MAiN DOCUMENTATION

TRR ENGINEERING COLLEGE
A PROJECT REPORT ON
“ROUTE GUIDANCE FOR BLIND PEOPLE USING
GSM AND GPS MODEMS”
Submitted in partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of

degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

By
CH. RAVI SANKAR (08D15A0408)
A. KEERTHI PRIYA (07D11A0407)
P. SUSHMA (07D11A0454)
P. HIMAJA SREE (07D11A0497)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
(AFFILIATED TO J.N.T.U HYDERABAD)
Inole (V) Patancheru (M) Medak (Dist)
HYDERABAD
Page | 1
ROUTE GUIDENCE FOR THE BLIND
2007 - 2011

(AFFILIATED TO J.N.T.U HYDERABAD)
Inole (V) Patancheru (M) Medak (Dist)
HYDERABAD
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project work entitled “ROUTE
GUIDANCE FOR BLIND PEOPLE USING GSM AND GPS
MODEMS” was being submitted by CH RAVI SANKAR
(08D15A0408), A KEERTHI PRIYA (07D11A0407), P SUSHMA
(07D11A0454) P HIMAJA SREE (07D11A0497). In partial
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of bachelor of
Technology in Electronics and Communication Engineering from
Jawaharlal Nehru Technology University – Hyderabad. The results
embodied in this project have not been submitted to any other
University or Institution of the award of any Degree or Diploma.
Prof. C ASHOK KUMAR
Page | 2
Internal Supervisor & Head of the Department.
YOUR PROJECT SURE – CERTIFICATE COMES IN

THIS PAGE
Page | 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Our heartfelt thanks to our principal Prof. Dr. ANIL KUMAR for
having provided us the necessary infrastructure required for the successful
completion of our project.
We acknowledge our gratitude to Prof. C. ASHOK KUMAR, Head of

the Department, Electronics and Communication Engineering, for the constant
guidance and encouragement.
We thank our internal guide Prof. C. ASHOK KUMAR, for his help
and invigorating suggestions extended with immense care throughout our work.
Our sincere thanks to all of the teaching and non – teaching staff for
extending their support and cooperation for the completion of our project.
CH. RAVI SANKAR

(08D15A0408)
A. KEERTHI
(07D11A0407)
Page | 4
P. HIMAJA SREE
(07D11A0497)
P. SUSHMA
(07D11A0454)
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
List of figures
List of tables
CHAPTER – I
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 HISTORY 1
1.3 MOTIVATION 2
1.4 OBJECTIVE 3
1.5 DESIGN POSSIBILITIES 3
1.6 ORGANISATION OF DOCUMENT 4
1.7 BLOCK DIAGRAM 5
Page | 5
CHAPTER – II: MAJOR COMPONENTS 6
2.1 HARDWARE PARTS
2.1.1 MICROCONTROLLER 7
2.1.2 GPS
13
2.1.3 GSM 26
2.1.4 LCD 36
2.1.5 MAX232 41
2.1.6 BUFFER IC (74LS244) 44
2.1.7 POWER SUPPLY 47
2.1.8 INPUT KEYPADS 55
2.1.9BUZZER 56
2.1.10 SERIAL COMMUNICATION (RS 232) 56
2.1.11UART 58
CHAPTER – III:
3.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 68
3.2 INITIAL CIRCUITARY 70
3.3 FINAL CIRCUITARY 71
Page | 6
CHAPTER 4: ADDITIONAL FEATURES:
4.1 INTRODUCTION 72
4.2 COMPONENTS UTILIZED 72
4.2.1 TWO 7555 TIMERIC’S 72
4.2.2 PHOTODIODE 74
4.2.3 INFRARED LED 75
4.2.4 TRANSISTOR BC54 77
CHAPTER – V
CODING
CHAPTER – VI
6.1 ADVANTAGES 79
6.2 LIMITATIONS OF EXISTING DEVICES 79
6.3 APPLICATIONS 80
6.4 FUTURE SCOPE 80
6.5 ACTUAL WAY OF ACCESING THE MODEL 81
CHAPTER – VII
Page | 7
RESULT 82
CONCLUSION 83
REFERENCES 84
ABSTRACT
Based on the investigation about daily activity characteristics and

modes of the blind, the study found that the main difficulties encountered
in a trip of the blind included walking on the road, finding way, taking
a bus and looking for usual life - arena. After analyzing the research and
application of actual blind navigation technologies, to solve the demands
and difficulties in the blind trip, the study presents a blind navigation
system based on Radio Frequency Identification through wireless and
mobile communications technologies. The system consists of GPS, GSM
which can be integrated into the blind cane, mobile phone, Call Center
and center information servers. Using this system, the blind are able to
Page | 8
know their location, condition of roads, vicinity buildings, and inquire

about the optimal routes to their destination and available vehicles. The
technologies used in this navigation system are mature, which ensures the
system is practical, universal and with perfect function.
One of the major goals for blind and visually impaired people is
independent mobility. In this paper an electronic travel aid for blind pedestrians
is then described. It involves a sensor in the integrated cane to detect the
movement of the user when he walks and a microcontroller with synthetic
speech output. This aid is a portable, self contained system that will allow blind
and visually impaired individuals to travel through familiar and unfamiliar
environments without the assistance of guides. In addition, it provides
information to the user about urban walking routes using spoken words to
indicate what decisions to make.
LIST OF FIGURES:
1. GLOBALLY BLIND PEOPLE HISTORY
2. TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORK
3. SPACE SEGMENT
4. SYSTEM SEGMENTATION
Page | 9
5. A GPS SATELLITE
6. USER SEGMENT
7. NAVIGATIONAL SIGNALS
8. THREE DIMENSIONAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
9. GPS APPLICATIONS IN CIVILIAN
10. GSM NETWORK
11. GSM NETWORK AREAS
12.PIN DIAGRAM OF 16*1 LCD LINES
13. MAX 232 IC
14. CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS OF MAX232
15.CONNECTION DIAGRAM OF BUFFER IC
16. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR POWER SUPPLY
17. IDEAL STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER SHOWING MAGNETIC FLUX

IN THE CORE
18. IDEAL TRANSFORMER
19. BRIDGE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT
20. AC HALF WAVE, FULLWAVE RECTIFIED SIGNALS
21. DIODE BRIDGE SMOOTHING
22. DB9 PIN DIAGRAM
23. UART PIN DIAGRAMS
24. PHOTODIODE MODEL
Page | 10
25. IR LED OPERATION DIAGRAM
26. IR LED MODEL
27. TRANSISTOR BC547 & ITS SYMBOL REPRESENTATION
LIST OF TABLES:
1 TCON REGISTES
2. TMOD REGISTERS
3. ADDRESS LOCATIONS OF16*1 LCD LINES
4. FUNCTION TABLE
5. RECOMMENDED OPERATING CONDITIONS
CHAPTER – I
1.1 INTRODUCTION
People who are blind or visually impaired have choices when it comes to
travelling. At any given time, they can travel using a human guide, holding onto
Page | 11
someone's arm; use a long, white cane to identify and avoid obstacles; use a dog
guide, use special optical or electronic aids, or use no additional aid. The choice
of tools depends on the extent and nature of visual impairment, personal
preference, lighting, and familiarity with the area. In order to travel
independently, people with visual impairments use whatever vision they have,
auditory and tactual clues, and other information they know about an area to
keep track of their locations and make travel decisions.
In this paper, the proposed electronic travel aid involves a

microcontroller with speech output. It is a self contained
portable electronic unit. It can supply the blind person with
assistance about walking routes by using a speech synthesizer
to point out what decisions to make. In addition, the software
permits a blind person to explore the electronic map as well as
planning the optimum route to the desired destination.
1.2 HISTORY:
Simple Electronic Travel Aids have been in development since

1897[BRA, 85]. Real and more complex developments occurred after the Second
World War and through the 1950s and 60s [HEY, 83]. With the advent of the
possibilities of remote sensing in the form of ultrasound and radar more research
effort was directed at the problems of remote sensing of the environment for
visually impaired people. Advances in electronics and circuit miniaturization
also aided the development of these devices into portable mobility machines and
a number of devices using these technologies were developed such as the
‘Mowat Sensor’ [KAY, 84], and the ‘Sona’ [KEL, 84].
Through the 1960s and 70s obstacle detection devices continued to be

developed using a variety of sensing methods, notably lasers. However advances
in the pre-planning of routes were also taking place and with the advent of
‘capsule paper’ (which expands when heated) tactile maps could be produced
Page | 12
more easily than previously existing methods. Later in the 1980s and 1990s
further research allowed a form of tactile map [JAC, 94] that talked to be
developed. Recently through the early 1990s the focus has switched from
mobility and obstacle detection to orientation and location [KAW, 00]-[LOO,
98]. These systems, called ‘Audible Signs’[BEN, 95], ‘Sound Buoys’[BLE, 97]
etc, transmit some form of remote signal once a user gets into range of the
device, which then delivers an audible message, either as a tone or speech. While
these systems do solve some problems and despite being relatively inexpensive,
it can be expensive to place these signs extensively in an environment.
FIG 1.1: GLOBALLY BLIND PEOPE IN EARTH
1.3 MOTIVATION:
Imagine walking into an unfamiliar airport. The places we have to search

for, airline ticket counter, security check-in, boarding gate, are difficult to and
even with signs. Imagine how much of a challenge this would be if you cannot
even see the signs!
Many medical and academic buildings lack even this kind of navigation
assistance. Challenging for a sighted person, the task of ending a way in such a
Page | 13
building for an unassisted person with visual impairment becomes nearly

impossible.
Outdoor mobility can present more potential dangers to blind travelers

because obstacles and Hazards such as motor vehicles and dangerous terrain can
be life-threatening.
Navigation tends to be more difficult indoors because the environment is

so homogeneous. Rather than searching for unique features, a traveler needs to
count doorways and intersections or find some other way to distinguish between
largely identical features such as offices or doorways.
Thus the implementation of this design helps motivates the visually

impaired feel independent and confident in their lives and also brings up their
spirit in succeeding in every field possible without making their visually
impairedness as their major contempt in life and this design helps people find
out the route anywhere in the world in the most easiest way.
1.4 OBJECTIVE:
 The main goal of the project is to provide cost - effective way

to allow buildings to support blind people.
 Audio route announcement for the blind hopes to allow
visually impaired users to simply press a button, speak the
desired destination, and be guided there with the use of the
audio instructions.
 The system hopes to provide a portable unit that can be easily
carried and operated by visually impaired user. It could be easily
incorporated into walking cane.
Page | 14
1.5 DESIGN POSSIBILITIES:
Many different design possibilities were explored during research.
 Wireless Sensor Networks – Due to the high amount of sensors required

for large buildings, this may be impractical, especially when user
direction must be tracked. Programming would be much more complex.
 RSSI Techniques – This can be effective at finding distances base on

signal strength but is also affected by the direction problem.
 RFID – Seems to provide the most cost effective and simplest way to
determine direction using the technique that the team has developed. The
programming using this technique would also be less complex
1.6 ORGANISATION OF DOCUMENTATION:
In this project documentation we have initially put the

definition and objective of the project as well as the design of
the project which is followed by the implementation and coding
phase. Finally the project has been concluded successfully and
also the future enhancements of the project were given in this
documentation
Page | 15
1.7 BLOCK DIAGRAM:
TEXT
FORMAT GPS
KEYPAD
CONSISTI
89S5 MODU
2 LE
NG OF
SWITCHE
MICRO-
S
CONTROL
TRACKED ROUTE
IN THE FORM OF TEXT
LCD
GSM
(LIQUID
CRYSTA MOD
L ULE
DISPAY)
AUTOMA
TIC CALL
FORW
ARDING MOBI
LE
AUDIO FORMAT SERVI
PHONE
CE
OF OUTPUT
BLIND CENT
Page | 16
PERSO
ROUTE GUIDENCE FOR THE BLIND RE
FIGURE 1.2: BLOCK DIAGRAM
CHAPTER – II
MAJOR COMPONENTS
2.1 MICROCONTROLLER:
A) DESCRIPTION OF MICROCONTROLLER 89S52:
The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit micro

controller with 8Kbytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The
device is manufactured Using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory
technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 micro
controller. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be
reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory
programmer.
By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable

flash one monolithic chip; the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful micro
controller, which provides a highly flexible and cost-effective solution to
many embedded control applications.
B) FEATURES OF AT89S52:
 Compatible with MCS-51 Products

 8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory
 Endurance: 1000 Write/Erase Cycles
Page | 17
 4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range
 Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz
 Three-level Program Memory Lock
 256K Internal RAM
 32 Programmable I/O Lines
 3 16-bit Timer/Counters
 Eight Interrupt Sources
 Full Duplex UART Serial Channel
 Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes
 Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode
 Watchdog Timer
 Dual Data Pointer
 Power of flag
C) PIN CONFIGURATION
Page | 18
FIGURE 2.1: PIN CONFIGURATION OF AT89S52
The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of

Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers,
three 16-bit timer/counters, full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and
clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for
penetration down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable
power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the
RAM timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue
functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the
oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or
hardware reset.
D) SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTER (SFR) MEMORY:
Page | 19
Special Function Registers (SFR s) are areas of memory that control specific
functionality of the 8051 processor. For example, four SFRs permit access
to the 8051’s 32 input/output lines. Another SFR allows the user to set the
serial baud rate, control and access timers, and configure the 8051’s
interrupt system.
E) THE ACCUMULATOR:
The Accumulator, as its name suggests is used as a general register to

accumulate the results of a large number of instructions. It can hold 8-bit (1-
byte) value and is the most versatile register.
F) THE “R” REGISTERS:
The “R” registers are a set of eight registers that are named R0, R1etc up to
R7. These registers are used as auxiliary registers in many operations.
The “B” registers: The “B” register is very similar to the accumulator
in the sense that it may hold an 8-bit (1-byte) value. Two only uses the “B”
register 8051 instructions: MUL AB and DIV AB.
The Data Pointer: The Data pointer (DPTR) is the 8051’s only user
accessible 16-bit (2Bytes) register. The accumulator, “R” registers are all 1-
Byte values. DPTR, as the name suggests, is used to point to data. It is used
by a number of commands, which allow the 8051 to access external
memory.
G) THE PROGRAM COUNTER AND STACK POINTER:
The program counter (PC) is a 2-byte address, which tells the 8051 where the
next instruction to execute is found in memory. The stack pointer like all
registers except DPTR and PC may hold an 8-bit (1Byte)value.
H) TYPES OF MEMORY:
Page | 20
The 8051/8052 has three very general types of memory. To effectively program
the 8051/8052 it is necessary to have a basic understanding of these memory
types.
The memory types are illustrated in the following graphic. They are: On-Chip
Memory, External Code Memory, and External RAM.
On-Chip Memory refers to any memory (Code, RAM, or other) that physically
exists on the microcontroller itself. On-chip memory can be of several types, but
we'll get into that shortly.
External Code Memory is code (or program) memory that resides off-chip. This
is often in the form of an external EPROM.
External RAM is RAM memory that resides off-chip. This is often in the form
of standard static RAM or flash RAM.
I) TCON REGISTER:
TABLE 2.1: TIMER/COUNTER CONTROL REGISTER
Page | 21
J) TMOD REGISTER:
Page | 22
TABLE 2.2: TIMER/COUNTER 0 AND 1 MODES
Page | 23
2.1.2 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
a) INTRODUCTION:
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is the only fully functional Global
Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). The GPS uses a constellation of between
24 and 32 Medium Earth Orbit satellites that transmit precise microwave signals,
which enable GPS receivers to determine their location, speed,. GPS was
developed by the United States Department of Defense. Its official name is
NAVSTAR-GPS. Although NAVSTAR-GPS is not an acronym, a few
acronyms have been created for it. The GPS satellite constellation is managed by
the United States Air Force 50th Space Wing.
Global Positioning System is an earth-orbiting-satellite based system that

provides signals available anywhere on or above the earth, twenty-four hours a
day, which can be used to determine precise time and the position of a GPS
receiver in three dimensions. GPS is increasingly used as an input for
Geographic Information Systems particularly for precise positioning of
geospatial data and the collection of data in the field. Precise positioning is
possible using GPS receivers at reference locations providing corrections and
relative positioning data for remote receivers.
Page | 24
Time and frequency dissemination, based on the precise clocks on board

the SVs and controlled by the monitor stations, is another, use for GPS.
Astronomical observatories telecommunications facilities and laboratory
standards can be set to precise time signals or controlled to accurate frequencies
by special purpose GPS receivers.
FIGURE 2.1 GPS SETELLITE VIEW
Page | 25
FIGURE 2.2 GPS LONGITUDE & LATTITUDE INDICATOR
b) BASIC CONCEPT OF GPS OPERATION:
A GPS receiver calculates its position by carefully timing the signals sent
by the constellation of GPS satellites high above the Earth. Each satellite
continually transmits messages containing the time the message was sent, a
precise orbit for the satellite sending the message (the ephemeris), and the
general system health and rough orbits of all GPS satellites (the almanac). These
signals travel at the speed of light through outer space, and slightly slower
through the atmosphere. The receiver uses the arrival time of each message to
measure the distance to each satellite, from which it determines the position of
the receiver (conceptually the intersection of spheres - see trilateration ) The
resulting coordinates are converted to more user-friendly forms such as latitude
and longitude, or location on a map, then displayed to the user.
It might seem that three satellites would be enough to solve for a

position, since space has three dimensions. However, a three satellite solution
requires the time be known to a nanosecond or so, far better than any non-
Page | 26
laboratory clock can provide. Using four or more satellites allows the receiver to
solve for time as well as geographical position, eliminating the need for a super
accurate clock. In other words, the receiver uses four measurements to solve for
four variables: x, y, z, and t. While many GPS applications have no particular use
for this (very accurate) time, it is used in some GPS applications such as time
transfer, and it is the only variable of interest in some applications, such as traffic
signal timing.
c) CORRECTING GPS CLOCK:
The method of calculating position for the case of no errors has been
explained. One of the most important errors is the error in the GPS receiver
clock. Because of the very large value of c, the speed of light, the estimated
distances from the GPS receiver to the satellites, the pseudo ranges, are very
sensitive to errors in the GPS receiver clock. This seems to suggest that an
extremely accurate and expensive clock is required for the GPS receiver to
work. On the other hand, manufacturers would like to make an inexpensive GPS
receiver which can be mass marketed. The manufacturers were thus faced with a
difficult design problem. The technique that solves this problem is based on the
way sphere surfaces intersect in the GPS problem.
It is likely the surfaces of the three spheres intersect since the circle of
intersection of the first two spheres is normally quite large and thus the third
sphere surface is likely to intersect this large circle. It is very unlikely that the
surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite will intersect either of
the two points of intersection of the first three since any clock error could cause
it to miss intersecting a point. However the distance from the valid estimate of
GPS receiver position to the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth
satellite can be used to compute a clock correction. Let denote the distance
from the valid estimate of GPS receiver position to the fourth satellite and let
denote the pseudo range of the fourth satellite. Let . Note that
is the distance from the computed GPS receiver position to the surface of the
sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite. Thus the quotient, ,

Page | 27
provides an estimate of: (correct time) - (time indicated by the receiver's on-
board clock) and the GPS receiver clock can be advanced if is positive or
delayed if is negative.
d) SYSTEM SEGMENTATION:
The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space
segment (SS), a control segment (CS), and a user segment (US).
e) SPACE SEGMENT
FIGURE 2.3 GPS SPACE SEGMENT
A visual example of the GPS constellation in motion with the Earth

rotating. Notice how the number of satellites in view from a given point on the
Earth's surface, in this example at 45°N, changes with time.
The space segment (SS) comprises the orbiting GPS satellites or Space
Vehicles (SV) in GPS parlance. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs,
eight each in three circular orbital planes, but this was modified to six planes
with four satellites each.
Page | 28
FIGURE 2.4: SYSTEM SEGMENTATION
Page | 29
FIGURE 2.5: A GPS SATELLITE
f) CONTROL SEGMENT:
The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by US Air Force monitoring
stations in Hawaii, Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, and Colorado
Springs, Colorado, along with monitor stations operated by the National
Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA). The tracking information is sent to the
Air Force Space Command's master control station at Schreiber Air Force Base
in Colorado Springs, which is operated by the 2nd Space Operations Squadron (2
SOPS) of the United States Air Force (USAF). Then 2 SOPS contacts each GPS
satellite regularly with a navigational update (using the ground antennas at
Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Kwajalein, and Colorado Springs). These
updates synchronize the atomic clocks on board the satellites to within a few
nanoseconds of each other, and adjust the ephemeris of each satellite's internal
orbital model. The updates are created by a Kalman filter which uses inputs from
the ground monitoring stations, space weather information, and various other
inputs.
Satellite maneuvers are not precise by GPS standards. So to change the

orbit of a satellite, the satellite must be marked 'unhealthy', so receivers will not
use it in their calculation. Then the maneuver can be carried out, and the
resulting orbit tracked from the ground. Then the new ephemeris is uploaded and
the satellite marked healthy again.
g) USER SEGMENT
Page | 30
FIGURE 2.6 RECEIVER SEGMENTS
PS receivers come in a variety of formats, from devices integrated into

cars, phones, and watches, to dedicated devices such as those shown here from
manufacturers Trimble, Garmin and Leica (left to right).
The user's GPS receiver is the user segment (US) of the GPS. In general,
GPS receivers are composed of an antenna, tuned to the frequencies transmitted
by the satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly-stable clock (often a crystal
oscillator). They may also include a display for providing location and speed
information to the user. A receiver is often described by its number of channels:
this signifies how many satellites it can monitor simultaneously. Originally
limited to four or five, this has progressively increased over the years so that, as
of 2007, receivers typically have between 12 and 20 channels.
h) THE COMMUNICATION LINK BUDGET ANALYSIS
The orbital planes are centered on the Earth, not rotating with respect to
the distant stars. The six planes have approximately 55° inclination (tilt relative
to Earth's equator) and are separated by 60° right ascension of the ascending
node (angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit's intersection).
The orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites are always within line of
sight from almost everywhere on Earth's surface.
Orbiting at an altitude of approximately 20,200 kilometers (12,600 miles

or 10,900 nautical miles; orbital radius of 26,600 km (16,500 mi or 14,400
Page | 31
NM)), each SV makes two complete orbits each sidereal day. The ground track
of each satellite therefore repeats each (sidereal) day. This was very helpful
during development, since even with just four satellites, correct alignment means
all four are visible from one spot for a few hours each day. For military
operations, the ground track repeat can be used to ensure good coverage in
combat zones.
As of March 2008, there are 31 actively broadcasting satellites in the

GPS constellation. The additional satellites improve the precision of GPS
receiver calculations by providing redundant measurements. With the increased
number of satellites, the constellation was changed to a non uniform
arrangement. Such an arrangement was shown to improve reliability and
availability of the system, relative to a uniform system, when multiple satellites
fail. Some reports in 2008 indicated that the 32nd satellite was causing
difficulties for some GPS receivers.
i) NAVIGATIONAL SIGNALS:
Page | 32
FIGURE 2.7: NAVIGATIONAL SIGNAL
j) GPS BROADCAST SIGNAL
Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a Navigation Message at 50

bit/s giving the time-of-week, GPS week number and satellite health information
(all transmitted in the first part of the message), an ephemeris (transmitted in the
second part of the message) and an almanac (later part of the message). The
messages are sent in frames, each taking 30 seconds to transmit 1500 bits.The
first 6 seconds of every frame contains data describing the satellite clock and its
relationship to GPS time. The next 12 seconds contain the ephemeris data,
giving the satellite's own precise orbit. The ephemeris is updated every 2 hours
and is generally valid for 4 hours, with provisions for updates every 6 hours or
longer in non-nominal conditions. The time needed to acquire the ephemeris is
Page | 33
becoming a significant element of the delay to first position fix, because, as the
hardware becomes more capable, the time to lock onto the satellite signals
shrinks, but the ephemeris data requires 30 seconds (worst case) before it is
received, due to the low data transmission rate.
The almanac consists of coarse orbit and status information for each
satellite in the constellation, an ionosphere model, and information to relate GPS
derived time to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). A new part of the almanac
is received for the last 12 seconds in each 30 second frame. Each frame contains
1/25th of the almanac, so 12.5 minutes are required to receive the entire almanac
from a single satellite. The almanac serves several purposes. The first is to assist
in the acquisition of satellites at power-up by allowing the receiver to generate a
list of visible satellites based on stored position and time, while an ephemeris
from each satellite is needed to compute position fixes using that satellite. In
older hardware, lack of an almanac in a new receiver would cause long delays
before providing a valid position, because the search for each satellite was a slow
process. Advances in hardware have made the acquisition process much faster,
so not having an almanac is no longer an issue. The second purpose is for
relating time derived from the GPS (called GPS time) to the international time
standard of UTC. Finally, the almanac allows a single frequency receiver to
correct for ionospheric error by using a global ionospheric model. The
corrections are not as accurate as augmentation systems like WAAS or dual
frequency receivers. However it is often better than no correction since
ionospheric error is the largest error source for a single frequency GPS receiver.
An important thing to note about navigation data is that each satellite transmits
only its own ephemeris, but transmits an almanac for all satellites.
Each satellite transmits its navigation message with at least two distinct
spread spectrum codes: the Coarse / Acquisition (C/A) code, which is freely
available to the public, and the Precise (P) code, which is usually encrypted and
reserved for military applications. The C/A code is a 1023 length Gold code at
1.023 million chips per second so that it repeats every millisecond. As pointed
out in a chip is essentially the same thing as a bit and chips per second are the
Page | 34
same as bits per second. The justification for coming up with this new term,
chip, is that in some cases a sequence of bits is used as a type of Modulation and
contains no information.
k) POSITION DETERMINATION:
Before providing a more mathematical description of position

calculation, the introductory material on these topics is reviewed. To describe the
basic concept of how a GPS receiver works, the errors are at first ignored. Using
messages received from four satellites, the GPS receiver is able to determine the
satellite positions and time sent. The x, y, and z components of position and the
time sent are designated as where the subscript i denotes which

satellite and has the value 1, 2, 3, or 4. Knowing the indicated time the message
was received , the GPS receiver can compute the indicated transit time,
. of the message.
Assuming the message traveled at the speed of light, c, the distance
traveled, can be computed as . Knowing the distance from GPS

receiver to a satellite and the position of a satellite implies that the GPS receiver
is on the surface of a sphere centered at the position of a satellite. Thus we know
that the indicated position of the GPS receiver is at or near the intersection of the
surfaces of four spheres. In the ideal case of no errors, the GPS receiver will be
at an intersection of the surfaces of four spheres. The surfaces of two spheres if
they intersect in more than one point intersect in a circle. A figure, Two Sphere
Surfaces Intersecting in a Circle, is shown below depicting this which hopefully
will aid the reader in visualizing this intersection.
Page | 35
FIGURE 2.8: 3D COORDINATE SYSTEM
The article, trilateration, shows mathematically how the equation for a circle is
determined. A circle and sphere surface in most cases of practical interest
intersects at two points, although it is conceivable that they could intersect in 0
or 1 point. Another figure, Surface of Sphere Intersecting a Circle (not disk) at
Two Points, is shown below to aid in visualizing this intersection. Again
trilateration clearly show this mathematically. The correct position of the GPS
receiver is the one that is closest to the fourth sphere. This paragraph has
described the basic concept of GPS while ignoring errors.
More than four satellites should be used, if available. This results in an over-
determined system of equations with no unique solution, which must be solved
by least-squares or a similar technique. If all visible satellites are used, the
results are always at least as good as using the four best, and usually better. Also
the errors in results can be estimated through the residuals. With each
combination of four or more satellites, a geometric dilution of precision (GDOP)
vector can be calculated, based on the relative sky positions of the satellites used.
As more satellites are picked up, pseudoranges from more combinations of four
Page | 36
satellites can be processed to add more estimates to the location and clock offset.
The receiver then determines which combinations to use and how to calculate the
estimated position by determining the weighted average of these positions and
clock offsets. After the final location and time are calculated, the location is
expressed in a specific coordinate system such as latitude and longitude, using
the WGS 84 geodetic datum or a local system specific to a country.
Finally, results from other positioning systems such as GLONASS or the

upcoming Galileo can be used in the fit, or used to double check the result. (By
design, these systems use the same bands; so much of the receiver circuitry can
be shared, though the decoding is different.
l) APPLICATIONS:
The Global Positioning System, while originally a military project is considered

a dual-use technology, meaning it has significant applications for both the
military and the civilian industry.
MILITARY:
 The military applications of GPS span many purposes:

 Navigation: GPS allows soldiers to find objectives in the dark or in
unfamiliar territory, and to coordinate the movement of troops and
supplies. The GPS-receivers commanders and soldiers use are respectively
called the Commanders Digital Assistant and the Soldier Digital
Assistant.
 Target tracking: Various military weapons systems use GPS to track
potential ground and air targets before they are flagged as hostile. These
weapon systems pass GPS co-ordinates of targets to precision-guided
munitions to allow them to engage the targets accurately. Military aircraft,
particularly those used in air-to-ground roles use GPS to find targets (for
example, gun camera video from AH-1 Cobras in Iraq show GPS co-
ordinates that can be looked up in Google Earth).
Page | 37
This antenna is mounted on the roof of a hut containing a scientific

experiment needing precise timing.
Many civilian applications benefit from GPS signals, using one or more of
three basic components of the GPS: absolute location, relative movement, and
time transfer.
The ability to determine the receiver's absolute location allows GPS receivers
to perform as a surveying tool or as an aid to navigation. The capacity to
determine relative movement enables a receiver to calculate local velocity and
orientation, useful in vessels or observations of the Earth. Being able to
synchronize clocks to exacting standards enables time transfer, which is critical
in large communication and observation systems. An example is CDMA digital
cellular. Each base station has a GPS timing receiver to synchronize its
spreading codes with other base stations to facilitate inter-cell hand off and
support hybrid GPS/CDMA positioning of mobiles for emergency calls and
other applications. Finally, GPS enables researchers to explore the Earth
environment including the atmosphere, ionosphere and gravity field. GPS survey
equipment has revolutionized tectonics by directly measuring the motion of
faults in earthquakes.
GPS tours are also an example of civilian use. The GPS is used to determine
which content to display. For instance, when approaching a monument it would
tell you about the monument.
m) GPS MODULE: Latitude and longitude are usually provided in the

geodetic datum on which GPS is based (WGS-84).
 Receivers can often be set to convert to other user-required datums.

 Receiver position is computed from the SV positions, the measured pseudo-
ranges, and a receiver position estimate.
 Four satellites allow computation of three position dimensions and time.
 Three satellites could be used determine three position dimensions with a
perfect receiver clock.
Page | 38
 In practice this is rarely possible and three SVs are used to compute a two-
dimensional, horizontal fix (in latitude and longitude) given an assumed
height.
 This is often possible at sea or in altimeter equipped aircraft.
 Five or more satellites can provide position, time and redundancy.
 Twelve channel receivers allow continuous tracking of all available satellites,
including tracking of satellites with weak or occasionally obstructed signals.
2.1.3 GSM (GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE

COMMUNICATION):
a)INTRODUCTION:
GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is a cellular network, which

means that mobile phones connect to it by searching for cells in the immediate
vicinity. GSM networks operate in four different frequency ranges. Most GSM
networks operate in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. Some countries in the
Americas use the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands because the 900 and 1800
MHz frequency bands were already allocated.
The rarer 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries,
where these frequencies were previously used for first-generation systems.
Time division multiplexing is used to allow eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate

speech channels per radio frequency channel. There are eight radio timeslots
(giving eight burst periods) grouped into what is called a TDMA frame. Half rate
channels use alternate frames in the same timeslot. The channel data rate is
270.833 kbit/s, and the frame duration is 4.615 ms.
b) GSM ADVANTAGES:
Page | 39
GSM also pioneered a low-cost, to the network carrier, alternative to voice calls,
the Short t message service (SMS, also called "text messaging"), which is now
supported on other mobile standards as well. Another advantage is that the
standard includes one worldwide Emergency telephone number, 112. This makes
it easier for international travelers to connect to emergency services without
knowing the local emergency number.
c) GSM NETWORK:
GSM provides recommendations, not requirements. The GSM specifications

define the functions and interface requirements in detail but do not address the
hardware. The GSM network is divided into three major systems: the switching
system (SS), the base station system (BSS), and the operation and support
system (OSS).
Page | 40
FIGURE 2.9: GSM NETWORK
The Switching System:
The switching system (SS) is responsible for performing call processing and
subscriber-related functions. The switching system includes the following
functional units.
 Home location register (HLR): The HLR is a database used for

storage and management of subscriptions. The HLR is considered the
most important database, as it stores permanent data about subscribers,
including a subscriber's service profile, location information, and activity
status. When an individual buys a subscription from one of the PCS
operators, he or she is registered in the HLR of that operator.
Page | 41
 Mobile services switching center (MSC): The MSC performs

the telephony switching functions of the system. It controls calls to and
from other telephone and data systems. It also performs such functions as
toll ticketing, network interfacing, common channel signaling, and
others.
 Visitor location register (VLR): The VLR is a database that

contains temporary information about subscribers that is needed by the
MSC in order to service visiting subscribers. The VLR is always
integrated with the MSC. When a mobile station roams into a new MSC
area, the VLR connected to that MSC will request data about the mobile
station from the HLR. Later, if the mobile station makes a call, the VLR
will have the information needed for call setup without having to
interrogate the HLR each time.
 Authentication center (AUC): A unit called the AUC provides

authentication and encryption parameters that verify the user's identity
and ensure the confidentiality of each call. The AUC protects network
operators from different types of fraud found in today's cellular world.
 Equipment identity register (EIR): The EIR is a database that

contains information about the identity of mobile equipment that prevents
calls from stolen, unauthorized, or defective mobile stations. The AUC
and EIR are implemented as stand-alone nodes or as a combined
AUC/EIR node.
The Base Station System (BSS):
All radio-related functions are performed in the BSS, which consists of base
station controllers (BSCs) and the base transceiver stations (BTSs).
 BSC: The BSC provides all the control functions and physical links
between the MSC and BTS. It is a high-capacity switch that provides
functions such as handover, cell configuration data, and control of radio
Page | 42
frequency (RF) power levels in base transceiver stations. A number of

BSCs are served by an MSC.
 BTS: The BTS handles the radio interface to the mobile station. The
BTS is the radio equipment (transceivers and antennas) needed to service
each cell in the network. A group of BTSs are controlled by a BSC.
The Operation and Support System
The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all equipment in

the switching system and to the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the
operation and support system (OSS). The OSS is the functional entity from
which the network operator monitors and controls the system. The purpose of
OSS is to offer the customer cost-effective support for centralized, regional and
local operational and maintenance activities that are required for a GSM
network. An important function of OSS is to provide a network overview and
support the maintenance activities of different operation and maintenance
organizations.
Additional Functional Elements
• Message center (MXE): The MXE is a node that provides

integrated voice, fax, and data messaging. Specifically, the MXE handles
short message service, cell broadcast, voice mail, fax mail, e-mail, and
notification.
• Mobile service node (MSN): The MSN is the node that handles
the mobile intelligent network (IN) services.
• Gateway mobile services switching center (GMSC): A

gateway is a node used to interconnect two networks. The gateway is
often implemented in an MSC. The MSC is then referred to as the
GMSC.
• GSM inter-working unit (GIWU): The GIWU consists of both

hardware and software that provides an interface to various networks for
Page | 43
data communications. Through the GIWU, users can alternate between

speech and data during the same call. The GIWU hardware equipment is
physically located at the MSC/VLR.
d) GSM NETWORK AREAS:
The GSM network is made up of geographic areas. As shown in bellow figure,

these areas include cells, location areas (LAs), MSC/VLR service areas, and
public land mobile network (PLMN) areas.
FIGURE 2.10: GSM NETWORK
Location Areas:
The cell is the area given radio coverage by one base transceiver station. The
GSM network identifies each cell via the cell global identity (CGI) number
assigned to each cell. The location area is a group of cells. It is the area in which
the subscriber is paged. Each LA is served by one or more base station
controllers, yet only by a single MSC Each LA is assigned a location area
identity (LAI) number.
MSC/VLR service areas:

Page | 44
An MSC/VLR service area represents the part of the GSM network that is
covered by one MSC and which is reachable, as it is registered in the VLR of the
MSC.
PLMN service areas:
The PLMN service area is an area served by one network operator.
e) GSM SPECIFICATIONS:
Specifications for different personal communication services (PCS) systems vary

among the different PCS networks. Listed below is a description of the
specifications and characteristics for GSM.
• Frequency band: The frequency range specified for GSM is 1,850 to

1,990 MHz (mobile station to base station).
• Duplex distance: The duplex distance is 80 MHz. Duplex distance is the

distance between the uplink and downlink frequencies. A channel has
two frequencies, 80 MHz apart.
• Channel separation: The separation between adjacent carrier

frequencies. In GSM, this is 200 kHz.
• Modulation: Modulation is the process of sending a signal by changing

the characteristics of a carrier frequency. This is done in GSM via
Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK).
• Transmission rate: GSM is a digital system with an over-the-air bit rate

of 270 kbps.
f) GSM SUBSCRIBERS SERVICE: Dual-tone multi frequency (DTMF):

DTMF is a tone signaling scheme often used for various control purposes via the
telephone network, such as remote control of an answering machine. GSM
supports full-originating DTMF.
Page | 45
Facsimile group III—GSM supports CCITT Group 3 facsimile. As standard

fax machines are designed to be connected to a telephone using analog signals, a
special fax converter connected to the exchange is used in the GSM system. This
enables a GSM–connected fax to communicate with any analog fax in the
network.
Short message services: A convenient facility of the GSM network is the

short message service. A message consisting of a maximum of 160 alphanumeric
characters can be sent to or from a mobile station. This service can be viewed as
an advanced form of alphanumeric paging with a number of advantages. If the
subscriber's mobile unit is powered off or has left the coverage area, the message
is stored and offered back to the subscriber when the mobile is powered on or
has reentered the coverage area of the network. This function ensures that the
message will be received.
Cell broadcast: A variation of the short message service is the cell broadcast
facility. A message of a maximum of 93 characters can be broadcast to all
mobile subscribers in a certain geographic area. Typical applications include
traffic congestion warnings and reports on accidents.
Voice mail: This service is actually an answering machine within the

network, which is controlled by the subscriber. Calls can be forwarded to the
subscriber's voice-mail box and the subscriber checks for messages via a
personal security code.
Fax mail: With this service, the subscriber can receive fax messages at any
fax machine. The messages are stored in a service center from which they can be
retrieved by the subscriber via a personal security code to the desired fax number
g) SUPPLEMENTARY SERVICES:
GSM supports a comprehensive set of supplementary services that can

complement and support both telephony and data services.
Page | 46
Call forwarding: This service gives the subscriber the ability to forward
incoming calls to another number if the called mobile unit is not reachable, if it
is busy, if there is no reply, or if call forwarding is allowed unconditionally.
Barring of outgoing calls: This service makes it possible for a mobile

subscriber to prevent all outgoing calls.
Barring of incoming calls: This function allows the subscriber to prevent

incoming calls. The following two conditions for incoming call barring exist:
baring of all incoming calls and barring of incoming calls when roaming outside
the home PLMN.
Advice of charge (AoC): The AoC service provides the mobile subscriber
with an estimate of the call charges. There are two types of AoC information:
one that provides the subscriber with an estimate of the bill and one that can be
used for immediate charging purposes. AoC for data calls is provided on the
basis of time measurements.
Call hold: This service enables the subscriber to interrupt an ongoing call and
then subsequently reestablish the call. The call hold service is only applicable to
normal telephony.
Call waiting: This service enables the mobile subscriber to be notified of an

incoming call during a conversation. The subscriber can answer, reject, or ignore
the incoming call. Call waiting is applicable to all GSM telecommunications
services using a circuit-switched connection.
Multiparty service: The multiparty service enables a mobile subscriber to

establish a multiparty conversation—that is, a simultaneous conversation
between three and six subscribers. This service is only applicable to normal
telephony.
Calling line identification presentation/restriction: These services

supply the called party with the integrated services digital network (ISDN)
Page | 47
number of the calling party. The restriction service enables the calling party to
restrict the presentation. The restriction overrides the presentation.
Closed user groups (CUGs): CUGs are generally comparable to a PBX.

They are a group of subscribers who are capable of only calling themselves and
certain numbers
h) MAIN AT COMMANDS:
"AT command set for GSM Mobile Equipment” describes the Main AT
commands to communicate via a serial interface with the GSM subsystem of the
phone.
AT commands are instructions used to control a modem. AT is the abbreviation

of Attention. Every command line starts with "AT" or "at". That's why modem
commands are called AT commands. Many of the commands that are used to
control wired dial-up modems, such as ATD (Dial), ATA (Answer), ATH (Hook
control) and ATO (Return to online data state), are also supported by
GSM/GPRS modems and mobile phones. Besides this common AT command
set, GSM/GPRS modems and mobile phones support an AT command set that is
specific to the GSM technology, which includes SMS-related commands like
AT+CMGS (Send SMS message), AT+CMSS (Send SMS message from
storage), AT+CMGL (List SMS messages) and AT+CMGR (Read SMS
messages).
Note that the starting "AT" is the prefix that informs the modem about the start
of a command line. It is not part of the AT command name. For example, D is
the actual AT command name in ATD and +CMGS is the actual AT command
name in AT+CMGS. However, some books and web sites use them
interchangeably as the name of an AT command.
Here are some of the tasks that can be done using AT commands with a
GSM/GPRS modem or mobile phone:
Page | 48
• Get basic information about the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem.

For example, name of manufacturer (AT+CGMI), model number
(AT+CGMM), IMEI number (International Mobile Equipment Identity)
(AT+CGSN) and software version (AT+CGMR).
• Get basic information about the subscriber. For example, MSISDN
(AT+CNUM) and IMSI number (International Mobile Subscriber
Identity) (AT+CIMI).
• Get the current status of the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For
example, mobile phone activity status (AT+CPAS), mobile network
registration status (AT+CREG), radio signal strength (AT+CSQ), battery
charge level and battery charging status (AT+CBC).
• Establish a data connection or voice connection to a remote modem
(ATD, ATA, etc).
• Send and receive fax (ATD, ATA, AT+F*).
• Send (AT+CMGS, AT+CMSS), read (AT+CMGR, AT+CMGL), write
(AT+CMGW) or delete (AT+CMGD) SMS messages and obtain
notifications of newly received SMS messages (AT+CNMI).
• Read (AT+CPBR), write (AT+CPBW) or search (AT+CPBF) phonebook
entries.
• Perform security-related tasks, such as opening or closing facility locks
(AT+CLCK), checking whether a facility is locked (AT+CLCK) and
changing passwords (AT+CPWD).
(Facility lock examples: SIM lock [a password must be given to the SIM
card every time the mobile phone is switched on] and PH-SIM lock [a
certain SIM card is associated with the mobile phone. To use other SIM
cards with the mobile phone, a password must be entered.])
• Control the presentation of result codes / error messages of AT
commands. For example, you can control whether to enable certain error
messages (AT+CMEE) and whether error messages should be displayed
in numeric format or verbose format (AT+CMEE=1 or AT+CMEE=2).
Page | 49
2.1.4 LCD (LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY:
a) INTRODUCTION:
A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display device made up of

any number of color or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or
reflector. Each pixel consists of a column of liquid crystal molecules suspended
between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of
polarity of which are perpendicular to each other. Without the liquid crystals
between them, light passing through one would be blocked by the other. The
liquid crystal twists the polarization of light entering one filter to allow it to pass
through the other.
A program must interact with the outside world using input and output
devices that communicate directly with a human being. One of the most common
devices attached to an controller is an LCD display. Some of the most common
LCDs connected to the controllers are 16X1, 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This
means 16 characters per line by 1 line 16 characters per line by 2 lines and 20
characters per line by 2 lines, respectively.
Page | 50
Many microcontroller devices use 'smart LCD' displays to output visual

information. LCD displays designed around LCD NT-C1611 module, are
inexpensive, easy to use, and it is even possible to produce a readout using the
5X7 dots plus cursor of the display. They have a standard ASCII set of
characters and mathematical symbols. For an 8-bit data bus, the display requires
a +5V supply plus 10 I/O lines (RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
b) FEATURES:
(1) Interface with either 4-bit or 8-bit microprocessor.
(2) Display data RAM
(3) 80x8 bits (80 characters).
(4) Character generator ROM
(5). 160 different 5  7 dot-matrix character patterns.
(6). Character generator RAM
(7) 8 different user programmed 5 7 dot-matrix patterns.
(8).Display data RAM and character generator RAM may

be
Accessed by the microprocessor.
(9) Numerous instructions
(10) .Clear Display, Cursor Home, Display ON/OFF, Cursor

ON/OFF,
available. Line lengths of
Blink Character, Cursor Shift, Display Shift. 8, 16,
20, 24,
(11). Built-in reset circuit is triggered at power ON.
32 and
(12). Built-in oscillator. 40
charact
ers are
Page | 51 all
standar
d, in
one,
two
Data can be placed at any location on the LCD. For 16×1 LCD,
the address locations are:
TABLE 2.3: : ADDRESS LOCATIONS FOR A 1X16 LINE LCD
c) PIN DESCRIPTION:
Most LCDs with 1 controller has 14 Pins and LCDs with 2 controller has
16 Pins (two pins are extra in both for back-light LED connections).
FIGURE 2.11: PIN DIAGRAM OF 1X16 LINES LCD
TABLE 2.4 PIN DETAILS 1X16 LINES LCD
Page | 52
d) CONTROL LINES:
EN:
Line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD that you are
sending it data. To send data to the LCD, your program should make sure this
line is low (0) and then set the other two control lines and/or put data on the data
bus. When the other lines are completely ready, bring EN high (1) and wait for
the minimum amount of time required by the LCD datasheet (this varies from
LCD to LCD), and end by bringing it low (0) again.
RS:
Line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0), the data is to be treated as
a command or special instruction (such as clear screen, position cursor, etc.).
When RS is high (1), the data being sent is text data which should be displayed
on the screen. For example, to display the letter "T" on the screen you would set
RS high.
RW:
Line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low (0), the information on
the data bus is being written to the LCD. When RW is high (1), the program is
Page | 53
effectively querying (or reading) the LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD
status") is a read command. All others are write commands, so RW will almost
always be low.
Finally, the data bus consists of 4 or 8 lines (depending on the mode of operation
selected by the user). In the case of an 8-bit data bus, the lines are referred to as
DB0, DB1, DB2, DB3, DB4, DB5, DB6, and DB7.
Logic status on control lines:
• E - 0 Access to LCD disabled
- 1 Access to LCD enabled
• R/W - 0 Writing data to LCD
- 1 Reading data from LCD
• RS - 0 Instructions
- 1 Character
Writing data to the LCD:
1) Set R/W bit to low
2) Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character)
3) Set data to data lines (if it is writing)
4) Set E line to high
5) Set E line to low
Read data from data lines (if it is reading)on LCD:
1) Set R/W bit to high
2) Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character)
3) Set data to data lines (if it is writing)
Page | 54
4) Set E line to high
5) Set E line to low
Entering Text:
First, a little tip: it is manually a lot easier to enter characters and commands in
hexadecimal rather than binary (although, of course, you will need to translate
commands from binary couple of sub-miniature hexadecimal rotary switches is a
simple matter, although a little bit into hex so that you know which bits you are
setting). Replacing the d.i.l. switch pack with a of re-wiring is necessary.
The switches must be the type where On = 0, so that when they are turned to the
zero position, all four outputs are shorted to the common pin, and in position “F”,
all four outputs are open circuit.
All the available characters that are built into the module are shown in Table 3.
Studying the table, you will see that codes associated with the characters are
quoted in binary and hexadecimal, most significant bits (“left-hand” four bits)
across the top, and least significant bits (“right-hand” four bits) down the left.
Most of the characters conform to the ASCII standard, although the Japanese and
Greek characters (and a few other things) are obvious exceptions. Since these
intelligent modules were designed in the “Land of the Rising Sun,” it seems only
fair that their Katakana phonetic symbols should also be incorporated. The more
extensive Kanji character set, which the Japanese share with the Chinese,
consisting of several thousand different characters, is not included!
2.1.5 MAX 232 (RS232 SERIAL IC):
a) INTRODUCTION:
A standard serial interface for PC, RS232C, requires negative logic,

i.e., logic 1 is -3V to -12V and logic 0 is +3V to +12V. To convert TTL logic,
say, TxD and RxD pins of the microcontroller thus need a converter chip. A
Page | 55
MAX232 chip has long been using in many microcontrollers boards. It is a dual
RS232 receiver / transmitter that meets all RS232 specifications while using only
+5V power supply. It has two onboard charge pump voltage converters which
generate +10V to -10V power supplies from a single 5V supply. It has four level
translators, two of which are RS232 transmitters that convert TTL/CMOS input
levels into +9V RS232 outputs. The other two level translators are RS232
receivers that convert RS232 input to 5V. Typical MAX232 circuit is shown
below.
FIG:MAX 232 IC
FIGURE 2.12 PIN CONFIGURATION OF MAX 232
b) FEATURES:
1. Operates With Single 5-V Power Supply
2. L in BiCMOSE Process Technology
Page | 56
3. Two Drivers and Two Receivers
4.±30-V Input Levels
5. Low Supply Current. 8 mA Typical
6 .Meets or Exceeds TIA/EIA-232-F and ITU
Recommendation V.28
7. Designed to be Interchangeable With
Maxim MAX232
8. Applications
TIA/EIA-232-F
Battery-Powered Systems
Terminals
Modems
Computers
c) CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS:
A standard serial interfacing for PC, RS232C, requires negative logic, i.e., logic
'1' is -3V to -12V and logic '0' is +3V to +12V. To convert a TTL logic, say, TxD
and RxD pins of the uC chips, thus need a converter chip. A MAX232 chip has
long been using in many uC boards. It provides 2-channel RS232C port and
requires external 10uF capacitors. Carefully check the polarity of capacitor when
soldering the board. A DS275 however, no need external capacitor and smaller.
Either circuit can be used without any problems.
Page | 57
FIGURE 2.13: CIRCUIT CONNECTION OF MAX 232
FIGURE 2.14: MAX 232 DISCRIPTIONAL DIAGRAM
Page | 58
2.1.6 BUFFER IC (74LS244):
a) GENERAL DESCRIPTION
These buffers/line drivers are designed to improve both the performance and PC
board density of 3-STATE buffers/ drivers employed as memory-address drivers,
clock drivers, and bus-oriented transmitters/receivers. Featuring 400 mV of
hysteresis at each low current PNP data line input, they provide improved noise
rejection and high fan-out outputs and can be used to drive terminated lines
down to
133W.
b) FEATURES
 3-STATE outputs drive bus lines directly
 PNP inputs reduce DC loading on bus lines
 Hysteresis at data inputs improves noise margins
 Typical IOL (sink current) 24 mA
 Typical IOH (source current) -15 mA
 Typical propagation delay times
Inverting 10.5 ns
Non inverting 12 ns
 Typical enable/disable time 18 ns
 Typical power dissipation (enabled)
Page | 59
Inverting 130 m Non inverting 135 m W
c) CONNECTION DIAGRAM:
FIGURE 2.15: CIRCUIT CONNECTION OF 74LS244
d) FUNCTION TABLE:
TABLE 2.5: FUNCTIONAL TABLE OF 74LS244
I NPUT OUTPUT
G A Y
L L L
L H Z
H X Z
Page | 60
L = LOW Logic Level;
H = HIGH Logic Level
Z = High Impedance
X = Either LOW or HIGH Logic Level;
d) ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS
Supply Voltage 7V
Input Voltage 7V
Operating Free Air Temperature Range 0°C to +70°C
Storage Temperature Range -65°C to +150°C
Note 1: The “Absolute Maximum Ratings” are those values beyond which the safety of the
device cannot be guaranteed. The device should not be operated at these limits. The parametric
values defined in the Electrical Characteristics tables are not guaranteed at the absolute
maximum ration..The “Recommended Operating Conditions” table will define the conditions for
actual device operation.
e) RECOMMENDED OPERATING CONDITIONS
TABLE 2.6 RECOMMENDED OPERATING CONDITIONS OF 74LS244
SYMBOL PARAMETER MIN NOM MAX UNITS
VCC Supply Voltage 4.75 5 5.25 V
VIH HIGH Level Input V

Voltage
VIL LOW Level Input 0.8 V

Voltage
IOH HIGH Level -15 mA
Output Current
Page | 61
IOL LOW Level 24 mA

Output Current
TA Free Air 0 70 °C
Operating
Temperature
2.1.7 POWER SUPPLY:
a) INTRODUCTION:
Power supply is a reference to a source of electrical power. A device or

system that supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group
of loads is called a power supply unit or PSU. The term is most commonly
applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to mechanical ones, and rarely to
others
This power supply section is required to convert AC signal to DC signal

and also to reduce the amplitude of the signal. The available voltage signal from
the mains is 230V/50Hz which is an AC voltage, but the required is DC
voltage(no frequency) with the amplitude of +5V and +12V for various
applications.
In this section we have Transformer, Bridge rectifier, are connected

serially and voltage regulators for +5V and +12V (7805 and 7812) via a
capacitor (1000µF) in parallel are connected parallel as shown in the circuit
diagram below. Each voltage regulator output is again is connected to the
capacitors of values (100µF, 10µF, 1 µF, 0.1 µF) are connected parallel through
which the corresponding output(+5V or +12V) are taken into consideration.
b) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Page | 62
FIGURE 2.16: CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF POWER SUPPLY
d) CIRCUIT EXPLANATION:
TRANSFORMER:
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to

another through inductively coupled electrical conductors. A changing current in
the first circuit (the primary) creates a changing magnetic field; in turn, this
magnetic field induces a changing voltage in the second circuit (the secondary).
By adding a load to the secondary circuit, one can make current flow in the
transformer, thus transferring energy from one circuit to the other.
The secondary induced voltage VS, of an ideal transformer, is scaled from the
primary VP by a factor equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in their
respective windings:
1) BASIC PRINCIPLE:
The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can
produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing
Page | 63
magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil
(electromagnetic induction). By changing the current in the primary coil, it
changes the strength of its magnetic field; since the changing magnetic field
extends into the secondary coil, a voltage is induced across the secondary.
A simplified transformer design is shown below. A current passing through the

primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are
wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron; this
ensures that most of the magnetic field lines produced by the primary current are
within the iron and pass through the secondary coil as well as the primary coil.
Figure 2.17: An ideal step-down transformer showing magnetic flux in the core
2) INDUCTION LAW:
The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's
law of induction, which states that:
Page | 64
Where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number of turns in the

secondary coil and Φ equals the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the
turns of the coil are oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is
the product of the magnetic field strength B and the area A through which it cuts.
The area is constant, being equal to the cross-sectional area of the transformer
core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation of
the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and
secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the
primary winding equals
Taking the ratio of the two equations for VS and VP gives the basic equation for
stepping up or stepping down the voltage
2) IDEAL POWER EQUATION:
If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical
power is transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally,
the transformer is perfectly efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed
from the primary circuit to the magnetic field and into the secondary circuit. If
this condition is met, the incoming electric power must equal the outgoing
power.
P incoming = IPVP = P outgoing = ISVS
giving the ideal transformer equation
Page | 65
FIGURE 2.18: IDEAL TRANSFORMER
Pin-coming = IPVP = Pout-going = ISVS giving the ideal

transformer equation
If the voltage is increased (stepped up) (VS > VP), then the current is decreased
(stepped down) (IS < IP) by the same factor. Transformers are efficient so this
formula is a reasonable approximation.
If the voltage is increased (stepped up) (VS > VP), then the current is decreased
(stepped down) (IS < IP) by the same factor. Transformers are efficient so this
formula is a reasonable approximation.
The impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For
example, if an impedance ZS is attached across the terminals of the secondary
coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an impedance of
This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance ZP of the primary circuit

appears to the secondary to be
Page | 66
4) DETAILED OPERATION:
The simplified description above neglects several practical factors, in particular

the primary current required to establish a magnetic field in the core, and the
contribution to the field due to current in the secondary circuit.
Models of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of negligible reluctance

with two windings of zero resistance. When a voltage is applied to the primary
winding, a small current flows, driving flux around the magnetic circuit of the
core. The current required to create the flux is termed the magnetizing current;
since the ideal core has been assumed to have near-zero reluctance, the
magnetizing current is negligible, although still required to create the magnetic
field.
The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) across each
winding. Since the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associated
voltage drop, and so the voltages VP and VS measured at the terminals of the
transformer, are equal to the corresponding EMFs. The primary EMF, acting as
it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the "back
EMF". This is due to Lenz's law which states that the induction of EMF would
always be such that it will oppose development of any such change in magnetic
field.
e) BRIDGE RECTIFIER:
A diode bridge or bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes in a bridge

configuration that provides the same polarity of output voltage for any polarity
of input voltage. When used in its most common application, for conversion of
alternating current (AC) input into direct current (DC) output, it is known as a
bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-
wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a center-tapped
Page | 67
transformer design, but has two diode drops rather than one, thus exhibiting
reduced efficiency over a center-tapped design for the same output voltage.
1) BASIC OPERATION:
When the input connected at the left corner of the diamond is positive with
respect to the one connected at the right hand corner, current flows to the right
along the upper colored path to the output, and returns to the input supply via the
lower one.
FIGURE 2.19: RECTIFIER CIRCUIT
When the right hand corner is positive relative to the left hand corner, current
flows along the upper colored path and returns to the supply via the lower
colored path.
In each case, the upper right output remains positive with respect to the lower
right one. Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only
produces DC power when supplied with AC power: it also can provide what is
sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it permits normal
functioning when batteries are installed backwards or DC input-power supply
wiring "has its wires crossed" (and protects the circuitry it powers against
damage that might occur without this circuit in place).
Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier was always

constructed from discrete components. Since about 1950, a single four-terminal
Page | 68
component containing the four diodes connected in the bridge configuration

became a standard commercial component and is now available with various
voltage and current ratings.
FIGURE 2.20: OUTPUT OF RECTIFIER CIRCUIT
2) OUTPUT SMOOTHING(USING CAPACITOR):
For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full-wave
bridge serves to convert an AC input into a DC output, the addition of a
capacitor may be important because the bridge alone supplies an output voltage
of fixed polarity but pulsating magnitude (see diagram above).
Page | 69
FIGURE 2.21: OUTPUT SMOOTHING FILTER FOR RECTIFIER
The function of this capacitor, known as a reservoir capacitor (aka

smoothing capacitor) is to lessen the variation in (or 'smooth') the rectified AC
output voltage waveform from the bridge. One explanation of 'smoothing' is that
the capacitor provides a low impedance path to the AC component of the output,
reducing the AC voltage across, and AC current through, the resistive load. In
less technical terms, any drop in the output voltage and current of the bridge
tends to be cancelled by loss of charge in the capacitor.
This charge flows out as additional current through the load. Thus the change of
load current and voltage is reduced relative to what would occur without the
capacitor. Increases of voltage correspondingly store excess charge in the
capacitor, thus moderating the change in output voltage / current. Also see
rectifier output smoothing.
The capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time constant τ = RC where
C and R are the capacitance and load resistance respectively. As long as the load
resistor is large enough so that this time constant is much longer than the time of
one ripple cycle, the above configuration will produce a smoothed DC voltage
across the load.
In some designs, a series resistor at the load side of the capacitor is added. The
smoothing can then be improved by adding additional stages of capacitor–
Page | 70
resistor pairs, often done only for sub-supplies to critical high-gain circuits that
tend to be sensitive to supply voltage noise.
f) VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain

a constant voltage level.
The 78xx (also sometimes known as LM78xx) series of devices is a family of

self-contained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family
is a very popular choice for many electronic circuits which require a regulated
power supply, due to their ease of use and relative cheapness. When specifying
individual ICs within this family, the xx is replaced with a two-digit number,
which indicates the output voltage the particular device is designed to provide
(for example, the 7805 has a 5 volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts).
The 78xx line is positive voltage regulators, meaning that they are designed to
produce a voltage that is positive relative to a common ground. There is a related
line of 79xx devices which are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx
and 79xx ICs can be used in combination to provide both positive and negative
supply voltages in the same circuit, if necessary.
2.1.8 INPUT KEYPADS:
The inputs ie.4 inputs are utilized here with their specific destinations where the
blind person frequently visits, and these keypads are connected to the port 2 of
microcontroller that is to pin 2122,23,24 to transmit this particular data of the
location of the blind person’s i.e. latitude and longitude and his destination
number. This information reaches the buffer of the microcontroller and thus the
remaining process continues.
So initial inputs are very important for this project and it plays a major and
crucial role in this project by passing on the basic information for tracking of the
route through GPS and sending that tracked information to the service centre
Page | 71
through GSM and thus helps the blind person’s accessibility to go around in a
much comfortable and allow him to live independently.
2.1.9 BUZZER:
Buzzer is one of the component which is connected to the microcontroller of port

2 and pin 25.It has an audible range of 50 DB and thus it helps the blind person
to know that the tracked information is sent through the microcontroller to the
GSM to the customer service and thus it also has an important role . This is the
buzzer that gives the information about the message that reached LCD.
There is another buzzer near the GSM for the ring of the phone that is connected
to the DTMF socket, but here this buzzer in our project has an audible range of
10-15 db and this can be extended by soldering the pin behind it in the GSM
module and thus can be used in real time implementation which produces
double the sound it produced initially.
Thus buzzer is one of the important component for the blind person to act
accordingly and lead an independent life in a better way.
2.1.10 SERIAL COMMUNICATION (RS232):
The serial communication is the most important component in this

project as it helps in communication between microcontroller, gps and gsm .An
RS232 serial communication is used for most of the projects as it is the only
serial, asynchronous form of communication. The following RS232 connectors
can be used to test a serial port on your computer. The data and handshake lines
have been linked. In this way all data will be sent back immediately. The PC
controls its own handshaking. The first test plug can be used to check the
function of the RS232 serial port with standard terminal software. The second
Page | 72
version can be used to test the full functionality of the RS232 serial port with
Norton Diagnostics or Check it.
FIGURE 2.22 SERIAL COMMUNICATION PORTS
Page | 73
a) ADVANTAGES OF SERIAL OVER PARLLEL

COMMUNICATION:
 Serial Cables can be longer than Parallel cables. The serial port transmits a '1'
as -3 to -25 volts and a '0' as +3 to +25 volts where as a parallel port transmits a
'0' as 0v and a '1' as 5v. Therefore the serial port can have a maximum swing of
50V compared to the parallel port which has a maximum swing of 5 Volts.
Therefore cable loss is not going to be as much of a problem for serial cables
than they are for parallel.
 You don't need as many wires than parallel transmission. If your device needs
to be mounted a far distance away from the computer then 3 core cable (Null
Modem Configuration) is going to be a lot cheaper that running 19 or 25 core
cable. However you must take into account the cost of the interfacing at each
end.
 Infra Red devices have proven quite popular recently. You may of seen many
electronic diaries and palmtop computers which have infra red capabilities
build in. However could you imagine transmitting 8 bits of data at the one time
across the room and being able to (from the devices point of view) decipher
which bits are which? Therefore serial transmission is used where one bit is
sent at a time. IrDA-1 (The first infra red specifications) was capable of 115.2k
baud and was interfaced into a UART. The pulse length however was cut down
to 3/16th of a RS232 bit length to conserve power considering these devices
are mainly used on diaries, laptops and palmtops.
 Microcontroller's have also proven to be quite popular recently. Many of these

have in built SCI (Serial Communications Interfaces) which can be used to talk
to the outside world. Serial Communication reduces the pin count of these
MPU's. Only two pins are commonly used, Transmit Data (TXD) and Receive
Data (RXD) compared with at least 8 pins if you use a 8 bit Parallel method
(You may also require a Strobe).
2.1.11 UART:
UART stands for Universal Asynchronous Receiver / Transmitter. Its the little box of
tricks found on your serial card which plays the little games with your modem or other
connected devices. Most cards will have the UART's integrated into other chips which
may also control your parallel port, games port, floppy or hard disk drives and are
typically surface mount devices. The 8250 series, which includes the 16450, 16550,
16650, & 16750 UARTS are the most commonly found type in your PC. Later we will
Page | 74
look at other types which can be used in your homemade devices and projects.
FIGURE 2.24 UART PIN CONFIGURATION
The 16550 is chip compatible with the 8250 & 16450. The only two
differences are pins 24 & 29. On the 8250 Pin 24 was chip select out which
functioned only as a indicator to if the chip was active or not. Pin 29 was not
connected on the 8250/16450 UARTs. The 16550 introduced two new pins in
their place. These are Transmit Ready and Receive Ready which can be
implemented with DMA (Direct Memory Access). These Pins have two different
modes of operation. Mode 0 supports single transfer DMA where as Mode 1
supports Multi-transfer DMA.
All the UARTs pins are TTL compatible. That includes TD, RD, RI,
DCD, DSR, CTS, DTR and RTS which all interface into your serial plug,
typically a D-type connector. Therefore RS232 Level Converters (which we talk
about in detail later) are used.
These are commonly the DS1489 Receiver and the DS1488 as the PC has
+12 and -12 volt rails which can be used by these devices. The RS232
Converters will convert the TTL signal into RS232 Logic Levels.
The UART requires a Clock to run. If you look at your serial card a
common crystal found is either a 1.8432 MHZ or a 18.432 MHZ Crystal. The
crystal in connected to the XIN-XOUT pins of the UART using a few extra
Page | 75
components which help the crystal to start oscillating. This clock will be used for
the Programmable Baud Rate Generator which directly interfaces into the
transmit timing circuits but not directly into the receiver timing circuits. For this
an external connection mast be made from pin 15 (Baud Out) to pin 9 (Receiver
clock in.) Note that the clock signal will be at Baud rate * 16
CHAPTER - III
3.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Page | 76
FIGURE 3.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF ROUTE GUIDANCE ANNOUNCER
Page | 77
Page | 78
3.2 INITIAL CIRCUITARY
Page | 79
FIGURE 3.2 INITIAL CIRCUIT OE ROUTE GUIDANCE
Page | 80
3.3 FINAL CIRCUITARY
Page | 81
FIGURE 3.3 FINIAL CIRCUIT OE ROUTE GUIDANCE
CHAPTER – IV
ADDITIONAL FEATURES:
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
One of the major goals for blind and visually impaired people is independent
mobility. In this paper we have an additional feature that if used creates most
comfort for the visually blind person. It involves a sensor in the integrated cane
to detect the movement of the user when he walks. This aid is a portable, self
contained system that will allow blind or visually impaired individuals to travel
through familiar and unfamiliar environments without the assistance of guide i.e.
through the customer service. In addition, it provides information to the user
about urban walking routes using spoken words to indicate what decisions to
make and helps him from easily knowing the hurdles.
4.2 COMPONENTS UTILIZED:
4.2.1 TWO 7555 TIMERIC’S
4.2.2 PHOTODIODE
4.2.3 INFRARED LED
4.2.4 TRANSISTOR BC547
Page | 82
4.2.1 7555 TIMER IC’S:
The ICM7555 is a CMOS timer providing significantly improved performance

over the standard NE/SE555 timer, while at the same time being a direct
replacement for those devices in most applications. Improved parameters include
low supply current, wide operating supply voltage range, low THRESHOLD,
TRIGGER, and RESET currents, no crow barring of the supply current during
output transitions, higher frequency performance and no requirement to decouple
CONTROL_VOLTAGE for stable operation.
The ICM7555 is a stable controller capable of producing accurate time delays or
Frequencies.
In the one-shot mode, the pulse width of each circuit is precisely controlled by
one external resistor and capacitor. For a stable operation as an oscillator, the
free-running frequency and the duty cycle are both accurately controlled by two
external resistors and one capacitor.
1. FEATURES:
 Exact equivalent in most applications for NE/SE555
 Low supply current: 80 mA (typical)
 Extremely low trigger, threshold, and reset currents: 20 pA (typical)
 High-speed operation: 500 kHz guaranteed
 Wide operating supply voltage range guaranteed 3 V to 16 V over full
automotive
Temperatures
 Normal reset function; no crow barring of supply during output transition
 Can be used with higher-impedance timing elements than the NE/SE555
for longer
Time constants.
APPLICATIONS:
Page | 83
 Precision timing
 Pulse generation
 Sequential timing
 Time delay generation
 Pulse width modulation
 Pulse position modulation
 Missing pulse detector
4.2.2 PHOTODIODE:
PHOTODIODE:
A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light into either

current or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation.
QSD2030F — Plastic Silicon Photodiode
FIGURE 4.1: GENERAL PHOTO DIODE
1) PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient
energy strikes the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a free electron
and a (positively charged electron hole). This mechanism is also known as the
Page | 84
photoelectric effect. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or

one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by
the built-in field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and
electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced.
FEATURES:
Critical performance parameters of a photodiode include:
Responsivety:
The ratio of generated photocurrent to incident light power, typically expressed

in A/W when used in photoconductive mode. The Responsivety may also be
expressed as a Quantum efficiency, or the ratio of the number of photo generated
carriers to incident photons and thus a unites quantity.
Dark current:
The current through the photodiode in the absence of light, when it is operated in
photoconductive mode. The dark current includes photocurrent generated by
background radiation and the saturation current of the semiconductor junction.
Dark current must be accounted for by calibration if a photodiode is used to
make an accurate optical power measurement, and it is also a source of noise
when a photodiode is used in an optical communication system.
Noise-equivalent power:
(NEP) The minimum input optical power to generate photocurrent, equal to the
rms noise current in a 1 hertz bandwidth. The related characteristic directivity
(D) is the inverse of NEP, 1/NEP; and the specific directivity ( ) is the
detectives normalized to the area (A) of the photo detector, . The
NEP is roughly the minimum detectable input power of a photodiode.
When a photodiode is used in an optical communication system, these

parameters contribute to the sensitivity of the optical receiver, which is the
minimum input power required for the receiver to achieve a specified bit error
ratio.
Applications
P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors such as

photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes.
Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc

players, smoke detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and
televisions.
Page | 85
In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones that
dim the display when it's dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often used
rather than photodiodes, although in principle either could be used.
Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science
and industry. They generally have a better, more linear response than
photoconductors.
They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for
computed tomography (coupled with scintillations) or instruments to analyze
samples (immunoassay). They are also used in pulse ox meters.
4.2.3 INFRARED LED
1) GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
It is the same principle in ALL Infra-Red proximity sensors. The basic idea is to
send infra red light through IR-LEDs, which is then reflected by any object in
front of the sensor.
Then all you have to do is to pick-up the reflected IR light. For detecting the reflected
IR light, we are going to use a very original technique: we are going to use another IR-
LED, to detect the IR light that was emitted from another led of the exact same type!
FIGURE 4.2: OPRATION OF IR LED
2) PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
This is an electrical property of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) which is the fact that a
led Produce a voltage difference across its leads when it is subjected to light. As if it
Page | 86
was a photo-cell, but with much lower output current. In other words, the voltage
generated by the leds can't be - in any way - used to generate electrical power from
light, It can barely be detected. that's why as you will notice in the
schematic, we are going to use a Op-Amp (operational Amplifier) to accurately

detect very small voltage changes.
FIGURE 4.3 GENERAL IR LED
FEATURES
•= 940 nm
• Chip material =GaAs with AlGaAs window
• Package type: T-1 3/4 (5mm lens diameter
• Matched Photo sensor: QSD122/123/124
• Medium Emission Angle, 40°
• High Output Power
•Package material and color: Clear, united, plastic
• Ideal for remote control application
4.2.4 TRANSISTOR BC547:
1) DESCRIPTION
Page | 87
The BC547 transistor is an NPN Epitaxial Silicon Transistor. The BC547

transistor is a general-purpose transistor in a small plastic package. It is used in
general-purpose switching and amplification BC847/BC547 series 45 V, 100 mA
NPN general-purpose transistors.
The BC547 transistor is an NPN bipolar transistor, in which the letters "N" and
"P" refer to the majority charge carriers inside the different regions of the
transistor. Most bipolar transistors used today are NPN, because electron
mobility is higher than hole mobility in semiconductors, allowing greater
currents and faster operation. NPN transistors consist of a layer of P-doped
semiconductor (the "base") between two N-doped layers. A small current
entering the base in common-emitter mode is amplified in the collector output.
In other terms, an NPN transistor is "on" when its base is pulled high relative to
the emitter. The arrow in the NPN transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and
points in the direction of the conventional current flow when the device is in
forward active mode. One mnemonic device for identifying the symbol for the
NPN transistor is "not pointing in." An NPN transistor can be considered as two
diodes with a shared anode region. In typical operation, the emitter base junction
is forward biased and the base collector junction is reverse biased.
In an NPN transistor, for example, when a positive voltage is applied to the base
emitter junction, the equilibrium between thermally generated carriers and the
repelling electric field of the depletion region becomes unbalanced, allowing
thermally excited electrons to inject into the base region. These electrons wander
(or "diffuse") through the base from the region of high concentration near the
emitter towards the region of low concentration near the collector. The electrons
in the base are called minority carriers because the base is doped p-type which
would make holes the majority carrier in the base
FIGURE 4.4 BC547 TRANSISTOR
1) BC547 Transistor Circuit Schematic Symbol

Page | 88
2) FEATURES:
• Low current
• Low voltage
• Three different gain selections
3) APPLICATIONS:
• General-purpose switching and amplification
CHAPTER – V
CODING
SOFTWARE USED: “EMBEDDED C”
/*******************/
#include<reg51.h>
Page | 89
#include"lcddisplay.h"
#include"UART.h"
#include<string.h>
#include<intrins.h>
sbit buzzer = P1^7;
sbit gsm = P3^3;
sbit gps = P3^2;
sbit sw1 = P1^0;
sbit sw2 = P1^1;
sbit sw3 = P1^2;
sbit sw4 = P1^3;
unsigned char mobilenum[]="9908172936";
unsigned char msg[5];
unsigned char XX,newmsg=0,a,dest=0,temp[5],jj=0;
/** interrupt function to receive the data from GSM

*****/
void serintr(void) interrupt 4
Page | 90
if(RI==1)
XX=SBUF;
if(XX=='+')
newmsg=1;
else
temp[jj++]=XX;
if(jj==10)
jj=0;
RI=0;
void main()
unsigned char i,gpsdata[45];
lcd_init();
UART_init();
lcdcmd(0x85);
Page | 91
sw1=sw2=sw3=sw4=1;
gps=1;
gsm=0;
RI=0;
lcdcmd(0x01);
msgdisplay ("searching for");
lcdcmd(0xc0);
msgdisplay("GSM modem");
delay(300);
send_to_modem("ate0"); //to avoid echo signals,
enter();
again:
send_to_modem("at"); // TO CHECKING GSM

MODEM...
enter();
if(!RI) // Here we are waiting for

data witch is sending by
GSM modem
goto again;
RI=0;
EA=1;
ES=1;
Page | 92
lcdcmd(0x01);
msgdisplay("SYSTEM");
cdcmd(0xc3);
msgdisplay("CONNECTED");
delay(100);
send_to_modem("at+creg=0"); //
enter();
delay(300);
newmsg=0;
xxx: lcdcmd(0x01);
msgdisplay("CHEKING SIM");
send_to_modem("AT+CPIN?"); //
enter();
delay(500);
if(newmsg==0)
goto xxx;
lcdcmd(0xC0);
msgdisplay ("SIM CONNECTED");
delay(500);
send_to_modem("at+cmgf=1"); // tr set message

format as text
mode
Page | 93
enter();
st:
lcdcmd(0x01);
msgdisplay("route guiding");
lcdcmd(0xC0);
msgdisplay("SYSTEM");
delay(500);
newmsg=0;
TR1=0;
TH1=-6;
gsm=1; // deselect the gsm
gps=0; // select the gps
TR1=1;
RI=0;
jj=0 ;
delay(100);
while(1)
RI=0;
a=0;
Page | 94
while(a!='$') //wait till the

data started
from gps
while(RI==0);
a=SBUF;
RI=0;
i=0;
while(RI==0);
i=i+1;
RI=0;
while(RI==0);
RI=0;
i=i+1;
while(RI==0);
if(SBUF=='R') // take the value from gprmc

command
RI=0;
while(RI==0);
i=i+1;
Page | 95
if(SBUF=='M')
RI=0;
while(RI==0);
i=i+1;
if(SBUF=='C')
RI=0;
while(RI==0);
i=i+1;
while(i<43) /// store the lattitude and longitude
while(RI==0);
gpsdata[i]=SBUF;
RI=0;
i++;
/** display latitude and longitude*/
lcdcmd(0x01);
msgdisplay("LT ");
Page | 96
for(i=19;i<30;i++)
lcddata(gpsdata[i]);
lcdcmd(0xc0);
msgdisplay("LG ");
for(i=31;i<43;i++)
lcddata(gpsdata[i]);
jj=0;
TH1=-3; // change the baud rate to gsm baud

rate 9600
gsm=0; // gsm select
gps=1; // gps deselect
if((temp[0]=='R')&&(temp[1]=='I')&&(temp[2]=='
N')&&(temp[3]=='G')) //if we get a call then
accept it automatically
buzzer=0;
ES=0;
send_to_modem("ATA");
enter();
jj=0;
lcdcmd(0x01);
msgdisplay("call lifted ");
Page | 97
delay(500);
buzzer=1;
while(1);
delay(10000);
if(sw1==0) // if switch 1 pressed then destination is

2
dest=2;
goto sendmsg;
if(sw2==0)
dest=3;
goto sendmsg;
if(sw3==0)
dest=4;
goto sendmsg;
Page | 98
if(sw4==0)
dest=1;
goto sendmsg;
TH1=-6; //change the baud rate gps baud rate
gsm=1;
gps=0;
delay(10);
sendmsg:
gsm=0; // select the gsm for sending message
gps=1; //deselect gps
ES=0;
RI=0;
buzzer=0;
lcdcmd(0x01);
msgdisplay("destination-->");
Page | 99
lcddata(dest+48);
delay(500);
lcdcmd(0x01);
msgdisplay("sending message");
send_to_modem("at+cmgs=");
ch_send_to_modem('"');
send_to_modem(mobilenum);
ch_send_to_modem('"');
enter();
delay(50);
send_to_modem("PERSON AT ");
send_to_modem("LT:");
for(i=19;i<30;i++)
ch_send_to_modem(gpsdata[i]);
send_to_modem(" LG:");
for(i=31;i<43;i++)
ch_send_to_modem(gpsdata[i]);
send_to_modem(" destination-> ");
ch_send_to_modem(dest+48);
delay(10);
ch_send_to_modem(0x1a);
Page | 100
ES=1;
delay(1500);
lcdcmd(0x01);
msgdisplay("MESSAGE SENT");
buzzer=1;
goto st;
CHAPTER – VI
6.1 ADVANTAGES:
 It is portable (size and power)
 It helps the blind to be independent .
 Time wastage is reduced.
 It helps in better utilization of guidance system for smoother

transportation.
Page | 101
 Support the blind, make the blind feel more closeness with normal life,
they will feel self-confident.
6.2 LIMITATIONS OF EXISTING DEVICES:
Existing orientation and way finding aids are limited by:
1) The types, amounts, and accuracy of information they can provide.

2) The types of environments in which they can function.
3) Their user interface structure/operating procedures. One of the reasons for
these limitations is that while there has been a great deal of research in the area
of electronic travel aids for obstacle avoidance , there has been little comparable
research and development of orientation and way finding devices.
Based on the needs and diversity of the potential user population as described
above, and the previous research of the authors (See Previous Research below), a
well designed orientation and way finding aid should ideally be able to provide
the user with:
1) Their current location and head in relative to known landmarks and the
desired destination,
2) Descriptions of prominent surrounding features and the general layout of the
greater surrounding environment, and
3) Things of interest to the user in the greater surround in environment. Further,
location information should be accurate to within one meter, and be provided in
a fashion that can be clearly comprehended regardless of location or type of
environment.
Finally, the system should be usable by people with a variety of age-related co-
morbidities. In other words, the interface must meet established universal design
criteria.
6.3 APPLICATIONS:
Page | 102
 The route announcement is not only specified for the blind but
also to common human to release him from the trouble of tracking
the route and reaching to the destination.
 It has its application in education field also.
 It has applications in detecting nuclear explosive objects.
 It also has its application in military field.
6.4 FUTURE SCOPE
To improve advantages and solve some features which are the minute limitations
in our project, some research is done for developing it and making it most
advanced usage of it for blind people :
• Through the application and implementation of this system we hope to

apply this principle on many other systems as Kiosk System and other
public systems. With purpose to support more for the blind in particular
and disabled people in general we need optimize the features of the
system.
• In blind recognition part, we interested to use GSM AND GPS
technology which is very relevant and high efficiency when the blind can
control their situation.
• This system will help blind people to find accurate information of the bus
which they should take. So the blind can go to the desire destination. In
addition to the more complex technologies such as voice recognition can
also be applied aimed to optimize the system. This system will give a
best support for the participants to use, especially the blind picture.
• Using this system we can extend its application in creating an automatic
vehicle for blind and help them go out independently ,and this can also be
used in the application of detecting of thief or anybody who has entered
the room and protect themselves in everyway possible without being
dependent .
Page | 103
6.5 ACTUAL WAY OF ACCESING THE MODEL:
FIGURE 6.1 ACTUAL WAY OFACCESSING THE MODEL
Page | 104
CHAPTER – VII
RESULT ANALYSIS:
The major goal of us doing this project was to establish a tool that is portable and
most convenient one to utilize, using the most common technologies that are
used in our day to day life, and the amount of knowledge we have is kept
forward only to help visually impaired people be independent in life and live
their lives in the most happiest way as everyone does and grab success towards
them in life. Thus through this project we’ v created a tool that has not been
created yet in INDIA and is developed in AUSTRALIA with different
technologies like speech synthesizer and tactile displays specially for visually
impaired people which made us develop module with components other then
that, and we hope this would help blind people and make our technology also the
“DEVELOPING ONE” and thus soon we can see developed INDIA.
Page | 105
CONCLUSION
Thus this system is a tool that would remove the barriers in life for visually
challenged people and help them achieve their goals and career that they aspired
to have. It also gives them independence and confidence which would bring
success to them as well bring out the talent of such people in various way and
thus helps INDIA TO BECOME THE DEVELOPED NATION. Thus our
motives have partially become successful and hope this would be utilized in the
most effective way possible.
Page | 106
REFERENCES:
WE ARE NOT ADDED ANY REFERENCES YET
NOTE
ALL REFERENCES MUST BE BOOKS

THERE SHOULDN’T ANY ONLINE
LINKS.
Page | 107

MAiN DOCUMENTATION

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

MAiN DOCUMENTATION

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

TRR ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Submitted in partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CH. RAVI SANKAR (08D15A0408)

A. KEERTHI PRIYA (07D11A0407)

P. HIMAJA SREE (07D11A0497)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND

(AFFILIATED TO J.N.T.U HYDERABAD)

Inole (V) Patancheru (M) Medak (Dist)

TRR ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Inole (V) Patancheru (M) Medak (Dist)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND

Prof. C ASHOK KUMAR

Internal Supervisor & Head of the Department.

YOUR PROJECT SURE – CERTIFICATE COMES IN

We acknowledge our gratitude to Prof. C. ASHOK KUMAR, Head of

CH. RAVI SANKAR

1.5 DESIGN POSSIBILITIES 3

1.6 ORGANISATION OF DOCUMENT 4

1.7 BLOCK DIAGRAM 5

CHAPTER – II: MAJOR COMPONENTS 6

2.1 HARDWARE PARTS

2.1.6 BUFFER IC (74LS244) 44

2.1.7 POWER SUPPLY 47

2.1.8 INPUT KEYPADS 55

2.1.10 SERIAL COMMUNICATION (RS 232) 56

3.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 68

3.2 INITIAL CIRCUITARY 70

3.3 FINAL CIRCUITARY 71

CHAPTER 4: ADDITIONAL FEATURES:

4.2 COMPONENTS UTILIZED 72

4.2.1 TWO 7555 TIMERIC’S 72

4.2.3 INFRARED LED 75

4.2.4 TRANSISTOR BC54 77

6.2 LIMITATIONS OF EXISTING DEVICES 79

6.4 FUTURE SCOPE 80

6.5 ACTUAL WAY OF ACCESING THE MODEL 81

Based on the investigation about daily activity characteristics and

know their location, condition of roads, vicinity buildings, and inquire

1. GLOBALLY BLIND PEOPLE HISTORY

8. THREE DIMENSIONAL COORDINATE SYSTEM

9. GPS APPLICATIONS IN CIVILIAN

10. GSM NETWORK

11. GSM NETWORK AREAS

12.PIN DIAGRAM OF 16*1 LCD LINES

13. MAX 232 IC

14. CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS OF MAX232

15.CONNECTION DIAGRAM OF BUFFER IC

16. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR POWER SUPPLY

17. IDEAL STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER SHOWING MAGNETIC FLUX

18. IDEAL TRANSFORMER

19. BRIDGE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT

20. AC HALF WAVE, FULLWAVE RECTIFIED SIGNALS

21. DIODE BRIDGE SMOOTHING

22. DB9 PIN DIAGRAM

23. UART PIN DIAGRAMS

24. PHOTODIODE MODEL

25. IR LED OPERATION DIAGRAM

26. IR LED MODEL

27. TRANSISTOR BC547 & ITS SYMBOL REPRESENTATION

In this paper, the proposed electronic travel aid involves a

Simple Electronic Travel Aids have been in development since

Through the 1960s and 70s obstacle detection devices continued to be