Marks

40% PPT (15-20 min)

60% Paper

Project Report = 10 pages

Syllabus
1. Concept
2. Measurement
3. Various methods of improvement
4. Value engg & value analysis
5. Quality circles
6. Learning curve
7. Creativity techniques

Concept

v




 
j Technology (MUL Has over 8000 j Human
Robots)
j Process j JIT / QC / Kaizen
j Design j TQM

j High level of resources j More human / less resources

j High time span for development j More stable cultural change
j Less lived advantage j Time predictable
j Low time span for development

This overcomes the disadvantages of the techniques used in the west with lower inputs
and better human management

1. 1. Productivity had been initiated in the west but adopted enhanced and
developed faster in the east.
2. 2. The eastern technique of productivity enhancement has been proved the best
across the time span.

Productivity concept:
1. 1. Meaning
2. 2. Productivity (definition, performance, index)
3. 3. Partial productivity
4. 4. Production & productivity
5. 5. Productivity & Japan
6. 6. Productivity & standard of living.

Q1) WRT productivity explain the following terms & concepts.

1. 1. Need evolution & definition.
2. 2. Product, productivity & production mgmt.
3. 3. Productivity & performance
4. 4. Productivity index.

Q2) Explain the concept of partial productivity, its application in industry.

Q3) what are the various methods of partial productivity improvement.

Q4) Discuss the advantages & disadvantages of partial productivity.

Q5) In enhancement of production & productivity, the strategies are selected based on
the market demand condition: Different production strategies & the related market
condition & productivity strategies & related market condition.

Q6) Productivity in Japan. The methodology adopted by Japan while enhancing overall
productivity by improving human productivity as a thrust area.

Q7) Productivity & standard of living: Explain with suitable model the impact of
productivity & standard of living are each other.

‘  

It is defining measurement & improvement of efficiency of the use of various i/p

resources WRT o/p given by the system which can be
j Individual
j Service
j Govt
j Mfg organization
j NGO
j ECO / Nation

Need
Life cycle phase

Viability ĺ Stability ĺ Growth / Expansion

- Organization passes through various phases

- Velocity & efficiency of transfer through these phases depends on
- Efficient use of resources
- Min i/p max o/p
- Productivity of Organization

Evolution of Concept „
   

Till 1940-1945 All the markets were sellers market

Price charged / Profits were liberal
No thrust on productivity
1950 (Orgn for European Economic Productivity is the quotient
Corporation) The quotient obtained by dividing output
by one of the factors of production
Gives productivity of
 capital/Investment/raw material
1955 ± Davis Change in product obtained for the
resources expended
1962 ± Fabricant Always a ratio of output to Input
1965 ± Kendrick & Creamer Functional definition for partial, Total factor
and total productivity
1970 ± Sumanth Total Productivity Model
1987 ± Goldrratt & Smith Minimizing use of resources required to
produce output desired by Customer.
1990 Continuous defining, Measurement,
Improvement of living standards of society
± Humanity & Environment
Minimizing and seeking alternative
resources and enhancing output of each
activity

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In 1960s markets were the sellers market and capital as an input was a major input and
its impact on overall productivity was major. Strategies adopted were diversification to
grow expand and enhance productivity.

The 1970s and 80s machine was a vital input and high level of motivation, Special
Purpose Application machines, High Speed Transfer machines, High Speed automatic
packing machines were strategies adopted for productivity enhancement.

In 1990s the machine productivity already at its peak and human productivity decided
the overall productivity of the organization. Strategies adopted were TQM, Quality Circle,
Kaisen and people were said to be a major input for productivity enhancement.
In the new Millennium turning of this century saw that knowledge is a deciding factor
(Creating, Sharing, Storing, Analyzing knowledge for effective and online decision
making process)

 

Productivity has a direct reference to output, but performance has no reference to any
thing, since performance is an individual effort.

Performance: Considers only output irrespective of inputs. E.g. a tailor makes 7 shirts a
day

Productivity: Takes into account output in relation with resources consumed (Inputs)
Productivity = Output/Input
= Performance Achieved / Resources Consumed

E.g. A makes 7 shirts a day in 10 meters cloth

B makes 8 shirts a day in 10 meters cloth

„‘  

Productivity is simply an arithmetical ratio between the amount produced and the
amount of resources used in the course of production.

 „

 
Land Hectare
Material Metric Tonne
Plant & Machinery Machine Hours
People & Labor Man Hours
Capital Rupees

  !-"

³Productivity is the ratio between output and input´

Productivity = Output/Input

Means: Change in output (Maybe +ve or ±ve) is considering only one major input and
neglecting other resources as input.

 - 

³Ratio of actual output as against standard (expected) output´

PI = Quantity of actual work/Quantity expected (ideal) to be produced

Example: A makes 7 shirts per day where expected is 10 shirts per day
PI of A = 7/10 = 70%

B makes 10 shirts per day in 10 meters of cloth

C makes 12 shirts per day in 10 meters of cloth

Cloth PI of C = 12/10 = 120%

For a cola bottling plant machine is a vital input, For a management institute quality of
faculty is a vital input.

Quantifiable output for a hospital is the number of recovered patients. The vital input in
this case levels of correct diagnosis.

Examples of partial productivity improvement.

Factor Condition Change Result Increase in

before change affected in i/p productivity
source
Labour Makes 100 nos Training given Produced 120 / + 20%
on m/c / day day
Material 100KG of ore Process 100KG of ore + 25%
makes 60 KG upgraded / makes 75 KG
of PIG iron improved of PIG iron
Land 200 Fertilizers used 300 + 50%
quintals/hectare quintals/hectare
of maize
Machines Could make Improved new Could make + 20%
100 jobs / day tool used 120 jobs / day
Capital 1000/- Product mix Profit up to + 50%
employed could changed 450/-
generate 300/-
profit

 

Production is in relation to numbers. Production ĺ Qty produced in nos in particular

span of time i.e. without any comparison with qty produced in any other span in similar
condition.

e.g. Data of a shop

Day I/p in m/c hrs O/p steel glasses made
Mon 10 480
Tue 8 400
Wed 4 220

Productivity = o/p (qty made) / i/p (m/c hrs)

Mon = 480/10 = 48 units/hr
Tue = 400/8 = 50 units/hr
Wed = 220/4 = 55 units/hr

Result ĺ Production has dropped but productivity has increased.

Strategy:
› In boom of market demand:- It is advisable to increase m/c hrs to produce more even
if productivity is low.

In low market demand:- Required to produce less qty but with improved productivity

 !#  

  
j Concerned with only o/p j Concerned with o/p WRT i/p
j Activity of producing goods & services j Concerned with effeciency /
effectiveness with which goods/services
are produced.
j Can increase by increasing factors of i/p. j Productivity can be increased by step
But the increase in the i/p factors will / analysis & correct approach
may scale down productivity.

Productivity & Japan

1. In 1950s: Japan¶s products were considered ³second rate´
2. Japan¶s per capita income was $200
3. National productivity center was established in Japan in 1950s
4. Plant has white-collared & blue-collared quality circles.
5. Japanese workers exhibit mission in his work
6. Doing a good job is important to them/union/families/nations
7. Workers and mgmt share the same objectives
8. Worker¶s absenteeism is about NIL
9. Sabotage is unknown
10. Secret of Japan¶s high growth is productivity
11. Japan¶s per capita income today is of the order of $8000 & unemployment rate is
2%

1) Major resources: - consumed in the process of production are labor and capital.
e.g. Textiles
2) Equilibrium: - Between 2 major resources (in Rupees equivalent) Labor and
capital is to be maintained

Example
Quantity Rupees Equivalent
Output 1000 10 lakhs
Input Labor 200 hours 2 lakhs
Capital 5.5 lakhs
Total factor productivity:- 1000000/(200000+550000)=1.33

   

Data is easy to obtain Does not consider impact of material and
energy input through material typically
forms 60% of the product and product cost
Appealing from the viewpoint of the
corporate CEO and the national
economists

Used by (1) Economists

(2) Labor and Capital Intensive Industries

‘$$!

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Assumptions & Facts

(1) Labor / Material and Energy are major inputs

(2) Capital inputs are once in a while (At the time of startup)
(3) Depreciation concept makes it difficult to estimate capital consumption

e.g. Output/Input =Rupee equivalent of output/Rupee equivalent of Input

e.g. Continuous process Cement, Chemical, Petroleum

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This is a perfect fit for FMCG companies

(1) 5 Inputs: Labor, Material, Capital, Energy and Other expenses

(2) Manufacturing or Service Organization can use this model effectively
E.g. Total Productivity=Total Tangible Output (A) / Total Tangible Input (B)
(A) Total Tangible Output
=Value of finished goods produced
+ Partial Units produced
+ Dividends from Securities
+ Interest from Bonds
+ Other Income
(B) Total Tangible Inputs
= Value of Human Input (Employees)
+ Capital Investment
+ Materials Purchased
+ Energy
+ Other Expenses (Taxes, Transport, Office etc)

   

All quantifiable inputs are considered
Sensitivity Analysis can be done
Provides both a firm level and operational
unit level productivity
Data is difficult to compute
Does not consider intangible factors of
input & output

$
$


(1) Sumanth¶s total productivity model helps in total productivity of the firm.
(2) Prodcutivity of individual product can be measured
(3) Productivity of an input factor for a particular product can be measured

+!! $    

Considers labor & Capital as 2 major resources and developed a mathematical

expression taking output as a function of these 2 resources.

Function = Q=A x Ld x kf,

Where Q= Output, L=Labor Input, K=Capital Input, A,d,f are constants to be estimated

įq / įl and f = įa / įk

d= įq / įl is partial productivity of labor = Small changes in o/p qty in rupees / Small

changes in Input labor in rupees

And

įq / įl is partial productivity of capital = Small changes in o/p qty in rupees / Small

changes in Capital input in rupees



$ ,
 

Provides a simple measure to understand the trade off between labor and capital. E.g.
Sugar / Cement / Capita;

 + ‘$

APC gives considerable thrust on productivity measurement that relates profitability with
productivity and price recovery factor.

e.g. Profitability = Sales/Cost

= Output Quantities X Price/Input quantities X Unit Cost

=Productivity X Price Recovery Factor



j Captures the effect of inflation

j The changes in this factor over time indicates whether changes ininput costs are
absorbed passing on Or over compensated for in the price of the firms output

Inclusion of this factor will show whether gains OR losses of a firm are due to changes in
productivity OR it merely indicates the fluctuation in the prices of the material consumed
and sold.
 
- Causes of productivity decline
- Classic ILO
- Sumanth¶s prolonged approach (Productivity cycle spiral)
- Technology based
- Material based
- Employee based
- Product based
- Task based
- Modern TQ approach

Causes of productivity decline

(1) Inability to measure, evaluate & manage the productivity of white collared employees

(2) Benefits given without equating with productivity / accountability.

(3) Diffused authority causing delay / time logs

(4) Vast expansion lowers productivity growth resulting in soaring costs.

(5) Low motivation.

(6) Inefficient materials mgmt.

(7) Unresolved human conflicts in terms, unions, mkt & production

(8) Increased legislative / rules shrinks mgmt options & flexibility.

(9) Specialization in work processes resulting in monitoring / boredom (Operations /

design & development / sales forces)

(10) Rapid technology changes / decline in new opportunities & innovations in

established process

(11) Increase demand of leisure time.

!$

Following is the data received from company profile. The company needs to be revived
immediately for survival. Please advice

(1) Co had 3 strikes & 2 lockouts in last 2 years. Lost faith of inestors & heading towards
closure.
(2) Co is loosing mkt share from 67% to 42% in a span of 2 yrs & a rate of field failure
has gone up from 7% to 38%
(3) Co has realised the competitor¶s sales price in mkt is much lower that Co material
cost itself.
(4) Co responding cycle time has gone up from 2 weeks to 6 weeks avg against the
competitors off the shelf.
(5) Co last mkt share of unique single product from 52% to 42% against the 2 new
competitors offering 7 & 9 variants of the product in same segment.

Sumanth¶s productivity cycle.

SPIRAL for productivity improvement

°$
$°$   

1) 1) Value Analysis
a) Concept
b) Meaning
c) Definition
2) 2) Value
a) Value/worth & cost
b) Methods to increase value of function
3) 3) Function
a) Meaning
b) Use function/aesthetic functions
c) Basic function/secondary function
d) Higher order function/lower order function
4) 4) Value engineering
a) Job plan for value engineering

Q1. WRT VA explain the following

a. Concept & evolution
b. Meaning & definition
c. Various types of value of products & their applications

Q2.
a. Explain the meaning & relationship between value, work & cost with suitable example
b. State different methods to increase the value of function with suitable example.

Q3. Explain meaning of concept function along with how various functions are
categorised giving suitable example for each category.

Q4. Create functional chain diagram for following products.

a. Kitchen mixer
b. Battery operated torch
c. Cell phone

Q5. Explain job plan method in VE while developing a new product.

Value Analysis

1. Concept
- In 2nd world war, US reserved copper/brass & gun metal for army/navy
- GE was in a fix
- Lawarence D'Miles a GE purchase executive
- Made substitutes for all materials
- Cost reduced without affecting quality

2. Meaning
(a) VA
- increases the value of a product/service systematically
- eliminates all non-value adding function of product/service
- applied to the product being already mfg.
(b) VE
- applied at design & development stage of new product
- developed by US navy 1954

3. Definition

j VA is step ± by ± step approach to identify all functions of production / Process /

System / Service
j Establish a monetary for each function
j Then provide same function at overall minimum cost without affecting any existing
parameters/quality/maintainability/productivity/safety/performance.

°$ -

 $

- Economic value
- Aesthetic value
- Emotional value
- political value
- Judicial value
- Religious value
- Social value

 °$
- Use value
- Exchange Value
- Esteem value
- Cost value

Meaning of value/worth/cost

A) Value: Is a function of "Demand Performance" & "Cost" be expressed as

Value = Desired performance (P) / Overall Costs (C)
V = P/C

B) Worth:Desired performance is expressed by the term worth

Definition: "Worth is defined as lowest cost to achieve use (work) function & aesthetic
(sell) function"

C) Cost: Cost or overall cost means total landed cost.

- for a producer: labour/material/overheads
- For a consumer: price/tax/handling charges/transport

Methods of increasing the value of a function

Performance Cost
Same 2 Decrease
Enhance
Same 2
Enhance
Decrease
Very high enhancement

Marginal enhancement

 Method Strategy Example
1 Decrease cost/same V =P2 / C a) a) high Cassets/colour
performance tech/speed prints/digital wrist
vol/recording m/c watches/calculators
b) b) lower
versions
2 Enhance performance V =P
/ C2 Enhancing - - TOI/ECO
same cost advt/product promo times added
revenues supplements
- - CD with
Chip/Cassette
with
filmfare/Cosmetics
with femina
3 Decrease V =P
/ C - - better R&D - - pentium
cost/increase - - conversion performance
performance cost reduction increase price
reduces
- - high tech
CTV
- - Auto
cameras
4 Increase performance V =P

/ C
- - increase Cold drinks -increase
larger than price revenue/MS vol at slight increase
increase - - reduce in price
conversion/other Parle biscuits - double
cost pack at 1 1/2 price
Toothpaste - 20%
extra + brush at
marginal extra price
Mineral water - 1 1/2
ltr bottle at slight extra
cost

a   

Meaning
Function is need, which is satisfied by the product/service (normally a verb)
Example to protect/cut/coat/sew/write

Function of
VCR/fridge/2in1/shoes/food processor

Various functional groups

µOne product has got several function. Hence are required to be categorized separately
to study cost/benefit analysis

Categories
- Use work function & aesthetic (sell) function
- Basic function & secondary function
 - Higher order function & lower order function

Group Example Function

1A Use function (work function) Hunter shoes, jeans, t-shirt To protect foot/body
1B Aesthetic function (sell) Leather shoes, suit, safari, Improve appearance
blazer, tie, cosmetics
1C Balance of both function Rebok shoes, fancy sofa Use + aesthetic
set, car (zen/van) function
2A Basic function Which can¶t be sacrificed or
down graded
Most necessary for product
acceptance
2B Secondary function Can be sacrificed against
cost/convenience

Q1] Identify the basic function & secondary function of the following product & also
explain how the are satisfied or sacrificed.
1. 300ml Pepsi bottles
2. 500ml milk bottles
3. 1 ½ ltr pepsi bottle
4. 1 Kg sweet/edible oil pouch
5. 100gms Amul butter pack

Functional analysis: Ask why & how to basic function

Example 1 Battery operated torch

Basic function: To give light
Connecting Closing Giving Illuminating Give light Facilitate
battery switch current bulb viewing
Lower order Basic Higher order
function Function function

Example 2 Mixer
Basic function: Cut
Facilitate digesting
Facilitate eating
Facilitate cooking
Cut
By turning blades
By electric motor
By plugging socket

Conclusion
Higher order function
- Are commanded by customer
- Can¶t be changed / sacrificed

Lower Order function

- under control of co
- can be modified / changed
°$ „° 

Job Plan
VE is technique also applied to existing product in following situation
a) Saturated stage / decline stage of PLC
b) Stiff competition faced by product on price / utility / aesthetic front
c) Facilitate brand extension / launch modified / improved product

Application of VE

Principle
- Eliminate everything that is not value adding
- Applied to product / processes / systems / services
- Enrich product per at lower cost

Job Plan for VA

Meaning: Step by step systematic procedure to carry out VA is termed as Job Plan for
VA

Various steps of Job Plan for VA (Full Question)

1. Orientation phase
1. Training managers / supervisors level
2. Exposure to VA/VE/ABC/Pareto analysis
3. Select product for analysis/study (ball pen)
4. Form team: heads of design, mkt, fin, production

2. Info phase
- Collect/tabulate data about product/process/time requirement / cost of process
- Material /component/process cost involved

3. Function phase: Construct a fast diagram (comes for short note)

³Functional analysis simulation technique´
- List all parts / components of product
- List all basic function of each part
- Probe every basic function by why & how
- Put cost of each part against (make fast cost diag)

4. Creatation phase: [Brain storm sessions] [success of project depends on phase]

- Suggest alternative means to do same function at lesser cost
- List all alternatives
- Repeat brain storming for diverse alternatives
- Check possibility to eliminate / modify / combine / consolidate component

5. Evaluation phase
- Evaluate each alternative whether
- Performs all the basic function
- Meet all requirements
- Reduce cost to effect saving
- Short list all the alternatives which stands the test.
Example Case of pen
1. Eliminate head & make it part of the cylinder
2. Eliminate the tail & make it part of the cylinder
3. Eliminate rings

6. Recommendation phase
- Design change suggested
- Reason for the change
- Additional expenditure (for dies/advt exp)
- Savings (cost of parts/processes etc.)
Recommendations accepted by CEO

7. Implementation phase
- List : design modifications, fabrication of die, new Ad campaign, Trial
production run.
- Work time span / activity schedules
- Prepare PERT chart
- Allocate responsibilities
- Monitor progress / take action

8. Audit & follow up phase:

- Note actual progress
- Compare with plan
- Take corrective action if required

h$+$„h+
- Meaning
- Working process
- Structure of QC
- Seven tools
- Planning / organizing QC
- Launching / implementation of QC

Q1] WRT QC explain the following

a) Concept & evolution
b) Definition & features
c) Benefits to mgmt & employees

Q2]
a) Explain the process of QC with various phases within
b) Mgmt role in QC

Q3] Explain the structure of QC, various layers within it & different areas in which every
layer needed to be training.

Q4] Explain the 7 tools of QC with suitable example for each

Q5] Explain the method adopted while planning QC within organization.

Q6] Explain various stages while launching & implementation of QC within an
organization.

h+

Meaning & concept:-

Evolution
- May 1962 ± first QC aunched by Dr. ishikawa in Japan
- 1982 ± Mr D R UDPA (BHEL) launched in India
- QCFI ± QC forun of India (NPO) launched in Hyderabad to promote QC.

Concept:
- To promote grass root involvement / participation
- Creative thinking / on improving in work process product quality / reliability /
safety / cost reduction / relationship / work culture
- Enormous value addition prosperity for the org/employees

Definition

QC is a voluntary small group of employees from the same work area OR doing
similar type of work who meet regularly to identify analyze, solve and implement
solutions to work related problems, leading to improvement in total performance and
enrichment of work life.

Basic features

Membership ± Strictly Voluntary

Member from same work area
Size 5 to 10
Frequency of meeting once a week
Meeting conducted within working area ± Study problem from all
angles

.  $

1) Enhancement of 3Cs Confidence, Creativity and Capability

2) Opportunity to learn new techniques to identify and solve problems
3) Job Satisfaction: Problem solving capability
4) Learn prevention of problems
5) Safety awareness
6) Better / Improved interpersonal relationships
7) Develop leadership skills

. " / 

1) Enhancement of productivity & reliability of the products / Services

2) TCM reduces wastage / material content
3) High employee motivation at negligible cost
4) Teamwork culture development
5) Self developed organization structure ± better superior-subordinate relationships
6) Promotion effective of quality / Safety / cost and work conciousness
7) Healthy Industrial relations

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Non-Members Involve / Support Co-operation
Implementation Team Work
Members
Basic Structure Element Participate in problem
Solving
Data Gathering / record
keeping
Ensure highest levels of
performance
Top Management
presentation
Leader
Chosen by the members or Conducts the meetings Leadership
appointed by rotation Registers Problems and Goal Setting
solutions Group techniques
Sets goals and standards of application
performance Communication
Makes an action plan Conduct effective meetings
Maintain team
cohesiveness
Encourages non-members
to join
 $     0 
Facilitator
Senior official in the Attends / guides meetings / Improving leadership skills
department proceedings Catalyzing circles¶ activities
Co-ordinates with training Promote participation
officer / steering committee culture
Obtain support from other Simple techniques of
areas problem solving
Ensures circles¶ record Identifying pitfalls & risks
keeping
Encourages continuous
generation of new ideas
Co-coordinator
Unit / Works chief Registers circles in the unit Excellent inter-personal
Nominates coordinators relations
Attends presentations and
steering committee
meetings
Publishes newsletter
Provides policy resources
Steering Committee
CEO / Divisional heads Provide Annual budgets
Encourage healthy
competition
Provide guidance
Top Management
CEO / Profit Center Include QC as mission /
Manager Objective
Attend presentations
Verify implementation
Review progress
periodically

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j Problem actually consists of several subsets each of which have different root
causes
j Break single problems into sub problems and diagnose causes of each Segregation
of problems into smaller group
j Need skills and expertise to do stratification.

eg. Problem: Low output on a day

Causes: 1st shift machine breakdown, 2nd shift no power, 3rd shift no raw materials
Conclusion Problem is same but reasons are different

a-+„! -%#

Rearrange possible causes of the problem Segregate into 4 Ms, Men, Machine, Method,
Material Necessary to list causes by brain storming method

Sub Cause
Men Machine

Subcause Subcause

Methods Material

Advantages
A. Good starting point for dia gnosis
B. Ensures no cause has been missed out
C. Must be prepared by experts

2-$$!$,+%$-

+ $$‘% 3  %

Broken Pin IIII II 7 (2)
Blink III 3 (0)
Loose Contacts IIII IIII II 10 (2)
No Power II 2
24

A machine drawing copper wire a very delicate and precision operation, the wire was
breaking frequently 25 times in a minute
4-
$

It is a 20/80 analysis and the principle says, 80% of total effect is generated by 20% of
the causes. Example 80% revenue is generated by 20% products. Example, 80% of total
stock or inventory value is built up by 20% of items. Pareto diagram is built up to identify
vital 20 which are the causes/effects 80% of total effect.

80

20 80








$  ,
.+
$

100

80

20

5- 6

Method of representation of Pareto Analysis. Arrange in descending order. Is plotted in a

similar way as Pareto diagram. The values are plotted in descending order;
This is useful to locate the concentration of gravity.
O-
 -

Distances to Cover

Lateness in Minutes

It tries to establish relationship between any two parameters or variables. One variable
or parameter is plotted on X axis second is on Y axis. lt shows whether the relationship
exists between 2 variables which is (a) directly proportional (b) Inversely proportional (c)
There is no co-relation between each other/f the relationship between variables is
directly or inversely proportional, the block at either end can be selected for corrective
action.

*-+ $+-

+2

-2

Controls the process within the tolerable variance. If the tolerance is crossed (-ye or +ve)
control charts try to assign the reason of variance either to (a) Machine and tool (b)
Process Capability. This technique helps in taking the right decision for selection of the
machine with higher processing capabilities (lower variances)

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Implement Yes '  No

  /  $  $

 !7&
j Company¶s vision and mission statement.
j Setting up of objectives/formulation of strategies data analysis.
j Set goals of each department division in line with firms overall direction
j Short time objectives developed logically

 $ 

j Determine financial implications of the plan.

j Evaluation of investment
j Choose plan if end results are tuned to cost

# $

Review and approval should be ongoing throughout process,

Plans presented to CEO & Senior Mgmt,
Management/Quality council informed,
Provide guidance throughout plan development
Draft reviewed by other part of the organization

  3$$

Management determination.

Management shall commit itself to company wide quality control or total quality control
involving development of management attitudes/practices towards defect free operation.

   h+

A. Exposure to middle level executives, conducive climate to start QC

B. Exposure to employees, invite member volunteer
C. Nominate facilitators for area senior officers
D. Form steering committee, CEO as a chairman and departmental head as members
E. Facilitators fixes meeting, Hour a week for QC members
F. Formal inauguration of QC, Launch in one department
G. Support with facilities for circle meeting
H. Extend concept to other departments

+. 3

j Brain Storming
j Nominal Group technique
j Lateral Thinking

. 
 

Means of getting large number of ideas from a group of people in a short time

Focuses on 3 aspects

- Large number of ideas

- Diverse group
- Short time

 
Large Numbers Generate large numbers
May not be implementable
Quantity leads to quality
Bad ideas to exit and good ones retained
Group Is a group process
Varies between 6 to 20 people
Heterogeneous, diverse in age,
experience, qualifications
Heterogeneity permits different view points
Short time High flow rate of ideas
Can be 100 ideas in 10 minutes
Emphasis on quantity

 $!  

1) Suspend judgment ± Listen to and list down all ideas, - Don¶t evaluate till end of the
meeting
2) Free wheeling of ideas ± Permit wild ideas, encourage dreaming, - Thinking around
the problem
3) Quantity ± Check for feasibility after all ideas are listed
4) Cross fertilization of ideas ± Piggy back on other ideas, - Joint ownership of all ideas



 . 
 



State problem State the problem and provide information
Participants must know relevant details
Re-State problem Look at problems in different ways to
identify facts
Redefine problem and generate a number
of solutions
Select basic re-statements List all re-statements
Select one/two or lead to brain storming
Warming up Define objective of the session and
expected outcome
Give time for free wheeling / actual
generation of ideas
Idea Generation Observe time for meditation
People to speak out the idea
Leader to note down all the ideas
Process continues till ideas dry up
Wildest ideas Group takes up wildest ideas in another
brain storming session

  
Suspend judgment Spend too much time on an initial
discussion
Allow silly wild ideas Allow observers
Have warm-up sessions Tape record proceedings
Encourage noise and laughter Accept interruptions
Take more than one statement Drag session if dried up

„a0 $ 3


A group to present their ideas and vote the best one as the group decision. Group is
nominal as members don¶t interact with each other

Steps

Step 1. Small group gathers, Receives instructions, Identifies problems

Step 2. Write down ideas
Step 3. Each one presents ideas; Leader notes these ideas on a chart
Step 4. Group discusses, clarifies and evaluates each of the ideas
Step 5. Participants privately rank ideas in their order of preference
Step 6. Group selects highest ranking idea as a group decision

   

Allows formation of an informed opinion Effective only if personal bias and
prejudice is absent
Ranking of ideas by members is the effect Ideas recorded without name of person
of information exchanged by members (Robbed of individual credit)
Fairly rapid process Secret voting for final choice
Permits exchange of ideas

„2$ % 

A thinking process which makes deliberate attempt to generate new ideas by introducing
a discontinuity in our thought process.

e.g. Japs overcame American lead in photography by developing videography

+   $ %  $ % 

Think to prove / Choose something Think to generate / explore ideas
In search of answers In search of questions
Uses information in its meaning Uses information for effect
Seeks continuity in process Seeks discontinuity in process
Concentrates on relevant facts & things Does not consider anything as irrelevant
only
Close ended procedure Open ended process
‘     
- Green is good, Green is Gold
- ME & management
- Concept / Negligence / Status today

Env mgmt is imp, but mgmt dev programmes dont really give it serious thot.

In a world where acid rains smog, ozone depletion and global warming threaten the very
life support system of the planet ,it comes as no surprise to see the emergence of
environmental pressure, groups have played a major role in this process, forcing many
companies to green their activities, consumers at/east in some industries have also
shown a preference for environmentally friendly goods, willing to pay extra, even mgmt
gurus, porter & sachs consider the external Env a key variable.

A series of studies by both academic journals and the popular press has indicated that
biz execs in many parts of the world consider Env

The subject has been neglected for long time even today for several reasons and on
several fronts

‘

ME has been taken as related with acid rains, smog, ozone layers global warming and
such activities normally undertaken by social pressure groups/NGOs.

‘- 

Very few even in USA have adopted this as a elective subject without much thrust This
has remained standalone subject without any continuity with major core streams like
marketing, finance, HRD etc.

This has never been an advantage to any of these core activities generating aditional
wealth and hence has never given priority at any stage

+

Have treated this as a cost head, as a need to have extensive PRO work with pressure
grps and authorities with high nuisance value.

This has never been part of mission statement, or a core strategy for new business lines
or opportunities.

For the reason corporates never offered to pay a price/preference for mgmt graduates
trained in this field

+

Customer refused to bear any additional cost of the product if it is eco friendly and with
longstanding advantages and preferred cheaper products from conventional corpora tes
 +   

Several corporates understanding ME as a sustainable adv are changing over their biz
area along with a mission statement e.g., Monsanto chemicals changed over their biz to
totally eco friendly fertilizers and other products

E.g. ITC decided to shift in late 50s from tobacco as a core activity to several eco
friendly farm products and services

E.g. Orchid hotels made the mission statement as a eco friendly life style hotel and
successfully generated wealth and retained stability. Customer today is willing to pay
extra price for eco friendly products processes and even the services

$ 

Mgmt Inst needs to link this subject as an advantage with all other core streams like
market / finance / hrd.

The approaches should be totally restructured to have this approach as wealth

generating profit center approach than today¶s cost head and liability approach
Significance of Env




(1) Basic sanitation to only 0.5% of Rural India

(2) Infected water supply to 1,50,000 villages
(3) Protected water supply of inferior quality to only 40% of our cities
(4) Underground sewage to only 8% of cities
(5) 50% of residents of cities have no access to even public lavatories
(6) Open space is only 0.83 acres / 1000 population (USA 6 times and UK 15 times)
(7) 48 million Indians have diseases due to malnutrition, unclean environment and non-
immunization
(8) Chemicals are discharged in the water
(9) Deaths 56% due to the above reasons
(10) 3000 deaths occurred in 1971 due to indiscriminate use of pesticide
(11) Fisheries / Fish / Fish eaters suffer
(12) In river solid wastes / night sails / Chemical wastes / dead human bodies / dead
animals are thrown.

0 $   

(1) Problem ± Need of control

(2) Policy decision stage ± Scientific, Political and administrative
(3) Environment quality criteria
(4) Biological studies & Acceptable Daily Intake ± Meaning, aims and process
(5) Environmental standards, Steps, authorities, Applications, Types-Ambient standards,
Exposure standards, Biological standards and safety standards
(6) Agencies for environmental standardization ± Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS),
State and Central pollution boards
   $!$   $

° Ä 
5
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  6 


"$ 3 
 
' 


"% 

   
 


!$ 
Vast Localities Vast wastage / Liquid / Solid / Gaseous
E.g. Mumbai 6000 to 7000 tonnes per day
Diverse wastes Plastics / Oil Waste / e-waste / rubber and
other degradables
Industrialization Air pollutants (SO2/Co2/NO2)
Affluents (Chemicals and acids)
Solids (Ash and non-recyclable polymers)
Domestic sewage Water borne diseases (Cholera / Jaundice
/ Typhoid / Gastro)
Mercury / Refrigerants Secondary poisoning through fisheries
Air Pollution Thermal power station / Cement factories
and oil refineries
Noise Pollution Road traffic / Aircrafts / Indurties

$     

Meaning

Development of environmental policies at national / regional / international levels

Aiming to pollution reduction
Preservation of natural resources for quality life

 $ 

1) Scientific stage ± Activities include (a) data knowledge collection about hazards (b)
Risk evaluation (c) Determining routes of exposures (d) Estimation of affected
population
2) Political & Administrative Stage ± Activities include (a) Decide on means of
elimination and control of causes (b) Technology selection for elimination (c) Framing
of controlling measures (d) Laying down of legal standards (e) Passing the
legislations

  h$+

Meaning: Are descriptive documents of effects of pollutants on human health

E.g. Diseases / loss of sight / inability to stand, talk etc

 
%6 '



%$ 
0 


'$  

 


 

   


 
Severity / Frequency Frequency of occurrence of adverse
effects
Effect Severity (Fatal / casual)
Abundance Level of Pollutants in Environment
Persistence Non-degradable pollutants / Accumulation
in humans / Nature e.g. plastic / mercury
Metabolic Transformation Passes rejected wastes through food chain
Population size All in common
Limited occupation
Geographical

.$$ !$$ %



  
AIMS

To limit the dose of substance below injury ocurring level

Process

Health standards for toxic chemicals are developed by extrapolating animal studies to
predict their toxic ity to human

ADI Acceptable daily intake Ex. ADI=l5Omg per kg of body weight X7 kg per personX
5/7/l 000=7.5mg per person per day

Where 70kg weight of person

5 dose for 5 days
7 days a week
1000 safety factor

   


Product Design (FG)--èProcess Design (Least wastage)-è Correct operational practices-

è Setting environmental standards

  

- Mention of all inputs and ingredients

- Mention all output gradients as well as effects if are abnormal

 

- Pollutant is anything which is not desired by the customer within end product Maybe
harmful or harmless. e.g. High level sulphur is recently eliminated by petroleum
refineries in India at additional cost.

- To eliminate such pollutants 3 strategies can be adopted

I. Modify the process to separate out the pollutants across the pollutant pathway
itself. This maybe at additional costs.
II. Modify the inputs to eliminate the pollutant at input level itself and not allow it to
enter across the process itself This may be at lower or additional costs
III. Modify the pollutant within process itself to give separate byproduct with
additional revenue and profit. This strategy converts pollution control to a profit
centre then to a cost head. .e.g. Reliance and Nirma modified lab
manufacturing process to separate out sodium into table salt as an additional
profit center e.g. RCF arrested sulphur emission from fertilizer plant exhaust at
the cost of Rs. 28 crores by modifying process to generate sulphur as a
byproduct and Rs. 46 crores revenue per annum.

+ $

This means continuously modifying the process for eliminating or converting all elements
which are not desired as part of final product by customer.

   

0# 

  $
  - 

For new upcoming plants or projects these standards are made mandatory by pollution
control board while issuing NOC

Standards laid down in India by

a. Central & state pollution control boards
b. Have a legal enforcement It is converted into law as a mm reqyuirement
c. Supported and formulated by BIS

Application of standards Applied at various points

-Between contaminant source and target
-To attain environmental qualify objectives.


 

" %
 


$ 

  

'
%
  7 %
 

% %
  m %
    %
 



Environmental Standard
Standards
Discharge Standards
Exposure Standards
+$
or Ambient Expressed in terms of health of human /
aquatic / wild life / others
Developed for air, water (Ambient
Standards) Water stream standards
Specify desired limits of air pollutants at
which air becomes harmful
Specify levels of pollutants that ensure
safe water use (rivers, Lakes, coastal
areas)
Specify limits for maximum permissible
emission levels at source. e.g. Emission
standards (PUC)
(MINAS) Minimal National Standards
related to cost of treatment and technology
to treat affluents. E.g. Noise standards
(machine, Appliances, Automobiles)
Specify daily level of intake of pollutants,
Safe over life time exposure
Biological Standards Relate concentration of pollutants
accumulation in the body
Safety Standards Relate to handling / storage of toxic
materials
Create havoc on accidental release.E.g.
Bhopal Tragedy

Agencies for Env hazards standardization

.-  
 „.-
 + $ ,
 $$ 

 $.
„()*4,„()8(
President VP Minister of Members- Chairman ± Member ±
State for Civil Industry / Government Qualified /
and Food Consumer / Nominee technical
Supply Technical
Institutes

$$ Setting upgrading standards

Sectional committee for air pollution control standards Legal entity element for
Standard specification for control equipment / standards
Industries Develop MINAS
v$$ Suggest ratio of total annual
Published standards for sampling & test affluents / cost of pollution to annual
sewage / surface water turnover of industry
Quality tolerances for various industries

v
# 
Set and publish standards for treatment equipment
and codes of treatment
$$#
Assess methods of disposal / conversion
0$$
Standards on methods of measurement OR
acceptable levels in residential industrial / hospital
areas

0#  $

Auto emission is the major source of pollution within developing countries. To eliminate
generation of CO, sulphur and carbon particles alternate new generation fuels are
developed like LPG CNG and hydrogen fuel cells.

LPG is a refinery waste easily available; odorless in pure form heavier than air colorless
but highly inflammable and can remain in liquid form for hours if exposed to atmosphere

Convenient for lower pressure but leakages are risky and modification of vehicles is at
moderate cost. CNG is stored transported and used per 200 to 250 kgs per sq.cm
j Storing handling is comparatively very costly due to high pressure
j Conventional pipe lines are not practical and transportation is through mobile
cascades only

Both the fuels have comparatively low emission levels, low in cost but high risk level of
explosion

6 $$$

Pure form of Hydrogen reacts with Oxygen and generates energy like electrochemical
storage battery process. Does not generate heat vibrations and noise and emits out only
in water form without disturbing the natural cycle.

Hydrogen generation can be from any hydrogen rich products at the mother plant to
recharge fuel cells. The natural bacteria generated hydrogen is the most pure natural
and cheapest form of hydrogen.

Eg. Toyota is already manufacturing vehicles and M&M is in process of developing utility
vehicles with similar technology

+ $ 

If these fuels commercialized the pollution levels will be almost zero, costs will be
negligible and power equations w.r.t. OPEC countries will be re written

 
$$ 

1) Atmosphere
a) Meaning
b) Functions
c) Composition
d) Polluters & effects

2) Ozone Layer
a) Concept
b) Functions

3) Air Pollution
a) Meaning
b) Parameters
c) Causes
d) Trends
e) Effects
f) Reduction Measures

4) Air Pollutants
a) Meaning
b) Type
5) Polluting Industries
a) Meaning
b) High potential
c) Low potential

6) Effects of pollution
a) Global warming
b) Acid Rains

h 

1 (a) Explain the concept of atmosphere, its role in environment management along with
the various polluters and their effects

1 (b) What is the ozone layer and what are its functions within atmosphere

2 (a) Explain the concept of air pollution along with the various parameters considered
along with air pollution?

2 (b) Explain various air pollutants along with definition and various types or categories

3 (a) Explain how various industries are categorized as high potential and low potential
industries for several restrictions and control?

3 (b) Explain the various effects of pollution on atmosphere (global warming, acid
rains)?


$$ 

Meaning

j Gaseous blanket around earth

j Collectively called air; mixture of gases and particles

Functions:

j Maintains narrow temp difference in day & night

j Provides medium for radio functions
j Shields earth against lethal UV radiations
j Supports wind/ clouds/ rain/ snow/ fire

Composition

j Divided into parts

j No clear boundaries

Segment
1. Troposphere ± Range upto 5 KMs
2. Stratosphere ± Range 5 to 45 KMs
3. Mesosphere ± Range 45 to 80 KMs
4. Ionosphere ± Range above 81 KMs

$$ 
 

  



    5  
"7





% "7

$$  

Coal Burns and creates CO2
Burns incompletely and creates CO which is
colorless, odorless and highly toxic
Petroleum Products Burns and produces CO2 and H2O
NO2 and NO Discharged by Industries
So2 Creates disasters
Mining Blasts Adds dust
Increases load of particles in air
Pesticide Residue with agro products, water streams
Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFC) Used in refrigerators, ACs, Plastic foam and Sprays
Very stable ± Long life span
Migrates to stratosphere
Acts as a catalyst
Destroys ozone layers
E.g. Hole in ozone layer is larger in Antartica

"/ 

Concept

Pure form of oxygen found within stratosphere 30 KMs above earth

+$ 
Formation Chemical action between SO2/NO2/Aldehydes by
absorbing UV radiation
Protects Earth / Organisms from UV radiation
Dangers Depletion of ozone layer by human acts ± will lead to
exposure to UV radiation

50 KM

›.

m  
%  
' 


$$

Meaning

Air Pollution ± Oldest effect on earth since inception of fire ± Continuously on the rise all
over the world

 +$
Major Causes Combustion
Power Generation
Industrial Activity
Automobiles
Trends Continuously on the rise throughout the world
Effects Acid Rains, Life destruction
Global Warming
Reduction Strategies Prevention- Adopt non-conventional energy sources
Remedy ± Management & Control

$$ 

Pollutant is any substance present which has got toxic / physically injurious effect on
living organisms

$$  $

Gases SO2 -Sulphur Dioxide
CO ± Carbon Monoxide
CO2 ± Carbon Dioxide
NO ± Nitrogen Oxide
NO2 ± Nitrogen Dioxide
Volatile organic Methane
compounds Ethane
Chlorinated Fluoro Carbons
Particulate Condensed matter in fine / dust form
Fly ash / Carbon dust / Mining Dust

$$ - $- 

Meaning

Industrial sectors with hazardous emission level in liquid / gaseous / solid form and
needs
- Continuous monitoring and control
- License for operating
- NOC from CPCB & its periodic renewal
- Certified trained personnel to operate


$$


$!$v ,
 6 

 
P Effects
R - Gaseous blanket around the globe - Pollutants present in atmosphere
O CO2 / CFCs / Methane - Passes through vapour / water /
C - Sun Passes to earth through a blanket Sun
E - Gasses trap reflected heat from earth, - Converted into H2SO4 / HNO3
S results in heating up the atmosphere - Causes Acid rains
S - Scotland (1974) pH 2.4

E - Abnormal climate changes - Affects destroys plants

F - Global temperature rise ± 5 deg - Water and skin diseases
F increase in last century and 2 degrees
E by 2030
C - Snow mountains will melt
T - Flood in heated rivers
S - Sea water level will increase making
forests, Agro, organisms affected to
vanish
S - Usage of renewable energy ± Solar - Monitor air pollution
O
L
U
T
I
O
N
h . %

" +-°-9 +60-h



 , 

1. Define´and explain the meaning of following terms:

A) productivity and performance b) performance index

B) proudctivity and production.

2. Briefly describe the total productivity model given by sumanth

3. Explain with the examples µpartial productivity´. Total factor productivity´ & ³multi
factor prodhetivity´.

4. Expalain ³cobb douglas function model´ of proudctivity. Also state it¶s applicaition in
industry.

5. Explain ³american productivity centre model´. State its application in industry and
110w it takes care of ³price recovery factor´.

6. What are the various approaches & techniques used for productivity improvement in
industry? Explain each of them in brief. (classic ilo / product & processes /
technology / human factor / inventory control / work study & ergonomics / decision
making! Sumanth & omachanu¶s five pronged approach! Lean production system -
(jit, tpm, kaizen, qc).

°
 
0
9
-
°
  0
-0 -0


1. Explain concept, meaning of value analysis. Also explain how the technique 15 used
in industry for cost reduction with suitable examples.

2. Explain ³value´ , ³worth & ³cost¶ in value analysis, what are various methods to
increase the value of the function, give examples. (v=p/c)

3. What is the meaning of ³functions´ of the proudct in value engineering? Explain

various functions with suitable examples. (use function ±asthetic f / basic f /
secondary f / higher order f / lower order f)

4. What do you understand by ³job plan´ in value engineering while devloping a new
product. Explain the various phases of ³job plan´ with suii¶able examples. (phases
information phase / function phase / creation phase / evaluation phase /
recommendation phase / implemnetation phase / audit and follow up phase)

5. Establish t basic function / higher order function & lower order functions for any of the
following product.
A) ball ben
B) knife
C) battery torch
 D) mixer

+
-°-9.

 +60-h


1. Explain the conept of ³brains torming´. What are its various stages and guide lines
for success

2. (a) explain (ngt) nominal group technique adopted in industrial creativity. (b) state
various steps advantages and disadvantages

h
-9+-+


1. Define & explain evolution of quality circles in india.

2. State its various features and benefits to all participants.

3. Explain´ structure´ and working process of quality circle in indian industry

4. Explain µseven tools¶ of quality circles practiced. W its applications in industry

5. Explain various stages i planning & organising of a quality circle in industry.

6. Write short notes on

a) Evolution on productivity concept
b) Partial productivity concept & advantages / disadvantages
c) Partial productivty of land / material / machinery / labour i capital.
d) Line managers & productivity
e) Shop floor techniques for raising prouctivity
f) Permenant cost control- tools & ways
g) Expantion at zero cost
h) Iso 9000
i) Productivity & role of unions
j) Lateral v/s conventional thinking.
k) Launcling & implementation of quality circles.
l) Structure of quality circles
m) Brain storoming´ - & its application in industry.

‘
0

‘ 0" 0°-"0‘ 0

1. Acid pains. Smog, ozone depletion and global \varming has created a severe tiireat
to the indian environment´. Explain the status today and various reasons for the
same.

2. Management institute cannot have ³stand alone´ attitude in management of

environment. Explain the role of management institute today and measures requires
to be taken by institutes for preservation of environment

3. (a) explain environmental problem and need of controlling the same. (b) explain
concept of policy decision on environment. Various stages in it with example.
4. Explain the term envlronment standards´. What are the various steps in setting up
environment standards? Explain. (product design/process design/control of pollutant
and set standards)

5. (a) explain the concept of ³pollutant pathway´ in manufacturing organization. (b)

explain how the environmental standards are applied in (i) ambient standards, (ii)
discharge std (iii) exposure std (iv) biological std, (v) safety std.

6. Bureau of indian standard and central-state pollution control board are prominent
agencies in setting environmental standards´. Explain their role and various
siandards they have set up. (air-water pollution / sewage treatment / solidwaste /
noise pollution / minas upgrading standards / legal elements / cost of pollution
control)

7. Ministry of environment and forest has set up institutional framework at central and
state level for policy formulation, planning / promoting/co-ordinating the
environmental programmes. Explain their various role in management of
environment.

8. Explain the meaning of ³atomosphere´, its composition and various factors

creating¶¶i¶i pollution in atmosphere.

9. Explain the meaning of air pollution and various elements creating severe air
pollution.

10. µindustry is the greatest pollution creator´ - explain the status today mentioning
various industrial pollutants and suggest your measures.

11. Explain the concept of µecology¶, µeco-cycle¶, µeco-system¶ \vith res pect to m an ag
em eni¶ of en vironm ent.

12. ³growing industrialization in ahmedabad, chiplun. Thane and delhi has created
serious threat for organism and marine life´ explain the status the reasons for failure
and suggest measures for measurement of environment.

13. ³industries have significant role to play in environment management. Explain the
status today and suggest the measure for effective management.

14. Urban conservation needs to handle several areas l preser\¶ation of green belts,
sanitation management, sewage management, garbage management water
management. Explain the status today and suggest effective menasures.

 1

1. Management of environment and role of management institute.

2. ³air pollution´ - a major killer tn mumbai.

3. Environmental quality criteria as per who 1976.

4. Legislation for protection and improvement of environment

 5. Role of central pollution control board in management of environment.

6. Role of state pollution control board tn management of environment.

7. Global warming and acid rains.

8. Ozone layers and protection to humanity.

9. Pollution and ti developing countries.

10. Mumbai and auto pollution.

11. Noise pollution in metros

12. Rio declaration- 1992´- on environment & development.

   $ $   7$ 6$1- +  

°$:#
Darjeeling Himalaya suffers from a vicious cycle of development process. Along with a
burgeoning population, there has been a constant increase on the area under
subsistence crops followed by an increased dependency on livestock farming. Such
sequences intensify the demand on the fragile mountain land. Excessive encroachment
of forest lands to meet the mushrooming demands for fodder, fuel wood, and other
requirements has led to unprecedented damage to forest lands. Livestock grazing more
than often in this fragile environment has led to overgrazing impacting the environment.
Tourism in the area is another factor that has its share in the degradation and pollution
of environment in this mountain area. Besides, the physical isolation, economic
backwardness, social heterogeneity and unstable politics have a bearing on the social
life of the hill folk which is often ventilated through disbelief, frustration and demand for
linguistic and political autonomy. This paper attempts to briefly look into the above stated
issues and concerns. The paper should not be seen as a problem solving technique;
rather it is an attempt to highlight the major environmental and developmental issues in
the Himalaya.
„-

Environment is a stage on which human drama is enacted and includes mainly the
physical and biotic setting all around us, viz, land (soil, scenic and aesthetic beauty),
climate, water bodies, minerals, natural vegetation and animal kingdom. This habitat is
of immense value to mankind because the modern material civilization is entirely based
on the exploitation and utilization of the existing resources drawn from the environment
and created through human efforts. Since the dawn of human history man- environment
relationship has been an inseparable entity (Chakraborti, P. K. 1998). In mountain areas
this is more pronounced; terrain inaccessibility, climatic in hospitability, soil infertility,
transport availability, scarcity of basic amenities and facilities make life nature oriented
(Chakraborti, P.K. 1989).
The mountains separating Indian sub-continent along its north-central and north eastern
border lying within geographical limits of about 26o.20' and 35o40' North and 74o50' and
95o40' East are commonly referred to as Himalayas (Ives and Massereli, 1989). It covers
fully or partly eight Asian countries namely, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China,
India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan. The Himalayas lying in Indian territory is spread
over a length of about 2500 kilometers with an average width of 240 kilometers and
covers fully or partly eleven states of India lying in the northern frontier. The entire region
is seemingly backward and politically sensitive.

 9


Darjeeling district is the northernmost district of west Bengal. It is located on the lap of
the Himalayas. The district comprises of four subdivisions namely, Darjeeling Sadar,
Kalimpong, Kurseong and Siliguri. Darjeeling himalaya forms a part of eastern
Himalayan ranges and are bounded by Sikkim, Nepal and Bhutan on the north, west and
east respectively. It consists of the first three subdivisions of the district while Siliguri is
mainly characterized by the tarai and foothills of the district. Therefore, the paper does
not include siliguri in the study. The area covered by Darjeeling Himalaya is about 1721
Sq. Kms. while the total area of the district is 3202 Sq. Kms. Darjeeling Himalaya
consists of a portion of the outlying hills of lower Himalayas and a stretch of territory
lying along the base of the hills known as the Terai. The Terai is only 91 meters high
above the sea level but there are parts of the districts, which are as high as 3660 m. at
Sandakpu. The exquisite scenic grandeur and invigorating climate in the area have
earned the title of "Queen of the Hill Stations" (Chakraborti, P.K 1989.). River Teesta is
the master stream in the area while the Rammam and Rangit are the two important
tributaries of the Teesta. Besides, numerous rain fed rivulets in the hills become the
most dominating factor of environmental control during rainy season. Tourism is a
climate-based industry while tea plantations that earned fame for Darjeeling Himalaya is
largely a contribution of the climate. The climate of Darjeeling is especially noteworthy.
Springs and autumns are the seasons most favoured by visitors. The monsoon is a
period of continuous rainfall while the winter after December is too cold and unpleasant.
The local climate in fact depends largely on the elevation and aspect. The first access of
the man in the Darjeeling Hills and when who fell down the first tree to establish a living
has not clearly been brought to book. But when British came here, it was inhabited
merely by a few hundred souls in the pure natural environment, between the
undiscovered flora and fauna.
0 "
 96 


The backwardness of the area in terms of socio-economy, polity and infrastructural

facilities and their variations within the area call for a distinct study of the different social-
economic and political progress that the area has achieved. Secondly, its geo-strategic
location is a reason in itself to evoke concern for the region. Darjeeling Himalaya's
vulnerable position has made it pass through different events in history, each having a
marked effect in the region. Moreover, the historic movement of the 1980s for a separate
state that shook the state of West Bengal inflicted far-reaching impacts on the ecology
and environment and development in the Queen of the hills. Large-scale environmental,
social, economic and political problems in the 1990s are in many ways related to the
agitation of the 1980s. Besides, the recent concerns of environment in the Himalayan
region demand detail study of the region.
6-
"-+
.
+:
" 0
The name Darjeeling is thought to be a derivation of 'Dorjeling', meaning the place of the
Dorje, the majestic thunderbolt of the Lamaistic Religion. Along with a part of Kalimpong
and Dooars (Terai), Darjeeling was under the King of Sikkim prior to 1706. The
Bhutanese snatched the present Kalimpong area in the same year. During the middle of
the 18th century the Gorkhas won Sikkim along with the Terai. While the East India
Company was busy expanding their territories in the south, Nepal had already become a
strong nation by expanding its areas from Teesta to Kangra along with several plain
areas in 1800. In 1816 Sugauli Treaty was signed and thus Nepal handed over Sikkim
and its Terai part to the British. Shortly followed the Treaty of Titleya, and on the 10th
February 1817 Sikkim and the Terai was returned to the King of Sikkim making it a
buffer State. At this stage Darjeeling (proper) was a small village under the Kazi
(minister) of the King of Sikkim. It was in 1827 when Captain Lloyd and Grant, on the
way to settling a dispute between Nepal and Sikkim, visited Darjeeling and discovered
its invigorating climate. The healthy climatic condition was favorable for the
establishment of the winter capital and military base.On the effort of Lloyd, the Governor
General Lord Bentick started the dialogue with the King of Sikkim. On the 1st of
February 1835, the king of Sikkim, with a view to enabling the British servants avail the
healthy weather of the place, presented Darjeeling, what was to him a worthless
uninhabited mountain, to the British Government, as a token of friendship. Darjeeling in
1836 was a small market of a few mat roofed houses popularly known as GOONDRI
BAZAR. Kalimpong then a part of Bhutan was snatched away by the British to include it
in Darjeeling and in 1880 Siliguri area was taken out from Jalpaiguri district and included
in Darjeeling District. This shape of Darjeeling remained unchanged but the political
placements kept on differing from time to time. The district of Darjeeling was annexed to
Rajshahi (now in Bangladesh) after 1850. In 1905 the region in the present shape was
included in the Bhagalpur of Bihar (Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa being undivided) but to be
taken away to Rajshahi again in 1912 and for that matter to Bengal after independence.
„--" 
-"0
The then superintendent Dr. Campbell had reported the population of Darjeeling to be
1900 in 1850 and 2200 in 1869. The years that followed saw the rapid growth in the
population of the district. Darjeeling district offers the most remarkable example of
growth of population stemming mainly from immigration from outside. Since the
inception of immigration into the district, people from Nepal belonging to various castes,
tribes, religions and speaking various languages have always been in majority. It can be
said that Darjeeling is an ethnographic museum and a cultural melting pot.
YEAR POPULATION
1872 94712
1881 155179
1901 265780
1941 376369
1981 1024269
1991 1299919
2001 1605900

Two important factors that encouraged large-scale immigration in the area need to be
highlighted -
è The most potent factor contributing to the growth of population in the area has
been the tea industry.
è Another potent factor, which also encouraged immigration in the district, has
been the general agriculture (this is especially true in case of Kalimpong Sub-
division with relatively low altitude and comparatively high potential for
agriculture).
Besides, immigrations due to political reasons (mainly from Bangladesh, Tibet and
Bhutan) have played role in the growth of population in Darjeeling.
The rapid population increase has caused the expansion of the area of cultivated fields.
Natural pakhas (slopes) and jungles have thus receded to greater distances from the
original settlement. The daily transportation of fodder leaves and grasses, as well as
firewood has become far more difficult and painstaking. This has reduced the number of
animals per household over the period of time, which has in turn impacted the
agricultural productivity in the himalaya.
Such situation has forced the local folks to construct new terraced fields on more and
more inappropriate slopes. Vast areas of forests have shrunk and many pakhas have
been turned into cultivated fields. Consequently, the jungles around the villages have
begun to disappear. This nibbling effect is apparent in around the hill villages and its
diameter is increasing day by day. In consequence, soil erosion has accelerated. In
areas where the cover of natural vegetation has been stripped off, the cycle of
successive landslides has been abruptly shortened. Thus a number of landslides have
begun to destroy fields and threaten the areas of inhabitants. Sources of water have
begun to decrease in quantity. Consequently, the burden of everyday task of carrying
water has become far more severe than before impacting the rural women. In number of
cases, the quality of water has also dropped and as a result sickness increased. This
simply means additional distress and economic burden.
„---
"+- 9
Darjeeling Himalaya is a multi-ethnic, multicultural and multi-lingual area. The society in
the area is made up of various elements drawn from diverse origin. The social diversity
is perhaps the most powerful manifestation of the area. The social groups with diverse
ethnic and linguistic origins, representing various racial stocks and social status have
found a place for themselves at different points of time adapting themselves to the
different ecological niches offered by the physiographic and climatic setting of the area.
The waves of immigration have drawn the ancestors of the majority of the present
population of the area from the surrounding territories across the Himalayas. Their
dispersal has resulted in a creation of a social mosaic with ethnic distinctiveness.
Approximate ethnic group wise composition of the population of Darjeeling district may
be mentioned as follows -
è Nepalese (this is a generic term and subsumes more than 15 ethnic groups
under it. Various castes and tribes (like Sherpa) that immigrated to the area in
the 19th and early 20th century from Nepal are subsumed under this group)
è Lepcha (they are the autochthonous tribes in the area)
è Bhutia (tribal that includes both Bhutanese and Sikkimese Bhutia)
è Tibetan (refugees that came to the area after 1961)
è Bengali (includes both permanent residents and migrants of south Bengal and
refugees from Bangladesh)
è Other Indians
Over the period of time such situation has caused political and socioeconomic tensions
between the autochthonous and the outsiders in the area. Frequent ethnic clashes
sometimes assume a serious turn in this Himalayan area. Besides, there is a constant
movement for separate state of Gorkha Land. The people in the region mostly Nepalese
want a separate entity of their own outside West Bengal.
„-° +"0"‘9
Environmental conditions play a major role in conditioning the livelihood and economy of
the people in Darjeeling Himalaya. The topography, climatic variations, soil condition
have all influenced human occupance. Subsistence agriculture, livestock, forestry,
plantations and allied activities are the major activity of the rural folks. Darjeeling
Himalaya has only over 13% cultivable land in proportion to its total geographical area.
No effort has been made by the government to maximize the utilization of the land.
Physiography in the area has made agricultural conditions extremely diverse. Agriculture
is greatly impacted by altitude and slope aspect. On account of cold no crops are grown
above 9500 feet a.s.l. Such situation in Darjeeling Himalaya has made cultivation
extremely difficult and needs considerable input of human labour. Large section of
people who are living in Khasmal areas are practising traditional agriculture, more than
35 % of land falling under such category. Bare rocky and steepness restrict agriculture
operations to a great extent.
Broadly, agricultural crops in the Himalaya can be grouped into two categories - Food
crops and cash crops. Food crops include rice, maize, potato, wheat, barley etc. while
the cash crops are tea, cinchona, ginger etc. The methods of agriculture change with the
crops. Fruits such as orange, papaya, peaches, guava, plumbs and even mangoes are
grown in the valleys and in areas with low altitudes. Livestock and animal husbandry
engages a measurable proportion of rural folks in the area. Grazing of livestock is a
regular practice in the valley area of the Darjeeling Himalaya.
Usually agriculture is practiced on irrigated terraces called "Khet" or rain fed terraces
termed as "Bari". Khets are mostly seen on the lower altitudes (below 1500 meters,
approximately) and is meant mainly for paddy cultivation although winter or dry season
crops are also grown in addition to paddy in many cases. Bari on the other hand are
prevalent both at lower and higher altitudes (up to 3500 meters, approximately). With the
increase in altitudes, the proportion of Bari to Khet increases, as a result of cooler dry
season conditions, increasing slope gradient and inaccessibility of water. Livestock
supply draught power and serve as the primary and perhaps the most important source
of fertilizer. The villagers use the pairs of oxen to cultivate the terraced fields. Animal
manure is indispensable for field fertilization as artificial fertilizers are hardly used.
Tea, tourism and timber are much talked about establishment here. Cinchona and other
medicinal plants have its base here. Sericulture is another section, which has been
spreading with time. Darjeeling Himalaya has been producing finest quality tea in the
world fetching the highest price. Starting on a commercial scale in 1856 the present area
under Tea Gardens is 19239 hectares producing 11-12 million Kgs. of tea per year.
Cinchona was introduced between 1861-1869 on trial; large-scale production started
from 1887. The best of Indian quality mulberry silk is being produced in Darjeeling Hills.
Forestry is an important occupation of the people of Darjeeling. Darjeeling has about
38.91 % of its area under forest. Many forest-based industries have come up and there
is huge potential for further development. Cultivation of aromatic medicine, and exotic
plants and orchids has been a source of income in the regional economy. Tourism is one
such industry, which is most promising in a place like Darjeeling. Darjeeling Himalaya is
a familiar place for tourists since historical past. It attracts a large number of tourists from
all corners of the country and even from abroad.
Over the years the influence of heavy human and livestock population in the Himalayas,
like many other parts of the country, has led to large-scale destruction of both renewable
and nonrenewable resources in this sensitive area. Moreover, routine damages through
faulty agricultural practices, overgrazing of the hill slopes in the catchments areas,
cutting and lopping of natural forests for fuel, fodder and timber for house building and
agricultural implements are other forces contributing to Himalayan degradation. The
forest areas in the hills have diminished considerably in recent years. Owing to high rate
of population increase, the per capita agricultural and forest areas have shown a sharp
decline. With increase in harvesting practices and shrinkage in open Pakhas and
Jungles the practice of grazing has also been increased. The continuous and regular
practice of grazing has exposed the rock and soil layers. This has reduced the
compactness of the soil paving the way for soil erosion. Unplanned growth of tourism
has led to deterioration of environment and ecosystem, which has in turn been affecting
the tourist traffic in the area. Tourism as an industry is no doubt a part of the socio
economic development of any nation but from the point of view of sustainable
development; this industry has been yielding many negative results.
Unfortunately, the economic status of rural Darjeeling is very disappointing. Darjeeling is
excluded from the industrial map of the country. Surely, the economic viability and
environmental feasibility does not welcome the industries. Yet, small and cottage
industries that have great potentialities in the region have not been brought in as
required. History is a spectator of the amount of neglect faced by the people of the
region.
!   °$$
   
$!$   
 
No. (with percentage) of Villages having one or more of the following amenities
Sub-
divs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
road
Darjeeli 2748 114 77 120 59 11 22 48 83
120
ng 50 (95.13) (61.14) (100.00) (48.42) (8.12) (17.53) (36.90) (72.24)
Kalimpo 1483 64 20 95 23 11 16 30 22
96
ng 37 (66.55) (21.60) (98.45) (24.06) (15.04) (15.38) (32.31) (22.11)
Kurseon 9928 53 31 68 35 8 14 34 35
68
g 8 (86.84) (52.87) (100.00) (67.38) (18.02) (45.29) (59.17) (67.39)
3813 225 46 328 30 35 88 86 73
Siliguri 336
84 (66.72) (13.88) (97.53) (9.00) (20.66) (26.40) (25.44) (22.10)
9038 456 174 611 147 65 140 198 213
Total 620
59 (73.55) (28.06) (98.55) (23.71) (10.48) (22.58) (31.94) (3435)
›
  
 
  
    
  
  
!

" #  $ % & !'( ) *++

 , - . 
/  ›0 1 2.

The deep-rooted poverty, and ignorance have become chronic over the period of time.
Besides, the people are living in a very underdeveloped infrastructure. As one may do in
many parts of the country, the economic structure cannot be analyzed in the Queen of
the Hills merely by observing the towns and roadside developments. A house-to-house
survey in the rural villages will reveal the real picture as to how people are struggling for
their livelihood. That the infrastructure is unsatisfactory is evident on seeing the poor of
remote villages still trudging a daylong walk for shopping in the towns. It means many
villages are without proper transport and communication facilities. The rural folks have to
walk day long to sell their produce in the nearest town. The situation becomes worse
during the rainy season when frequent large-scale landslides and other forms of mass
wasting take place in the hills. During this period a large number of villagers lose their
lives. Safe drinking water, educational institutions, primary health centre, power supply
etc. face similar fate in the rural hills.
7$  16$„  
 
Househol Electrici Safe dr. Toil All of the Non of the
ds ty water et three three
39.2
$ 239135 32.95 37 11.06 38.4
1
a*-a
$ (*;O55 (*-5* 2O-( O-a5 48-))
2
! 69.0
68480 71.24 39.22 23.03 12.05
3
 7$  16$ 
Permanent Semi-Permanent Temporary
Serviceabl
Not serviceable
e
$ 26.43 42.74 30.83 8.91 21.92
$ (*-a( 45-;4 2*-*5 ((-(8 aO-5*
! 49.41 36.99 13.6 3.24 10.35

Moreover, rural Darjeeling in the last few decades has been witnessing a notable male
selective migration for better opportunities. The migration is mainly taking place towards
the urban environment of the district and to the major cities of the country like Delhi,
Calcutta, Madras, and Mumbai, to name the important few. Population pressure;
degradation of the Common Property Resources, forests; long neglect of the region,
backwardness of the economy and society, low agricultural productivity, lack of
opportunity etc. have played prominent role in this regard. Though this has been bringing
home money, needed hands are diminished from home and native villages at the same
time. As a result, agricultural production has seriously disrupted and has ultimately
started declining. The drains of the labour force has caused damage to the subsistence
economy on the one hand while on the other they are discouraging efforts to wards self
reliance in the villages. Also, although, the money earned is sent to the villages to buy
provisions, on account of the ecological constraints, inadequate manpower, and low
technology traditional agriculture does not provide the local hill folks with adequate
income to meet their basic necessities. Thus, the money is again floated back to the
plains to buy provisions transported from the plains. This vicious cycle keeps the rural
people of Darjeeling Himalaya with very little savings.
„°"-9
The queen of hills witnessed a long lasting agitation of more than a half-century for the
separate state of "Gorkhaland" outside the state of West Bengal and within India.
The historic movement that shook the state of West Bengal in the early eighties stood for
the formation of separate political administrative unit outside West Bengal and within
Indian Union. The movement headed by Gorkha National Liberation Front (GNLF),
formed in July 1980, turned into a mass movement of the Nepali Speaking people in the
three-hill subdivision of the district. The primary demand of the agitation were -
è A separate state of Gorkhaland outside the administrative control of West
Bengal;
è Abrogation of clause VII of Indo-Nepal Treaty of 1950;
è Recognition and inclusion of Nepali language in the eighth schedule of the
constitution in India;
è Employment and economic development of the local people and the region
respectively.
Subash Ghising, an ex -army personal, poet and a novelist led GNLF. However, the
autonomy claim was the central theme of Darjeeling politics long before independence.
Repeated demand was raised in 1907, 1917,1920 and 1934 by different local political
groups. Demand for a separate statehood of Darjeeling including the adjoining dooars
areas of Jalpaiguri (where over 50% were Nepali inhabitants) was raised by GNLF in the
true sense during 1980-85 period. The issue was promoted in 1980 by invoking article 3
(a) of the constitution of India for the first time.
Demand for abrogation for Article 7 of the Indo-Nepal Treaty of 1950 and the question of
citizenship of the Indian Nepalis were the later developments. Since Article 7 allows the
Nepalis of Nepal to cross over to India, reside and own property and also participate kin
trade and commerce, the GNLF alleged that the clause had jeopardize the position of
Indian Nepalis, for they would be confused with the Nepalese of Nepal and face eviction.
To stress the distinction between the Indian Nepalis and Nepalese Nepalis the term
"Gorkha "and "Gorkha Bhasha" were increasingly being used in place of Nepali and
Nepali and Nepali language, respectively.
It was also thought that people living in the district of Darjeeling were ethnically,
culturally, linguistically, socially and historically distinct form West Bengal. Therefore,
there was also an increasing demand for constitutional recognition of the Nepali
language, more importantly since 1972 in order to maintain ethnic and linguistic identity
of the hill people. Although, Morarji Desai openly discarded the demand and levelled it
as a foreign language it was during Rajiv Gandhi by a gazette notification, the centre
recognised the "Gorkhas" as Indian citizens. Later in the early 1990s Nepali language
was included in the eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, though it was not
recognised as the Gorkhali Bhasa.
Besides, growing unemployment, inadequate infrastructure, educational facilities,
medical care, increasing deforestation, lack of opportunities and most importantly the
step motherly treatment by the Bengal Government towards the hill people were among
the major causes which added an impetus to the Gorkhaland Movement.
The period between 1986 and 1988 saw a series of violence and counter violence in the
hills of Darjeeling, parts of Terai and Dooars of Jalpaiguri district. The Centre in return
reacted with the counter violence unleashed by CRPF, BSF and state Armed Police.
Since GNLF was a political wing, it maintained an armed wing, namely, Gorkha
Volunteer Corps (GVC). However, the GVC maintained a distinct identity within the
GNLF. The GNLF cadres began to arm themselves by the end of 1986. It was only in
Kalimpong unit of GVC where there was no reconciliation. There was a large scale
clashes between GNLF and GVC in Kalimpong as a consequence. It was in 1988; an
ex- army personnel named Chhatre Subba emerged as the leader of GVC and the
president of Gorkha Liberation Organisation (GLO), from Kalimpong itself. The ego clash
between the GNLF and GVC followers led to clashes with frequent intra kidnapping and
intra raiding of each other's strongholds by the two rival groups. A large numbers of men
were killed and beheaded while hundreds were tortured in the clashes between them.
There were also intra GNLF clashes mainly due to Subash Ghishing's high handedness.
Mutual mistrust and enmity was also there between the nationalist and the Marxist
turned nationalist Nepalis. By the end of 1987 more than 500 houses of the Marxist
Nepalis were set on fire and more than 65 Marxists were killed. It is argued that these
fratricidal clashes could have been avoided had the GNLF been an organization fighting
for ethnic and linguistic identity.
The agitation was brought down to standstill by the mid 1988 and on the 22nd of August
1988 the GNLF supremo Mr. Ghishing signed a political document in the presence of the
then Union Home Minister Mr. Buta Singh and the Chief Minister of West Bengal Mr.
Jyoti Basu, promising not to proceed with the agitation for Gorkhaland henceforth. In
return Darjeeling hills was granted with an autonomous Council i.e. Darjeeling Gorkha
Hill Council (DGHC) consisting of the three hill sub-divisions to look after the interest of
the hill people. It was given independent financial power to use the development of these
areas by the central government with the concurrence of the state government. A
majority of the local folks were not happy with the decision and put forward their voices
against but their voices were silenced by the iron hands. It was thought DGHC was just
the replacement of the erstwhile Jilla Parishad (local body at the district level).
The decade of 90s saw radical changes on the political scenario of Darjeeling. The
DGHC consisted of councilors elected by the people of Darjeeling. This body was
granted autonomy to function as an independent body. However, with the passage of
time, over-confidence set in among the councilors of Darjeeling. Easy win in Elections
ensured the councillors' lethargy to work. Moreover, almost all the councillors were
illiterate or uneducated. There was frequent funds mismanagement. Close observers
assert that Ghishing was repeatedly failing to deliver the needful.
Thus, not only the movement lost fire, the functioning of DGHC became sloth.
Development of the area took a back seat. The economic conditions of the local folk
became worse from bad over the period of time. Funds earmarked for development
projects were diverted to pay for overheads. Over the years, the situation gained
momentum. It is alleged, in spite of the formation of DGHC, Darjeeling is still a neglected
region. Development work has failed to yield desired results. Earlier in 2001 Subhash
Ghishing's car was ambushed on the way from Siliguri to Darjeeling. The general mass
of the area says it was nothing but the outburst of the long and widespread
discontentment of the hill people against the monopoly of GNLF under Ghising.
However, Subba's hand is suspected in the blast. This has led to a renewed spate of
unrest in the region. Repeated bandhs has become a regular feature and its effects have
begun to reflect on the economy. Suffice here is to say, Darjeeling Himalaya as of today
is a living confusion. It is up to the local people to decide where do they take the "Queen
of the Hills".
+"0+
-"01
Darjeeling Himalaya is one of the least economically developed regions in India. Its
backwardness can be attributed to environmental/physical constraints like rugged
topography, harsh climate, varying altitude with steep slopes, unfavourable valleys;
ethnic clashes; and political instability which makes the life painstaking and hazardous.
These parameters have a bearing on the social, economic, political and environmental
health of the hill folk that are often ventilated through frustration seeking linguistic and
political autonomy. Besides, unprecedented demographic threats coupled with a host of
other factors have inflicted incalculable damages on the Himalaya. Various development
programmes and agencies of development operating in the region lack seriousness and
comprehensiveness in approach and hence do not work to the expectations. The
agencies like SFDA, IRDP, CADP, Panchayat and other schemes of the government
have had negligible impact on the Himalayan villages.
It, therefore, seems that there is an urgent need to work out a comprehensive regional
planning strategy capable of addressing social, economic, political, demographic and
environmental issues and concerns in this fragile, strategic, backward, and unstable
region in order to bring in sustainable regional development, employment potential,
regional income and general improvement in the quality of human life.
Besides, while formulating any sustainable development strategy the following points
should not be overlooked:
è Publicity and information to educate all citizens about the environment
destruction and protection.
è Checking of unplanned and illegal deforestation.
è Implementation of scientific methods for cattle rearing, stop the grazing in forests.
è Checking the population overgrowth.
è Removal of poverty - giving special attention to the people at the bottom
dependent on forest for their livelihood.
è Expand the activities of local people involved in environment protection and
restoration.
+$$ ‘     1v<0$<6/<
  -$ +$+ 


1. Introduction

Mountain ecosystems are a biosphere reserve. They harbor a wide range of significant
resources including animals, plants as well as minerals. Mountains are home to about 10
per cent of the global population. A significant high proportion of 25 - 30% directly
depends on the resources flowing from mountain regions. Functionally, mountains play a
critical role in the environment and economic process of the planet. The great economic
importances are the uses of the mountains for forestry, horticulture, mineral extraction,
livestock rearing, tourism, and recreation.

Although mountains and uplands constitute about 20 per cent of the earth's surface, it is
difficult to find an area not affected by their environment. The most important influence is
the hydrological cycle. Mountains act as orthographic barrier to the flow of moisture
bearing wind and control the precipitation in the neighboring regions. For example, the
Himalayas are fundamental importance to the occurrence of the monsoon in northern
India, and of the continental arid conditions in Central Asia. In the upper regions of many
mountains large volume of water are stored in the form of ice. Over 90 per cent of the
earth's freshwater store is in ice and it is a most valuable natural resource. These
provide the necessary melt flows into the rivers during the hot, dry seasons.

Before roads snaked up the mountains, an upland-lowland interaction was based

primarily on the convenience of the upland community. The transactions involved the
bare essentials. With the increasing population and transport facilities, natural resources
and men moved down while the environmental degradation and social ills climbed uphill.
Deforestation, land slides, land degradation, desertification, Glacier Lake Outburst
Flooding (GLOF) are some of the common environmental issues in the mountain
regions. Mountain areas are also more susceptible to natural hazards and disasters,
such as avalanches, landslides, debris flow and flashing floods from landslide dam
failure. History records of the loss of life from natural disasters show that more than 56
per cent of the recorded total loss of life in the world is from mountains and adjoining
regions. The major challenge that mountain environment face today is the escalation of
these issues by atmospheric environmental issue.

The emerging issues are impacts of global warming, aerosols and acidifying substances.
Atmospheric environmental issues are results of emissions form industrial, transport and
domestic sectors. Mountain systems are more sensitive to climate changes. Small
changes in climate can produce significant or larger-scale effects. Specially, the
marginal environments are under high stress. Small changes to water availability, floods,
drought, landslides and late frosts can have drastic effects on agricultural economy.
Climate influence weathering process, erosion, sediment transport, hydrological
conditions, rivers and canals. It also affects the type, quantity, quality, and stability of
vegetation cover and thereby the biodiversity. This paper attempts to analysis the
climate change (including other atmospheric environment issues) and its implications on
mountain environment.

2. Climate Change and its Implications

2.1 Global warming
Planet's temperature is determined primarily by the amount of sunlight it receives, the
amount of sunlight it reflects, and the extent to which it's atmosphere retains heat. When
sunlight strikes the earth, it warms the surface, which then radiate the heat as infrared
radiation. However, greenhouse gases like CO2 absorb some of the radiation rather
than allowing it to pass through the atmosphere to space. This activity warms the earth
in a manner somewhat similar to the glass panels of a greenhouse, this phenomenon is
generally known as the "greenhouse effect". Carbon dioxide, methane,
chloroflurocarbons (CFCs) and nitrous oxides are most common greenhouse gases.

Since industrialization, human activities have resulted in steadily increasing

concentrations of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to fears of the
enhanced greenhouse effect. Past records suggest that earth has warmed by 0.5 C o
during the last century. An analysis of the temperature trend in the Himalaya and its
vicinity (Shrestha et al., 1999) shows the temperature changes are higher in the uplands
than lowlands (Figure 2).

Figure 2 present the spatial distributions of mean annual temperature trends over the
period 1977-94 in Nepal. The mean annual maximum temperature trend distributions
show warming in most part of the country. High mean annual temperature increases
(greater than 0.06degree centigrade per year) occur in most of the northern belt (the
Trans-Himalayan and Himalayan regions and central and western parts of the Middle
Mountains). Within the Middle mountain region there are two pockets of anomalously
high warming rate (greater than or equal to 0.12 degree centigrade per year): the
western Middle Mountain region and the Kathmandu Valley. Most of the Siwalik and the
Terai regions show considerably low increasing trends (less than 0.03 degree centigrade
per year).

Climate change studies require climate data over long period of time. However, climate
data for mountain regions is not complete, and records do not usually extend over long
periods of time. The Alps has the longest records, extending for a century. Relatively
dense networks exist for the Alps and parts of North America (Don Funnell and Romola
Parish, 2001). Elsewhere, problems of access and finance have limited the efficiency of
weather stations in places like Himalayas. Barry (1992) tabulated the principal
observatories in the mountain regions. Nineteen out of thirty listed are in Europe and
none in the Himalayan arc.

2.2 Haze
A recent international study, the Indian Ocean Experiment (INDOEX) has revealed a
brownish haze layer over the Indian Ocean almost 1,000 miles off the cost. Haze impact
climate and environment in many different ways. Observational results and climate
model studies (UNEP and C4, 2002) shows potentially large impacts of the haze layer in
monsoon climate, water stress, agricultural productivity and human health. Its most
direct effects include a significant reduction in the solar radiation reaching the surface; a
50 to 100 per cent increase in solar heating of the lower atmosphere; suppression of rain
fall; reduction in agricultural productivity; and adverse health effects.
Aerosols can directly alter the hydrological cycle by suppressing evaporation and rainfall.
With respect to the agricultural changes, aerosols can directly impact productivity by
shading the vegetation from solar radiation; and indirectly through the induced changes
in temperatures and hydrological cycle.
Model simulations (UNEP and C4, 2002) shows that rainfall disruption is surprisingly
large (Figure 4). This will be a concern for the mountain environment. Simulations also
show Compensated drying during the wintertime over areas northwest of India and over
the west Pacific. These precipitation change features are roughly consistent with the
recent trend derived from observations.

The studies are very early stages of understanding the impact of haze on the regional
climate changes, in particular, how regionally and seasonally concentrated climate
forcing terms influence regional and global climate (UNEP and C4, 2002).

2.3 Implications on water system and hazards

Mountains are the water towers for the plains below them. The great rivers rise in the
mountains. The European mountains, for example, provide about 50 per cent of the
water for river systems. About three billion people in China, Southeast Asia, and South
Asia are depend on the water towers of the Tibetan plateau.
Retreating glaciers, low water levels in lakes, worsening floods and decreasing lean
season flows in rivers will not only affect mountains.

Due to the climate change there have been major trends in the water system and
hazards in recent years. These trends are obvious even to the most casual observers.
Unpredicted river flows, and frequent floods, droughts and crop failures are becoming
annual events.

Many high altitude lakes are potentially very dangerous. Moraine dams are
comparatively weak and can break suddenly, leading to the sudden discharge of huge
volumes of water and debris. These events are commonly known as glacial lake outburst
floods (GLOFs). They can cause catastrophic flooding downstream, with serious
damage to life, property, forests, farms, and infrastructure. In recent years, GLOFs have
happened in Nepal, India, Pakistan, Bhutan, and China in the Himalayan region.

There are many examples of GLOFs with catastrophic effects in the Himalayan region.
GLOFs occurred in the Lunana area of north-western Bhutan in 1957, 1969, and 1994,
causing extensive damage to the Punakha Dzong (a complex that serves as both a
religious and an administrative center). Five GLOF events are known to have occurred in
Nepal between 1977 and 1998. In August 1985 a GLOF from the Dig Tsho (Langmoche)
glacial lake destroyed 14 bridges and caused about US$ 1.5 million worth of damage to
the nearby completed Namche small hydropower plant. Studies have estimated that
between 1935 and 1981 another six GLOF events originating from lakes in Tibet caused
serious damage along Nepal's Koshi River basin (ICIMOD, 2001).

Due to sudden warming of weather, and snow and ice melting in the mountain areas of
eastern Tibet, China, a huge rapid landslide dammed the Yigong river on 9 April 2000.
The Yigong river is one of the second order tributaries of the Yarlung river (upstream of
the Brahmaputra river), after two months, on 10 June 2000, the outburst flood with 50 m
high from the landslide dam extended 500 km downstream along the Palong and
Yarlung river valleys to the state of Arunachal Pradesh, north-eastern India. The outburst
flood and damages were on a scale seldom seen before in the region (Zhu and Li, 2001)
(Figure 6)

Figure 6: An overview of erosion and landslides in the Palong river valley (a first order
tributary of the Yarlung river) created by the flash flooding from the landslide dam failure
on 10 June 2000 in the Yigong river valley, eastern Tibet, China (Photograph by Gary
McCue)

In 1999, UNEP (United Nation Environment Program) in collaboration with ICIMOD

(International Center for Integrated Mountain Development) took the initiative to
document glaciers in Bhutan and Nepal. The study has identified 3,252 glaciers and
2,323 glacial lakes in Nepal and 677 glaciers and 2,674 glacial lakes in Bhutan. On the
basis of actively retreating glaciers and other criteria, the potentially dangerous glacial
lakes were identified (Figure 7 and 8) using the special and attribute database
complemented by multi-temporal remote sensing and evaluation of the active glaciers.

The study also confirm that groups of closely spaced supraglacial lakes of smaller size
at glacier tongues merge as time passes and form bigger lakes. Tsho Rolpha Glacier
Lake in Nepal, for example, is associated with many supraglacial lakes in the
topographic map of 1974. The merging of supraglacial lakes in the Tsho Rolpha Glacial
lake has formed a bigger lake in the topographic map of 1981, aerial photograph of
1992, and topographic map of 1996.

Some new lakes of considerable size are also formed at glacier tongues such as the
lake at Lower Barun Glacier in Nepal. The lake is not visible in the topographic map
published by the Survey of India in 1967. The lake is more distinct and sufficiently large
enough in the topographic map of 1996 published by the Department of Survey, Nepal.
These activities of supraglacial lakes are indications that lakes growing rapidly and
becoming potentially dangerous.

Apart from the hazards from GLOF, it is also reducing water reserves in the mountains.
Therefore in long-term it will lead to lake of water flows in the rivers and thereby leads to
drought, crop failure and poverty.
Current study by UNEP and ICIMOD has studied the glaciers in Bhutan and Nepal.
However information about glaciers in other areas of Himalaya are still to be studied and
documented with the similar methodology used in the Bhutan and Nepal study. It will
lead to the development of early warning systems for the Hindu Khus-Himalayan region.

2.4 Implications on desertification

The formal definition of desertification adopted by the United Nations Convention on
Desertification is "land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas resulting
from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities". Inclusion of
climate variation in the definition itself shows the influence of climate change in
desertification. In general term desertification is the ability of the land to support the
vegetation. Due to the climate change in mountain regions, altitudinal distribution of
vegetation is expected to shift to higher elevations. Some species limited to mountain
tops could become extinct. Mountain resources that provide food and fuel for indigenous
population may be disrupted in developing countries; recreational industries are also
likely to be disrupted.
 All agree that Chinese deserts are on the move. Dust storms came to Beijing once
every 7 to 8 years in the 19950s', and only every 2 to 3 years in the 1970s'. But by the
early 1990s', they were an annual problem.
Asiaweek, October 13, 2000

Deserts are likely to become hotter but not significantly wetter with the impacts of
climate change on the water system. With the reduction of water flow form the mountain
in the dry season, certainly the deserts will climb up the mountains. Warmer deserts
could threaten desert species living near the limit of their heat tolerance. Desertification
is more likely to become irreversible if the environment is drier and the land is further
degraded through erosion by high intensity precipitations.

3. Existing policy and practices

Most of the national governments have established national institutions for sustainable
development to cope with environment challenges. Mountain issues are part and parcel
of the national environmental issues and tackled together. In addition, mountain
initiatives are now in the process of being increasingly coordinated between countries
under transboundary provisions. This is because of the fact that many mountain ranges
are divided by national boundaries but their utilities and management involves cross-
national links. A good example of this is the activities of ICIMOD in the Hindu-Kush
Himalayan region. The center was inaugurated in December 1983 and provides
coordinating role in the Hindu-Khus Himalayan region. It has been responsible for
initiating research projects and conferences.

Mountain agenda published in 1992 provides recommendations for action that

emphasise improving the level of knowledge about mountain systems, encouraging
existing mountain communities in their efforts to develop sustainable livelihoods, and to
improve international cooperation. Recognizing the challenges of the mountains,
mountain areas were given their own special section in the Agenda 21: Chapter 13,
under the heading "managing Fragile Ecosystems: sustainable mountain development".
FAO was designated as Task Manager for Chapter 13, and there have been a number
of significant developments including the publication of a revised policy brief by the
Mountain Agenda (1997), along with the detailed studies (Messerli and Ives, 1997).
Although the national and international efforts are essential to improve the sustainable
management of natural resources in mountain areas, it is also necessary to tackle the
emerging challenges form the atmospheric environmental issues. Since the atmospheric
environmental issues are transboundary in nature, it can only be addressed through
intergovernmental cooperation. The "Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air
Pollution" for Europe, "Malé Declaration on Control and Prevention of Air Pollution and
Its Likely of Transboundary Effects for South Asia" for South Asia, and "East Asian
Network on Acid Depositions" (EANET) for East Asia are good examples of regional co-
operations for tackling the atmospheric environmental issues.

At the international level vigorous response to climate change, involving research,

discussions, planning and implementation, was started in 1988 with the establishment of
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) by UNEP and WHO (World Health
Organization). This has resulted in the 1992 Convention on Climate Change and the
1997 Kyoto Protocol. This incorporates legally binding targets for the reductions in
emissions of greenhouse gases. In order to meet these targets, a number of flexible
mechanisms have also been developed.
4. Recommendations for Actions

Mountain issues cannot be separated from the issues and activities in the lowland area,
specially, in the presents of emerging atmospheric environmental issues like climate
change. Atmospheric issues will be the major challenge for the mountain and its natural
resources in the formidable future. This section recommends some key actions to tackle
the Climate change and its implications in the mountain environment.

Scientific studies: A more complete picture of the roles and interactions of greenhouse
gases, aerosols and ozone is urgently needed. Problems such as haze, smog, and acid
deposition fall under the general category of air pollution. The aerosols and high level
ozone that results from rural and urban air pollution are part of the global warming issue
since they could induce climate change by altering the radiative balance of the planet.
Their presence can also have ecosystem impacts, notably on vegetation. Thus, there is
a need to assess the impacts under one common framework.

Early warning systems: In order to cope with the hazards like GLOF, early warning
systems could be developed and implemented using a multi-stage approach, multi-
temporal data sets, and multi-disciplinary professionals. Focus should first be on the
known potentially dangerous hotspots. Monitoring, mitigation, and early warning system
program development and implementation involve several phases. Box 1 provides the
proposed phases for GLOF monitoring and early warning systems.

Regional cooperation: It can be said that mountain issues cannot be tackled by the
mountain community or by individual countries alone. Specially, because of the
emerging challenges from the atmospheric environmental issues. Partnership between
the existing institutions and programs on mountain issues and atmospheric
environmental declarations is vital to tackle the issues together.

Observatories: Under the framework of regional declarations, observatories could be

established not only for air quality monitoring but also meteorological as well as aerosol
monitoring in the mountain regions. Together with satellite observations, data from these
observatories should provide critical coverage to understand the long-term building up of
atmospheric environmental issue like brown haze layer over the South Asia.

Dissemination of Scientific findings: Development and distribution of relevant educational

material and information on climate change and its implications on mountain
environment and socioeconomic consequences is also vital in order to move the policy
cycle.

Detailed inventory and development of a spatial and attribute digital database of the
glaciers and glacial lakes using reliable medium- to large-scale (1:63,360 to 1:10,000)
topographic maps
Updating of the inventory of glaciers and glacial lakes and identification of potentially
dangerous lakes using remote-sensing data such as the Land Observation Satellite
(LANDSAT) Thematic Mapper (TM), Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS)1C/D Linear
Imaging and Self Scanning Sensor (LISS)3, Système Probatoire d'Observation de la
Terre (SPOT) multi-spectral (XS), SPOT panchromatic (PAN) (stereo), and IRS1C/D
PAN (stereo) images.
Semi-detailed to detailed study of the glacial lakes, identification of potentially dangerous
lakes and the possible mechanism of a GLOF using aerial photos.
Annual examination of medium- to high-resolution satellite images, e.g. LANDSAT TM,
IRS1D, SPOT, and so on to assess changes in the different parameters of potentially
dangerous lakes and the surrounding terrain
Brief over-flight reconnaissance with small format cameras to view the lakes of concern
more closely and to assess their potential for bursting in the near future
Field reconnaissance to establish clearly the potential for bursting and to evaluate the
need for preventative action
Detailed studies of the potentially dangerous lakes by multi-disciplinary professionals
Implementation of appropriate mitigation measure(s) in the highly potentially dangerous
lakes
Regular monitoring of the site during and after the appropriate mitigation measure(s)
have been carried out
Development of a telecommunication and radio broadcasting system integrated with on-
site installed hydrometeorological, geophysical, and other necessary instruments at
lakes of concern and downstream as early warning mechanisms for minimizing the
impact of a GLOF
Interaction/cooperation among all of the related government departments /institutions
/agencies /broadcasting media, and others for detailed studies, mitigation activities, and
preparedness for possible disasters arising from GLOF events.

6  -


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"EVERY mountain has its own attitude and strength. It is this essence of the mountains
along with the peaceful serenity that they exude which makes me return to their fold
again and again".
This is what 28-year-old Edmund Smith has to say about his second visit to Himachal
Pradesh, a showcase of some of the most panoramic peaks of the Himalayas. Hailing
from Indianapolis in the USA, this keen follower of Taoism has been teaching English in
Japan for the last four years.
Suitably impressed by his Manali visit, he was, however, dismayed by the depleting
forest cover in the Mandi area and Shimla, which he is currently visiting. Such
destruction, as a result of tourism and industrialisation, he also witnessed in China
during his recent visit to Tibet. In contrast, the mountainous areas of Japan, he says, are
very green. Seventyfive per cent of the country, which strictly adheres to its environment
protection laws, is covered by forests. Rating tourism facilities in India and China almost
on a par, he, however, avers that he was expecting better facilities in India considering
that tourists have been visiting this multicultural land since the 60s, whereas China
opened its doors to tourists only about a decade ago.

These maybe casual observations of a widely travelled foreigner but it wouldn¶t be amiss
to deliberate upon where we are heading, especially when the year 2002 has been
designated the International Year of Mountains (IYM) and International Year of
Ecotourism (IYE).
IYM comes as a call of the United Nations to protect the mountains, which are home to
one-tenth of the world¶s population yet provide water to more than half the world.
Another objective of the IYM is to ensure the well-being of mountain people by
promoting sustainable development of mountain ecosystems. Making the Food and
Agriculture Organisation (FAO) in charge of the programme, the UN has directed it to
collaborate with governments, NGOs and other UN organisations and focus on the rapid
pace of globalisation, urbanisation and mass tourism that are threatening mountain
communities and the resources they depend on.
Jacques Diouf, Director-General, FAO, while admitting that mountains are the sites of
most of the armed conflicts in the world and home to some of the most impoverished
people, says peace and food security were the prerequisites for achieving IYM¶s goals.
But before we talk of any such prerequisites, how many of us can even admit being
aware of this worldwide move to shield mountain areas, which are facing increasing
marginalisation, economic decline and environmental degradation. Almost half the year
has gone by but there is still no news of what came of the proposal sent by Dr Karan
Singh, president of People¶s Commission on Environment and Development, to the
Prime Minister in mid-December last year, seeking the formation of a broad-based
national committee on mountains. With almost non-existent central initiative, it is not
surprising to find state governments ² HP being one of them ² draw a blank on the
issue. In comparison, the J&K Government fares a shade better The state, home to
some of the most majestic Himalayan mountains, has formed a six-member committee,
which is yet to go beyond the planning stage.

$$ #$$#6$

But, unfortunately, all is not well with the Himalayas today, its strength and spirit is
flagging. This 2500-km-long mountain chain, which has for 30 million years served as a
valuable reserve of natural resources and has been a centre of culture, tradition and
recreation, is facing a number of stresses resulting from increasing tourism and other
commercial ventures.
No doubt, the lure of these divine but dangerous, beautiful but brutal, fragile but fierce
mountains is hard to resist. But, ironically, it¶s this grandeur and ethereal beauty ²
finding expression in the challenging and rugged terrain, snow-capped peaks, long-
winding pathways that bring a new vista at each turn, evocative fragrance of pines and
deodars, lush meadows, jewel-like lakes, fascinating flora and fauna, rich culture of its
people and interesting architecture ² which is fast becoming its bane.
Leaving aside tourists, pilgrims and research teams, trekkers alone visiting the
Himalayas every year add up to more than 1 lakh and each year their number continues
to rise.
This can be seen as a shot in the arm of the tourism industry but, as per
environmentalists, it spells bad news for the ecosystem, which has been upset by the
garbage left behind by mountaineers and the deforestation of the lower Himalayas for
cultivation purposes and for attaining timber.
In 1951, when Sir Edmund Hillary began visiting the Himalayas, he did not see even a
single person in the two months he spent in the mountains. "It was a marvellous
experience, dozens of untouched summits to reach, glaciers to explore and a
tremendous sense of isolation and remoteness."
Since then a lot has changed for the worse. The dense forests have shrunk and erosion
has been unchecked and extensive. According to him, tourism, which was almost non-
existent in the fifties, has contributed largely to the damage. "Now tens of thousands of
people ² mostly the young but many of mature years too ² are walking the hill tracks,
floating down the rivers, driving over the great Himalayan passes, landing in tiny air
fields in remote villages«the impact of all these people has been substantial. The
Himalayan environment has suffered severely."
As part of an international initiative to clean the mountains, 4.3 tonnes of garbage,
including 211 oxygen cylinders, water bottles, cans and other non-biodegradable stuff,
was brought down from Mount Everest, dubbed the world¶s highest junkyard by Hillary.
This trash was removed last year from as high as 7985 mt. Earlier, in 1998, a Canadian
mountaineering team lowered 325 kg of garbage from a height of 5360 mt. In another
instance, an Army team cleared 450 kg of garbage from the highly protected Nanda Devi
Biosphere Reserve. But are these retrieval acts the solution to a cleaner Everest? World
renowned mountaineer Chris Bonington does not think so. "The clean-up expeditions are
not a solution. The responsibility for cleaning the Himalayas is mine, yours and every
single climber¶s. You don¶t just clear your own mess, you clear someone else¶s as well."
Government expediting ecological degradation Giving way to greed and immediate
commercial gains, there have been several occasions when the authorities have ignored
or paid scant regard to pleas of environmentalists. A case in point, with reference to
Mount Everest again, has been the little desire shown by the Nepalese Government to
check the mountaineering flow, which has increased manifold over the years. While the
year 1970 saw just two climbers scale the peak; in 1990, 72 reached the top. Now more
than 150 climb the mountain every year, and each of them shells out a royalty fee of Rs
4.4 lakh, as against the Rs 5,000 charged for an expedition in 1965. Surely during the
golden jubilee celebrations this year of the first conquest of the Everest on May 29,
1953, some attention could be paid to Hillary¶s suggestion that the peak be closed to
climbers for five years to allow nature to do a clean-up job.
As much as a decade ago, Nepal, which is home to eight of the ten highest mountains in
the world, did not allow more than one expedition in a day and now more than two dozen
expeditions take off in the peak season. The government is also turning a blind eye to
the ugly commercialisation of this serious mountaineering activity. Now you have tour
operators who take large sums of money to virtually heave you atop the Everest. The
height of commercialisation, however, is the 52-bedded hotel that will come up at 17,000
feet above sea level in the Rongbuk valley in the Everest. While a number of climbers
and environmentalists have strongly protested against this venture, fearing that it will
"make the area around the Everest a virtual theme park," others have called the project
"regrettable but inevitable."
Tourism, no doubt, fetches handsome revenue to governments (4.4 per cent of the
world¶s GDP flows directly from tourism and over 200 million people are employed in the
tourism industry) and is many times the mainstay of the people living in the hills. But are
these simple, trusting hill folk the major beneficiaries of this rapidly growing industry?
The answer almost always is they are not. As a resident of Shimla angrily points out,
"The tourism sector has literally been sold out to non-Himachalis. Law to safeguard the
hill people is being flouted with benami deals. Outsiders run big hotels using cheap local
labour. What is more, their gains are not reinvested in the state."
With the current year being designated to protect the mountains and its people, it
becomes imperative to raise certain questions which have no doubt been taken up many
a time, but have always fallen short of plausible answers in an attempt to hide political
laxity or erroneous government actions and decisions.
Why is the Centre¶s conscience not pricked by the slow pace of development in hill
areas, especially the northeastern states and the upper reaches of Himachal and
Garhwal? What do the authorities have to say about the poor educational and medical
facilities in these areas? Why do schools lack sufficient staff and some are even devoid
of basic infrastructure like blackboards and benches? Why are the transport facilities
inadequate and the roads not well-maintained? Haven¶t the shortsighted policies of the
successive governments in Himachal Pradesh resulted in the mess called Shimla today?
Instead of taking remedial measures to stem the degeneration of the tourist town,
building rules are being flouted with impunity by the HP Government itself (the High
Court building being a classic example), trees are being felled in the name of tourism
and urbanisation and little is done to check the water shortage that hits the town year
after year during peak tourist season. Recently, during the keenly contested municipal
elections, all parties brazenly violated the ban on the use of recycled coloured polythene,
which can cause irreparable damage to the environment. On the one hand, the leaders
promised to beautify the town and make it pollution-free and on the other hand they
mindlessly decorated the whole town with plastic buntings.
And it will not be surprising if the UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme)
officials, who noted at the launch of IYM that vital sources of fresh water are
disappearing, get taken aback by the rapidity at which crystal-clear springs in the town
have disappeared. The dismal state of the once free-flowing nullahs, which remain
clogged with garbage, hotels waste and polybags, is also cause of much concern to
environmentalists and residents of the town. If the Corporation would just take the
trouble to maintain these drains, the Queen of Hills would be a cleaner place.
The Tehri Dam project, which is nearing completion, is one more example of the
apathetic attitude of the government towards the locals. The authorities chose to go
ahead with this project even though two committees rejected it in the preliminary stage
itself. Both the SK Roy Committee set up by Indira Gandhi and the Environment
Appraisal Committee in 1990 announced that the project " does not merit environment
clearance" and recommended its abandonment. No attention was paid even to the
leader of the Save Himalaya Movement, Sunderlal Bahuguna, who has all along been
protesting against the unsafe project. According to him, the surrounding hills of the dam
have lost their grip due to the repeated explosions at the project site.
Environmentalists warn that in case of a failure in the Tehri Dam, the possibility of which
cannot be ignored keeping in view the two major quakes in Uttarkashi and Chamoli, the
the reservoir will be drained out in 22 minutes flat. The waters will inundate a major part
of the region, including Rishikesh, Hardwar and Meerut. Even Delhi shall have to face
the brunt.
Receding Himalayan glaciers, which can also cause flash flooding, is another ecological
threat that the government is yet to initiate action on. According to the International
Commission for Snow and Ice, glaciers in the Himalayas are receding faster than in any
other part of the world. Already Triloknath, Chota Shingri and Bara Shingri glaciers in
Himachal Pradesh, Pindari, Milam, Ponting and Gangotri glaciers in Uttaranchal and
Zenu glacier in Sikkim are receding. A UNEP study attributes the melting of glaciers and
the expansion of glacial lakes to global warming. It says that 44 glacial lakes in Nepal
and Bhutan are filling so rapidly that they could burst their banks in five years from now.
Both these countries have made an assessment of the damage, but India is yet to
conduct any such study even though the receding glaciers can affect the rivers and
hydro power plants in the country.
It is expected that during whatever is left of the current year, determined steps will be
initiated to achieve a balance between development and preservation. By looking after
our mountains and its people, we can be certain of the safety of everything connected
and linked with them. And that includes us, who depend on them for our very existence.
  < $$      $ # - „! $$ ‘--<
‘$!.-  -0-. 

.

+
The paper considers some environmental and socio-economic aspects to be considered
in the development of aquaculture and cold water fisheries in the Hindu Kush -
Himalayan region. Indigenous fish species living within the Hindu Kush - Himalayan
region represent an important aquatic resource for the sub-Himalayan region.
Unfortunately, this resource is generally unrecognized and undervalued and has so far
been given limited consideration in rural development. Experiences available within
highland areas in Asia suggest there is potential for aquaculture and fisheries
development to contribute to rural development and poverty alleviation. What is needed
is not a "sector driven approach" but to emphasize and recognize aquatic resources as a
part of an integrated approach driven by concerns for poverty, peoples livelihoods and
rural development. The paper discusses some of these issues, and identifies a number
of follow up actions, including some initiatives to raise the profile of aquatic resources as
part of the celebrations of the "International Year of the Mountain" in 2002.
(--0" +-"0
The presentation covers cold water species (or ecosystems) in the Hindu Kush -
Himalayan region and relevant experiences from other nearby highland areas in the
Asia-Pacific region, particularly in Vietnam and Laos. The emphasis is given on highland
ecosystems and the people living in these areas, rather than cold water fish species 
.
a-
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The water resources in this large region include rivers and streams of various sizes,
lakes, man-made reservoirs, floodplains and swamps, rice fields and man-made ponds
and irrigation canals. These water resources have a diverse fish fauna that support the
livelihoods of rural communities within the region. They also provide various
opportunities for development of fisheries and aquaculture.
The aquatic resources are part of the larger ecological/agricultural, social, economic and
institutional systems. Therefore management of these resources necessarily have to
consider these related systems.
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The environment in the Hindu Kush - Himalayan region influences the fish populations
and opportunities for fisheries and aquaculture development. The natural barriers to fish
movement and temperature in particular play a significant role in the distribution of
species.
Man-made environmental changes arising from outside of the fisheries sector have had
direct and indirect impacts on fisheries and the livelihoods of people dependant on these
resources. The environmental impacts include water pollution leading to eutrophication,
localized chemical pollution, siltation caused by erosion and road building, sand mining
impacting on spawning beds, water development projects creating barriers to migration
and hydrological changes and loss of wetland habitat. The impacts of barriers caused by
dams or diversion of water to irrigation schemes in particular impacts on migratory
species. Less is known about the downstream effects of such changes on the aquatic
resources in floodplains and wetlands and the people living in these areas.
Within the sector, overfishing and destructive fishing practices are reported to have
contributed to reduction in stocks. Transboundary movement of fish also impacted on
indigenous fish stocks; these include impacts from introductions of exotic species, such
as brown trout (2+ ), common carp (*.
 
) and silver carp
((.+
. +

3).
A number of important diseases are relevant to the region. These include:
j IPN - Infectious pancreatic necrosis; a viral disease affecting all salmonid
producing regions including Asia (reported in 1999/2000 from Japan and Korea);
brown trout is a susceptible species; vaccine available against disease.
j SVC - Spring Viremia of carp: a viral disease, several carp and cyprinid species
are susceptible, currently only in Europe.
 j VHS - Viral haemorrhagic septicaemia - reported in brown trout; European based
disease, but reported in Japan during 2nd quarter of 2000, no treatment known
j EUS - Epizootic ulcerative syndrome; a fungal disease affecting freshwater and
estuarine warm water fish; epizootic spread in Asian region since 1985 and now
prevalent in the Asian region; latest occurrence is in the Punjab waters of
Pakistan.
There are also environmentally positive aspects of cold water fisheries and aquaculture
development. These include the possible opportunities for conservation of indigenous
biodiversity through "genetically sensitive" breeding programmes of indigenous species,
small-scale aquaculture that can contribute to water storage and diversification on small-
scale agricultural farms and the potential "value" that fish can add to water resources
and provide a justification conservation. Unfortunately, there is little information on this
value.
4-
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The approaches to management of fisheries and aquaculture are described in the
various country and resource papers presented during this Symposium. These
approaches appear so far to have been largely driven by technical interests and sector
management strategies, rather than consideration of aquatic resources management
within the framework of the Himalayan ecosystem or rural development. The current
approaches and status may be summarized as follows:
+  +4 5:
j Technologies are becoming available (although technical constraints appear to
exist for several indigenous Himalayan species).
Support to implementation and participation of poor people in aquaculture have,
however, been limited.
+   

:
j There appears to have been limited success in management, indeed many fish
stocks and catches from natural waters are reported to be declining.
j Some "mitigation" measures are being tried for water resources development,
but the success of these measures is poorly understood and questionable.
j Some management practices are becoming available elsewhere in the region
(e.g. co-management) but there are few examples of these local management
measures being tried within the Hindu Kush - Himalayan region.
So far, it appears that there has been limited consideration of the livelihoods of people in
development efforts involving fisheries and aquaculture in the Himalayan region, and
fisheries and aquaculture are rarely considered in rural development. It is time to give
more emphasis on the role of aquatic resources in poverty alleviation and sustainable
livelihoods of people in the region.
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The people of the region are characterized by very low levels of human development
and their livelihoods have been summarized by the International Center for Integrated
Mountain Development (ISIMOD) as follows:
j The lowest per capita incomes in the world - probably the lowest even within
each country.
j Mountain economies are mostly subsistence-oriented and meet food
requirements for only a part of the year, compelling household members to move
out in search of income-earning opportunities, mostly to urban centres and
agricultural areas in the plains.
 j Women and children have to bear increasing burdens of agricultural and
subsistence activities in the rural mountains because of the absence of male
members from mountain households.
j Many parts of the mountains are not easily accessible, limiting the scope for
development of various opportunities provided by a diverse, scenic but fragile
environment and hampering the provision of health, education, and extension
services.
j Many parts of the mountains are experiencing rapid loss and damage of natural
resources, resulting in further difficulties to households in meeting their
subsistence needs.
These conditions represent a challenge for all concerned with poverty alleviation and
development in region.
O-
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The livelihoods of people in the region are characterized by poverty. How do fisheries
contribute to livelihoods - what do we know about cold water fisheries?
At the present time, it appears that fish are an important 'natural asset' in the livelihoods
of people in some parts of the region. This includes the role of aquatic resources food
and subsistence fishing, eco-tourism and income from sport fishing and some small-
scale aquaculture. It also appears to be a neglected and diminishing 'natural asset'.
The country papers provide some examples of human utilization of aquatic resources.
For example:
In Nepal, fish provide sport fishing, food and income for rural communities. There are
reported to be 204 000 active fisher families (the number of households involved in
foraging of aquatic resources for food on a part time basis is unknown). In the Koshi
River, evidence shows that the poorest of the poor are dependant on aquatic resources -
"the socio-economic status of the fishing communities is the lowest in society".
In Pakistan, the government appears to be giving emphasis to aquaculture and fisheries
development for poverty alleviation. However, little information is provided. Sport
fisheries are reported to be important within ecotourism in the mountain areas.
In India, fish provide food and income for rural communities, and are also important for
sport fishing in some mountain areas.
In Bhutan, rivers in mountain areas are important for sport fishing.
Generally, though, information on the role of fish in the livelihoods of poor people living
in rural areas is far from complete. It is known from other parts of the Asian region, such
as the upper reaches of the Mekong River, that part time foraging of poor people are
usually "hidden" from fisheries statistics. - 

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Women, as caretakers of livestock, crops, and forest lands, are in a key position to
contribute to the building and maintenance of the sustainability of these lands and farm
resources. Continual neglect of their important role in the mountain agro-ecosystem
means missing out on a great source of under-utilized potential in the struggle to
rehabilitate and enhance the environmental conditions of rural villages. "
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Experiences gained from highland areas in northern parts of Vietnam (see MOFI, 2001)
and Lao PDR clearly demonstrate the benefits of small-scale aquaculture which can
include:
j improving farm productivity and water storage,
j contribution to food supply in fish deficit upland areas and in seasons when wild
fish are not available,
 j opportunity for additional source of flexible income,
j means to diversify out of the wild fishery and rice farming,
j providing a stabilizing source of aquatic animal protein and substituting a source
of income.
Recognizing the generally understated and unrecognized role of aquatic resources in
rural development and poverty alleviation in the region, the member governments of the
Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia Pacific (NACA) have requested development of
a regional initiative to support better aquatic resources management for poverty
alleviation. This Asian regional initiative is called "STREAM" which stands for Support to
Regional Aquatic Resources Management.
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The STREAM initiative has been developed at the request of NACA member
governments in Asia. The STREAM "founding partners" include NACA, the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the Department for International
Development of the United Kingdom (DFID) and Voluntary Service Organization (VSO).
The implementation has been mandated by NACA member governments and is a key
strategic priority for NACA's Third Year Work Programme (2001-2005).
The rationale for STREAM includes:
j importance of aquatic resources to the poor,
j the need to share existing human and social capital across the region,
j the need to address broader livelihoods and governance issues,
j the key challenge now to establish support agencies and institutions that:
- utilise existing and emerging information more effectively,
- better-understand poor people's livelihoods,
- enable poor people to exert greater influence over policies and
processes that impact on their lives.
To meet these challenges, there is a need to develop the policies and processes of
mediating institutions, and their capacities to:
j identify aquatic resource management issues impacting on the livelihoods of the
poor,
j monitor and evaluate management approaches,
j extend information,
j network within and between sectors and countries.
The STREAM aims to build capacity to:
j understand and secure the livelihoods of poor aquatic resource users,
j accelerate communication and learning between stakeholders,
j facilitate policy-making that supports the interests of the poor in the Asia Pacific
region.
The guiding principles are:
j policy change,
j securing effective participation and sustainable livelihoods,
j centrality of communications,
j open process and partnerships.
The approach, regional in nature, is justified as planning and management of aquatic
resources is necessarily local, national and regional. A substantial aquatic resource
management knowledge base already exists in the region. There is a degree of
commonality in the problems and solutions across the region. Support and positive
examples from other countries strengthens the effectiveness of advocacy.
The key components of STREAM are:
j + !$ . STREAM will support capacity building among local
government institutions, NGOs, and community groups, via training and long-
term practical support which will focus on:
- livelihoods analyses and participatory approaches.
- innovative communication approaches,
- monitoring and evaluating management approaches.
j     . STREAM will support new community-based learning
initiatives, the practical experiences of which will combine with lessons learned
from existing case studies and feed into STREAM's communication strategy to
influence policy and practice in the region.
j +  . STREAM will develop a communications and learning strategy
to increase the participation of poor aquatic resource users in decision-making
processes and ensure policy-making is informed by lesson learning. Approaches
will include case studies, workshops, field visits, translation of materials into local
languages, use of the public media and the internet, discussion groups, pictorial
communication, etc.
j $ -STREAM will support on-going policy and institutional changes,
by:
- facilitating policy development at the national level,
- increasing exposure to lessons and experiences at the
community level,
- maximising utilisation of the existing regional knowledge base,
- providing capacity-building support to the change process.
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j The Himalayan region is regionally and globally a serious poverty 'hotspot' -
urgent action is required.
j The role of aquatic resources within the rural livelihoods of people in the sub-
Himalayan region - is it important?
- Water resources and some demonstrated successes with
aquaculture in some highland areas are available;
- Poor people are involved in fisheries and new approaches to
management are needed.
The STREAM initiative and processes can support better understanding, capacity
building and sharing of experiences in the region. Further information is provided in
NACA/DFID/VSO/FAO (2001).
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There are some environmental issues within the sector that should be addressed. These
include:
j The need to promote aquaculture systems that integrate within - farms and
ecosystems.
j The need for aquaculture systems that add value - rice-fish, integrated in
irrigation.
 j The need for aquaculture species that make efficient use of resources. In
particular, whether to promote carnivorous species that rely on expensive
fishmeal based feeds, or fish feeding lower in the food chain. The role of larger
and small species in aquaculture also needs to be considered.
j Breeding and restocking programmes - need to consider genetics of wild and
cultured populations. There is a need to understand and maintain this diversity
where possible through well managed breeding programmes.
j Aquatic animal health and transboundary movements. Health management has
to be considered, as diseases have already impacted (socio-economic and
environmental, and possibly biodiversity impacts) on the aquaculture sector in
the region. An urgent need exists to address health aspects with transboundary
movement[1]. There are also existing international/regional agreements/treaties
that need to be adopted in a practical way to the region.
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The cold water indigenous fish species living within the Hindu Kush - Himalayan region
represent an important aquatic resource for the sub-Himalayan region. This resource is
characterized by:
j being generally unrecognized and undervalued,
j being given limited consideration in rural development.
However, experiences available within highland areas in Asia suggest there is potential
for aquaculture and fisheries development to contribute to rural development and
poverty alleviation (Haylor, 2000; DFID, 2000). What is needed is not a "sector driven
approach" but to emphasize and recognize aquatic resources as a part of an integrated
approach driven by concerns for poverty, peoples livelihoods and rural development.
v




The following are suggestions for follow up from the Symposium:
j bring together existing information on poverty and aquatic resources,
j better understand livelihoods through analyses and social and economic
valuation of resources,
j promote sharing and testing of approaches to aquaculture and fisheries
management,
j communicate findings and exchange experiences,
j seek policy and institutional changes based on this understanding,
j use the good opportunities for sharing of experiences through national and
regional cooperation.
It will be important to ensure that sufficient information and justification on the role of
aquatic resources in the livelihoods of poor people and the potential for small-scale
aquaculture and fisheries to contribute to sustainable livelihoods is generated within
2001 to incorporate and be considered in the programmes and activities to be initiated
during the celebration of the "International Year of the Mountain" in 2002. Don't forget
the fish!

Himalayas, also Himalaya (Sanskrit for ³abode of snow´), mountain system in Asia,
forming a broad continuous arc for nearly 2,600 km (1,600 mi) along the northern fringes
of the Indian subcontinent, from the bend of the Indus River in the northwest to the
Brahmaputra River in the east. The Himalayas range, averaging 320 to 400 km (200 to
250 mi) in width, rises sharply from the Gangetic Plain. North of this mountain belt lies
the Tibetan Plateau (Qing Zang Gaoyuan). The Himalayas form the earth¶s highest
mountain region, containing 9 of the 10 highest peaks in the world. Among these peaks
are the world¶s highest mountain, Mount Everest (8,850 m/29,035 ft), which is on the
Nepal-Tibet border; the second highest peak, K2 or Mount Godwin Austen (8,611
m/28,251 ft), located on the border between China and Jammu and Kashmīr, a territory
claimed by India and Pakistan; the third highest peak, Kānchenjunga (8,598 m/28,209 ft)
on the Nepal-India border; Makālu (8,481 m/27,824 ft) on the Nepal-Tibet border;
Dhaulāgiri (8,172 m/26,811 ft) and Annapūrna 1 (8,091 m/26,545 ft) in Nepal; Nanga
Parbat (8,125 m/26,657 ft) in the Pakistani-controlled portion of Jammu and Kashmīr;
and Nanda Devi (7817 m/25,645 ft) in India.

II Geologic Formation and Structure

The Himalayan mountain system developed in a series of stages 30 to 50 million years
ago. The Himalayan range was created from powerful earth movements that occurred as
the Indian plate pressed against the Eurasian continental plate (see Plate Tectonics).
The earth movements raised the deposits laid down in the ancient, shallow Tethys Sea
(on the present site of the mountains) to form the Himalayan ranges from Pakistan
eastward across northern India, and from Nepal and Bhutan to the Myanmar (Burmese)
border. Even today the mountains continue to develop and change, and earthquakes
and tremors are frequent in the area.

III Topography
Physically, the Himalayas forms three parallel zones: the Great Himalayas, the Middle
Himalayas (also known as the Inner or Lesser Himalayas), and the Sub-Himalayas,
which includes the Siwālik Range and foothills and the Tarāi and Duars piedmont (an
area of land formed or lying at the foot of a mountain or mountain range). Each of these
lateral divisions exhibit certain similar topographic features. The Great Himalayas, the
highest zone, consists of a huge line of snowy peaks with an average height exceeding
6,100 m (20,000 ft). The width of this zone, composed largely but not entirely of gneiss
and granite, is about 24 km (about 15 mi). Spurs from the Great Himalayas project
southwards into the Middle Himalayas in an irregular fashion. The Nepal and Sikkim (a
state of northern India) portion of the Great Himalayas contains the greatest number of
high peaks. The snow line on the southern slopes of the Great Himalayas varies from
4,480 m (14,700 ft) in the eastern and central Himalayas of Nepal and Sikkim to 5,180 m
(17,000 ft) in the western Himalayas. To the north of the Great Himalayas are several
ranges such as the Zāskār, Ladakh, and the Kailas. The Karakoram Range lies on the
Tibetan side of the Great Himalayas.

The Great Himalayan region is one of the few remaining isolated and inaccessible areas
in the world today. Some high valleys in the Great Himalayas are occupied by small
clustered settlements. Extremely cold winters and a short growing season limit the
farmers to one crop per year, most commonly potatoes or barley. The formidable
mountains have limited the development of large-scale trade and commerce despite the
construction of highways across the mountains linking Nepal and Pakistan to China.
Older trails, which cross the mountains at high passes, also have limited trade and are
open only during the summer months.

The Middle Himalayas range, which has a width of about 80 km (about 50 mi), borders
the Great Himalayan range on the south. It consists principally of high ranges both within
and outside of the Great Himalayan range. Some of the ranges of the Middle Himalayas
are the Nāg Tibba, the Dhaola Dhār, the Pīr Panjāl, and the Mahābhārat. The Middle
Himalayas possess a remarkable uniformity of height; most are between 1,830 and
3,050 m (between 6000 and 10,000 ft).
The Middle Himalayas region is a complex mosaic of forest-covered ranges and fertile
valleys. While not as forbidding as the Great Himalayas to the north, this range has
nonetheless served to isolate the valleys of the Himalayas from the plains of the Indus
and Ganges rivers in Pakistan and northern India. Except for the major valley centers
such as Srīnagar, Kāngra, and Kathmandu, and hill towns such as Simla, Mussoorie,
and Dārjiling (Darjeeling), the region is moderately populated. Within the Middle
Himalayas the intervening mountain ranges tend to separate the densely populated
valleys. The numerous gorges and rugged mountains make surface travel difficult in any
direction. Few roads or transport routes exist between towns, partly because it is
expensive to build them over the high, rough terrain. Only major population centers are
linked by air and roads with principal cities in India and Pakistan.

The Sub-Himalayas, which is the southernmost and the lowest zone, borders the plains
of North India and Pakistan. It comprises the Siwālik Range and foothills as well as the
narrow piedmont plain at the base of the mountains. The width of the Sub-Himalayas
gradually narrows from about 48 km (about 30 mi) in the west until it nearly disappears
in Bhutan and eastern India. A characteristic feature of the Sub-Himalayas is the large
number of long, flat-bottomed valleys known as duns, which are usually spindle-shaped
and filled with gravelly alluvium. South of the foothills lies the Tarāi and Duars plains.
The southern part of the Tarāi and Duars plains is heavily farmed. The northern part was
forest inhabited by wild animals until about the 1950s. Most of the forests of this region
have been destroyed, and much of the land has been reclaimed for agriculture.

IV Climate
The Himalayas influences the climate of the Indian subcontinent by sheltering it from the
cold air mass of Central Asia. The range also exerts a major influence on monsoon and
rainfall patterns. Within the Himalayas climate varies depending on elevation and
location. Climate ranges from subtropical in the southern foothills, with average summer
temperatures of about 30° C (about 86° F) and average winter temperatures of about
18° C (about 64° F); warm temperate conditions in the Middle Himalayan valleys, with
average summer temperatures of about 25° C (about 77° F) and cooler winters; cool
temperate conditions in the higher parts of the Middle Himalayas, where average
summer temperatures are 15 to 18° C (59 to 64° F) and winters are below freezing; to a
cold alpine climate at higher elevations, where summers are cool and winters are
severe. At elevations above 4,880 m (16,000 ft) the climate is very cold with below
freezing temperatures and the area is permanently covered with snow and ice. The
eastern part of the Himalayas receives heavy rainfall; the western part is drier.

V Plant and Animal Life

The natural vegetation is influenced by climate and elevation. Tropical, moist deciduous
forest at one time covered all of the Sub-Himalayan area. With few exceptions most of
this forest has been cut for commercial lumber or agricultural land. In the Middle
Himalayas at elevations between 1,520 and 3,660 m (between 5,000 and 12,000 ft)
natural vegetation consists of many species of pine, oak, rhododendron, poplar, walnut,
and larch. Most of this area has been deforested; forest cover remains only in
inaccessible areas and on steep slopes. Below the timber line the Great Himalayas
contains valuable forests of spruce, fir, cypress, juniper, and birch. Alpine vegetation
occupies higher parts of the Great Himalayas just below the snow line and includes
shrubs, rhododendrons, mosses, lichens, and wildflowers such as blue poppies and
edelweiss. These areas are used for grazing in summer by the highland people of the
Great Himalayas.

Animals such as tigers, leopards, rhinoceroses, and many varieties of deer once
inhabited the forested areas of the Sub-Himalayan foothills and the Tarāi plain. As a
result of deforestation the habitat of most of the wildlife has been destroyed. They are
now restricted to special protected areas such as the Jaldapara and Kaziranga
sanctuaries in India (see Kaziranga National Park) and the Chitawan preserve in Nepal.
There are few animals in the Middle Himalayas because of extensive deforestation. In
the Great Himalayas musk deer, wild goats, sheep, wolves, and snow leopards are
found. The existence of the Abominable Snowman or Yeti has been reported by
highland Sherpas in Nepal but has eluded discovery by several expeditions.

VI People and Economy

The population, settlement, and economic patterns within the Himalayas have been
greatly influenced by the variations in topography and climate, which impose harsh living
conditions and tend to restrict movement and communication. People living in remote,
isolated valleys have generally preserved their cultural identities. However,
improvements in transportation and communication, particularly satellite television
programs from Europe and the United States, are bringing access from the outside world
to remote valleys. These outside influences are affecting traditional social and cultural
structure.

Nearly 40 million people inhabit the Himalayas. Generally, Hindus of Indian heritage are
dominant in the Sub-Himalayas and the Middle Himalayan valleys from eastern Kashmīr
to Nepal. To the north Tibetan Buddhists inhabit the Great Himalayas from Ladakh to
northeast India. In central Nepal, in an area between about 1,830 and 2,440 m (between
about 6,000 and 8,000 ft), the Indian and Tibetan cultures have intermingled, producing
a combination of Indian and Tibetan traits. The eastern Himalayas in India and nearby
areas of eastern Bhutan are inhabited by animistic people whose culture is similar to
those living in northern Myanmar and Yunnan province in China. People of western
Kashmīr are Muslims and have a culture similar to the inhabitants of Afghanistan and
Iran.

The economy of the Himalayas as a whole is poor with low per capita income. Much of
the Himalayas area is characterized by a very low economic growth rate combined with
a high rate of population growth, which contributes to stagnation in the already low level
of per capita gross national product. Most of the population is dependent on agriculture,
primarily subsistence agriculture; modern industries are lacking. Mineral resources are
limited. The Himalayas has major hydroelectric potential, but the development of
hydroelectric resources requires outside capital investment. The skilled labor needed to
organize and manage development of natural resources is also limited due to low
literacy rates. Most of the Himalayan communities face malnutrition, a shortage of safe
drinking water, and poor health services and education systems.

Agricultural land is concentrated in the Tarāi plain and in the valleys of the Middle
Himalayas. Patches of agricultural land have also been carved out in the mountainous
forested areas. Rice is the principal crop in eastern Tarāi and the well-watered valleys.
Corn is also an important rain-fed crop on the hillsides. Other cereal crops are wheat,
millet, barley, and buckwheat. Sugarcane, tea, oilseeds, and potatoes are other major
crops. Food production in the Himalayas has not kept up with the population growth.
The major industries include processing food grains, making vegetable oil, refining
sugar, and brewing beer. Fruit processing is also important. A wide variety of fruits are
grown in each of the major zones of the Himalayas, and making fruit juices is a major
industry in Nepal, Bhutan, and in the Indian Himalayas.

Since 1950 tourism has emerged as a major growth industry in the Himalayas. Nearly 1
million visitors come to the Himalayas each year for mountain trekking, wildlife viewing,
and pilgrimages to major Hindu and Buddhist sacred places. The number of foreign
visitors has increased in recent years, as organized treks to the icy summits of the Great
Himalayas have become popular. While tourism is important to the local economy, it has
had an adverse impact on regions where tourist numbers exceed the capacity of
recreational areas.

Historically, all transport in the Himalayas has been by porters and pack animals. Porters
and pack animals are still important, but the construction of major roads and the
development of air routes have changed the traditional transportation pattern. Major
urban centers such as Kathmandu, Simla, and Srīnagar, as well as important tourist
destinations, are served by airlines. Railways link Simla and Dārjiling, but in most of the
Himalayas there are no railroads. The bulk of goods from the Himalayas, as well as
goods destined for places within the Himalayas, generally come to Indian railheads,
located in the Tarāi, by road. The pack animals and porters transport goods from road
heads to the interior and back.

VII Environmental Issues

Economic changes and population increases are threatening the ecology of the
Himalayas. In recent years deforestation in the foothills and the Middle Himalayas and
overgrazing on the high pastures have led to soil erosion and other environmental
problems. Deforestation is a particular concern in the western Himalayas, where
increased demand for firewood, extensive tree trimming in order to feed livestock, and
construction of roads in the border regions have increased the destruction rate of forests
and the number of landslides. Rapid population growth has accelerated pollution, and
Himalayan streams that were once clear are now polluted with refuse and sewage. Hill
people who use the water for drinking suffer from dysentery; cholera and typhoid
epidemics are also common. Large lakes like Dal in Kashmīr and Naini Lake (Nainital)
have also become polluted.

Regional variations in environmental degradation exist in the Himalayas. Conditions

range from a critical situation in the Himalayas of Nepal, Sikkim, Uttarakhand, and
Kashmīr to a moderately serious situation in Bhutan and the eastern Himalayas. If rapid
development continues in Bhutan and the eastern Himalayas without due regard for
conservation, the problems there may assume critical proportions in the near future. The
governments of India, Nepal, and Bhutan are aware of the dangers of environmental
degradation in the Himalayas, and environmental management concerns are being
integrated in development projects in this region.