with a fresh asphalt layer. ment works. The cost of the asphaltic concrete
itself is around RM 10.00 per square metre,
Bituminous mixes designed by the Marshall whilst the costs of pre-treatment such as the use
method have been shown to perform poorly in of grid geosynthetic materials may push the
high stress areas. To counter this, polymer cost up by between RM 8.00 to RM 20.00 per
modified bitumen can be used in asphaltic con- square metre. The use of fabric geosynthetic
crete on climbing lanes and junctions. The rate materials would reduce the total construction
of rutting of these mixes are slower than the cost as the fabrics may add about 30-40% more
normal asphaltic nixes. However, the use of the to the cost.
polymer modified bitumen can increase the
cost of the asphalt to double its normal cost. Reliabilitv :
Structural resurfacing can last the design life if
In an effort to find a cheaper solution to the proper pre-treament work is carried out. Most
above problem, IKRAM has introduced a new of the resurfacing works which show early
mix for the surfacing, called the HCM signs of distress are due to improper pre-treat-
Bituminous Surfacing. The mix was tried in a ment works.
trial at the Bukit Tinggi climbing lanes along
the Kuala Lumpur - Karak Highway. In the 5.5 RECONSTRUCTION
same trial, other mixes using polymers and
additives were also tried. After nearly 3 years Description: Reconstruction is the removal
in service, the HCM Bituminous Surfacing has and rebuilding of all (including subgrade) or
performed on par to the more expensive poly- part of the road pavement using fresh material
mer modified wearing courses. and new construction specifications. Pavements
that have failed Beverly are usually those
Resurfacing on Bleeding Surface where deterioration has been allowed to occur
without maintenance. The condition of thee
lower granular layers of the pavement is best tion method is uneconomical, it is advisable to
determined by destructive testing. carry out recycling. Recycling of the road base
is a partial reconstruction alternative where the
There are two types of reconstruction, namely, existing surfacing and/or part of the road base
full reconstruction and partial reconstruction. is pulverised, and replaced as a new road base
Full reconstruction is needed when the sub- layer. The process breaks up the existing
grade layer as well as the pavement layers has asphalt layer into small pieces thereby remov-
deteriorated beyond repair. In full reconstruc- ing existing cracks and at the same time allow-
tion, the rebuilding includes the subgrade. ing addition of road base thickness. It therefore
Partial reconstruction is needed when the road can be used to eliminate reflective cracking
base has been contaminated and it has lost its problems and correct thickness deficiencies.
inherent stability. In this case the rebuilding
does not include the subgrade. Base recycling is suitable where the deteriora-
tion of the surfacing has become so extensive
In the case where the failure of the road base is that partial reconstruction option will not be
extensive and conventional partial reconstruc economical. The deterioration can be due to a
iii) Crocodile cracking with block size less able and can be expensive. The works involved
than 100 mm with shoving. in base recycling are: