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HISTORT
lvl&"*
a

P$CHOI-OGY
I FOURTHEDITION

DL'ANE P. SCHUITZ
University oJ South Florida

SYDNEY'ELLEN SCHUI-TZ

Harcourt BraceJovanovich. Publicheis

Sin Diego New York Chicago Austin
London Sydney Tokyo Torcnto
 of mind is
-l'he application of the experime-ntal method to the Problem Preface
oI the studY of the mind' an
in the hlstory
,h. nt.ot outstanding event
*rt'.lr no ot6er is comparable'
"".ti,i" E. G. BORING
This new edition retains the same overall format, scope, locus as the previous
editions. Three premises continue to under$ie and charac approach. First, our
discussjon of the history of psychology concentrztes ur the ofdevelopment
in dre field. It does nor artempt to correr earlier except where
such thought relares direcrly to rhe esrablishmenr of a separate discipline,
as is the case with the British empiricisrs. The book is a h urodern psychcrlogy,
not of psycht'rlogy and all the philosophical work tlut
hlc
(:opyriSht O 1987' l98l' 1975' I969 by tlaLcouil BmccJovtnovich' Tlre second premise is defined by one of the most srriking colrsistent character-
may he rcproclucc<J,or Lstics of the century-old history of modern psychology: the uous developmcnt
Lll riehs rescrved No Pan o[ th is Publioticn
rtt
r"'ri or hy mcats' elecrro'ic or mechanrcal'"^"'l and decline of different sysrematic posirions or schools of A ciefinite continuiry
ir^"iiLii.ii" "ty
lllillliil;i"*6v' "-'.riiqri::,::v;:*ll;JiLl,llon;'" "n0 """""' of developmenr can be seen from each of rhese schools of to the one that
in wtrlng
sysieur, wirhout pcrmission subsequentiy l€placed it. This developmental partern is, we
(>f any pan oI tht wo*
the most useful
ReouesLs lbr perrnission to make @pies *::]i :'
Publishem (Jrlinqo' .framework within which to understand the history of
i."l",ii.i o.i*t"tt"s, llarcouR Bncc lownovrch'
' Our discussicln demonstrates how each system grew out revolted againsc rhe
Floridr 12887
existing order, and how cach, in tum, inspired a new point that opposecl and
lsBN: 0-15-537'165-6 eventually replaced, or ar leasr supplemenred, the older tstanding figurcs in
( cnr8,rc$ Catalo8'
(iartJ Nilmbcr tt6-8074{) the history of psychology are discussed within rhe context sysremaric posirion
Lihrary o[
they he'@ed to formulate, advance, or desroy.
Prinleil in rhc United States o[ Arnenca
Each systematic position i! discussed in tern$ of ftree of development:
(i) historical anrecedenrs br precursors, (2) lormal develcpment, and
Photo and Illustration Cfedits
History' Smrthsonim (3) later influence on conremporary psyclrology 'l-*ri.* a the conti-
Fipurc 2. I p. 20' The Nationil Museum o[ Alnencan
the Fcrdinand l'lambur8cr' Jr' nuity of developmenr lrom the old ro tfue Bew.-that is, how it
ii:il,il, ; ii, s"'it"nn a"i''ue; p 14*' as we hnow
;l""h.;'ni; iut're Hoptins uoiuersrry; p l46' Ftnlt'l'P't""'" . - .,.',
\'rn(e vor today evolved fronr these earlier positions. The discussion school concludes
iliil;;::-;', IiD,.'.'
GJ tIirutzt .Jon]"' "iKccnconctt'MonoJp l8l' ()lhce ot- with critici.snrs and conrributions oI rhe position, so that see the weaknesses
' '' -t ^.-t + I rncartct. PI: Tbc Sctcrcc Press;
p lt]J' Artcr
t'irr]ll'i',ii*","i' J'rrlnbia Unrve'*irv: Fieure !)-l'
of each system as well as its importance in psychology's de
;ili:il;;, iilb,';; ;:prdi.."l rr, The third premise is concerned wirh the effect of dre on each school of
r.rzzle boxs," Journcl oJ thc "'
Hrtory :i;,:"#iiil;Jir1,;:ll'#,ffi:,
R Fl and thought. The developnrent and decline of each systenratic are discu.ssed in
ilinrcal PsvchoLogy I'u1t1;'1t1ng t-o-;
l89' Yskes'
iigu'c I 2' P
in inirnal Psycltology terms of the general intellecrual and social climate of rhe regi:on in which it
,i,r-"jr. ( Ii't oii rLrc nrcl'"cl of Panjourlrc Fcrdirrancl l'lamburget Jr'
i..l,lili,il.rr s,iilr,' 6. z5t -t l' p' 211, p l t"5' RcProduced bv
occurred. Using this approach, srudenu should be able to that changes ir"r
;:j'ilt'ili;iffiilol'l<ins Uriuc^irv; psychological thinking were inlluenced and augmented by
ttairo":trti|;',*l},:':"fi:tl.|tt" rt., changes in our
t.,",ori1,',,lit**''v Archiwr',Trrc
(rhirrwr; p 26-3' I\eiltr*nn ArchlYj;l*.",r, attitudes toward ourselves and thL world around us.
o.ldz, O Mary Evanv
courrcsv Yctkcs Photo llb' e$dy t
p 358' c urver Having the opportuniiy ro revise rhe book has been a sti enjoyable, and
p i't congrms;
ili.i.'"',l t;;;; ;il'igr'L';
r 5 :;' Libra ry
rewarding task. Aside from the chance ro correct emorc and diffir:ult concepts,
Filtures a revision allows the time ro incbrporare rhe rcsuhs of new
tt
work in the field
tc5y of thc Archivcs nf th:L"tl'J and to reflect feedback frogn rhe insnuctors ancl studenrs
r)hnros orr lhe lollowinB fnqes are etlrr re6'
ve used the earlier
l';':il11r:;.;"t;;,'!f ii. eo f3-i' 15ir' 60' t77'
za,
;li''il: ;;i,'il:ioll :lz+' pp ru' rqo j6r 16T Pho.os 76' 'N)'-r'r
court6v or rnc editions. Changes range fiom the insertion of e clarifying the adciition of new
Natronal l.ibrary of Mcdicile:
z:' lir' lt' +7' 50' 60' 87' l li' l 16' sections and the rewdting ol clrapters.
,ro'J+i. rn:. i+i,29i,297,326. -i3e
-'
 ll lj:il"l,1.ul,tl,
progressivc rctirn n u la
forv.,irxl movcnteni re(i!
st|ucturalist ptisitirrn,
SUGGESTED READINGS
fitchener and Structu
Angell, I: (192B). Titchener
Bentley, M (l9ZO). The
C. Murchison (Ed.),
Pras.
Benrlcy, M. (1926). The
(pp. 395-404). Wor:csretl
Boring, E. G. (1921), The
horlng, E, (i. (1927). Edu
489-50ri,
[vnns, R ( l97l), E. R.
,5crdh(ics. d. l6tJ- Itl0.
!,vuils, R, (l't75), thc
llchttvlrrrud Siir:nr:es, I
Henle. M, (1971). Dirl 'Iitc
s(rrrt:turnl p$),cholngy
llcrrle, M, (1974). H. ll.
gr114vt61,1l Jaiaa115, lt),
Hitrrlclurrd, M..1. (197I).
Ilishtty ol tlv lrlllrviual
Lrahcy, t. H. (.l9ttl). Thc
tfu Lli;tory tl tht: Bt
Introspectitrn
Bakan. ll. (l!r54). A tcrrsit.ier:it
10s-1 1r1. I
Boring, E. C. (!95.1). A
Danzigcr, K. (l.v-ilt)). l'hc hist
Ilehavr,ritl Saenccs, 16, 24.
Dunlap, K. (1912). The case
Mcl(cllur, P (196?). |'he rrret
Qrp. 6t9-6a4). Nr*
Nrtsoulls. T. (1970). Cot
Radlord. I. (197{). Re0ectit
Washbum, M. R (1922)
trctn psycirolog,y thc srrur:tumlts$ llegrirtr, As we trttt.erJ t:rrlicr,
scrnething nganr:,;t which to p',($h, Wlth tht lrelp ol the
arlvancccl lirr irr:yuncl rhis inititl bounclurry,
Functionalism . Antecedent Influences
.lournalofC*ntra.l Psychology, l, I9 -..198
escalled "Srructrrralism": ["{islorical clcrirradon, ln
oJ 1925 (pp 3Bl-193). Worctster, MA: (.laLk Univct\ity
wot( the srrucrunlists. ln C. Murchison (Ed.). l\cholo,$ci ry' 1925
: Clilrk [,nivcrsity Prcss.
Anvricar Jaurtal of Psychologv, j2. 449-.47 I
'l
INTR.ODI.JCTICT{
adfirrd itcbrncr: 1867'-192"7. Arncrican.lounal ol tlychology, ,38,
., Functional psychology, as the name suggests, is conc"tned wi& ltlg min
irnd his lost :;ysrern. .fuurnal o,/ thr: flistor v o/ ihc llchuvioral
or is used in the adaoutioir o[ the organism to its envilonment. The movement focused
'fitcherrcr'.s tioctrirrc oi ucuning. nin'offi GioGltinJwhutao*.';,4;;lG;;..--;tGfi lFitic^ti6fi 'a]icEitiidred
Jor rnal ol tlv llisttrt tl lhe
l, J dfd-niina;n-otfi onfihCitandpointof itsc.rmpositionQffi
c'ilutrrit thc stimulus cni:r? The pn:trlenr r:[ meaning in -ff6;slofr;Fte
---+---"..-
oi'F-iiEiss?s 6r furicdons that leail tiiFiidiidl?oilEli^liceffi tli
ty' llc ]Iistrrry oJ thc lJr[aviorai Scicmcs, 7. 279 -2t]2. ESLPld.-
'-
urrd tltr: ,:rsc oI rlr': r]issing rlcilcnt. Jolrtml of lhc t'li-<trtr.'t ol the The srudy of the mind undertaken by Wundt and Titchener revealed nothing of the
)-2
:j7 consequences or accomplishmenls of menul activity. Nor did it aspire to, o[ course;
Blrdlbrcl l it< lrcner: A ploneer in ;:crceptxrn. Jourtul ty' tlrc such a utilitarian goal was anathema to the pure science approach of Wundt and
7.2]-28. Titchener.
ti Funcdonalism was the first uniquely @lgsjysleru-"f psychology. lt was a delib--
rrriurrr. Otr Wg4rlt.ls antl Titcltctt'. lis!t lrol,'qir:r liurilll DJ
ts,],7,273. )t12. erate prorcst against Wundt's psychologyTilfTitcheners structuralism, both of which
were viewed as too nalTow and restrictive. They could not answer the questions the
i
functionalists wished psychology to answer: What does the mind do? How does it do it?
of
'Lrc
probl,:nr of inuospectior. I'svr;luirr.gical Bulletin, .51 , Functionalism was not a protest against the methods and topics of research at leipzig
and Cornell. The functionalists adopted many oftheir findings' They did nor object to
inr lr)r;lrecrion. I' ty th il ryk,tl llul b tin, -51), I 69- Ltl6 inrospection, nor did they argue against the experimental study of consciousness. What
rri irtrospectitur recun,,;idcted../our tal rtj the t!.istty 4 the they did oppose were t\c earlier defilitiong -o{ psygloloqy {ra! fulglgg-t TrY-S9-ns.rg9r-
) of the rdind.-the ongoilsls!"tT:
4lio"-ol tlg:.14-ug@Afulclions "t- 9!:*-
itrtrospcctirin i'.ry, holrgical Rrvica lJ), 404 -41 J. tions of consciousness.
*-Aftnbugh:ftmcti€nalf.sm
ol ir,trdsllccti,),r. ln J. Schcr (tjrj.). l-l'&)rics rf ihr: nrikl was a prcltes! against the cunent school of thought, its pro-
Yrrrk I \'css. ponenrs diel not intend to beconre a hrll-fledged school The Primriry reason for this
intnrspcctive knovrlcdge. I].$y{hol.)gn:dl Brll:tirr, 7'.J, 89-l I I seems to have been personal rather than icleological- None of the proponeurs of the
i n tmspcction. Am e fiutn Ps-ychologist. 2 9, 245. 250. functionalist posirion had ihe ambition to lead a formal movement. In time, functional-
as an objective rtr:thod. Psyr;holrr,gii:al ltc,icw,29, {J9-112. ism dirJ gain many of the characteristics ofa new school of thought, but such was not
its aim. The leaders appeared conteut to challenge the positions o[Wundt and Titchener
and to broaden thc base and scope of the new psychology, which they did with consid-
erablc success. They modified the exisring orthodoxy vrithout striving to replace it.
t07
l0B .Chaptr:r 6/Furyrylgl1l": 4".1f-::lgt
tnltlg*g1-
-
rary psychology.-{rnerican today owes its {brrn substance as much to
As a resuh, funcrionalism was never as rigid or formally differentiated a systematlc - the in{luence of
positionasstruc,..,'li,*.ltcannot,therefore,bcclescribedasncatlyorpreciselyrrsthc
school. ff..t *^ not a singlt functional psychology' as there was
a single
earlier
each differingsomewhat :iliiluggesdon that living things change with dme which
structural psychology. S"u",ol functioiral psychologies existed' '
fundamental notion
trom the oihlrs, bri"tl thuting un interest in the functions of consciousness' of evolution, did not originate with Darwin. Although intell anticipations of this
Because of this emphasis on rhe funcrioning o[
an organism in_its environnrent' general idea ci;rn be traced to the fifth century 8.c., not until late eighteenth century
became inreresred in the possible applications ot psychology. thus, ap- was the theory first investigated systemadcally. Erasmus Dar 340-pound grand-
funcrionalisrs
pliecl psychology developed rapidly in the United States' father ofboth Charles Darwin and Sir Francis Galton) belieI tl'rat all warm-
blooded animals had evolved from a single living ven animation by the
Creator. ln 1809 L-amarck formulated a behavioral theory of that emphasized
the moclification o[ anima] bodily form through the efforts to adapt to is
FUNCTIONALISM: AN OVERVIEW environment, modilications thai were inherited by succeedil ations. For exam-
i; lo; Fi;d;, ;iil
. i1r1n3'lli/;t
to the Present' at,least i1 ple, the giralfe devetoped is long neck over generations b;
Functionalism has a long history' rangrng from the'llid- 1850: introduced the notion
of structuralism, was inltuenceo irigher branches to find food. In the mid-1800s Sir Charles L
modified [orm. Its histoiical developmenr, unlike rhat oievoludon into geological theory, arguing that the earth hz through various
a.d backgrounds. Perhaps it is partly
iry i""ff".*"f leaders with vario.s interests
snges of developnrent in evolving to its present structure
did not S$HllifJ"-
irL"ur. of ,frf diversifiecl base that lunctionalsrn, unlike strucruralism'
_

Why, after so many cenruries of acceptance of the biblical of creation-"every

species after its own kind"-were scholars drivcn to seek explanation?
drr. ..^ron is that more was being learned about the other that inhabited the
earth. Many new kinds of animal life were being re1 explorers on several
condnents. It was inevitable dtat some thinkers should ask: How could Noah
have put a pair of all these animals inro the ark? There were too many speci& to
continue to believe that story.
of animals that did not
,{ Explorers and scientists had also discovered fossils and br
match those of existing species They apparently belbnged reatures that had once
roarned the earth and then disappeared. Thus' living forms no longer believed to
be constanl, unchanged since creation, but subject to Old species became
exrinct and new species appeared, sorne of them 4iSIgS,Rlrs [orms. Perhaps,
it was speculated, all of nature is a result of change hnd is sdll process ofevolution.
The impact of continuing change was being observed not in the intellectual and
scientific realm, but also in everyday life. Society was being t by the forces of
the lndustial Revolution. Values, social relationships, and norms rhat had
rematned constant for generations were being torn apan as migrated fiorn rural
areas and small to*n, to the huge urbah manufacturing cen
Above all, there was the growing influence of science' were less content to
base their knowledge of themselves and their wodd on the Bible and ancient
authorities hacl stated to be true. They were ready to put th in science.
Change was the Zeitgeist of the day' h affected the rmer, whose lile now
pulsed to tl-re rhythnr of the machine instead of the s' much as the scientist,
(1809-1882) ihose time was spent puzzling over a newly fourd get of The intcllectual and
THE EVOLUTION REVOLUTTON: cI{ARLES DARWIN
social climate ."ndet"d the notion of e'volutld ucitndfica There was a
Charlcs Darwin's On the grcat deal of speculating and theorizing' ln* little in the supporting evidence
ihen On the Orign oJ Species provided so rRuch we$-organ that everlution could
1859, is gttt o[ t*'a most
no longer be ignored. The tirnes demarnftd such a tlteory, a Dar'lin became
its agent.

i'L4l'-t"-ig1i1
- "' -:-L
lg L l!'i:!!!llgl
The Li[e of Darwin
As a boy,Danvin gave little
world later came tcr know'
othet than an idler anrj a
promise that his father, a
[tre.*";th" r"*irv
i
Although he never likedl
displayed an earlY interest ir,i
Sent by his father to Edinbtir
young man was doing
man instead.
He spent three Years at
fronr an academic srand
to the Cambridge Period
and hunting, and sPent a
group o[ young metl he re
One of his instrllctors'
uuDointment as a llaluR
1,','ilrotittg [or a'scicnti
fi i
lB3l trr 1U36, begau in
and retttrned to England
htrrr n urticlrre o1>porturlity
able to collect ar,
longcr the Pleasure-loving
serious soiendsr with but
of evolutioll (F. Darwin'
ln iB39 he nrarried'
so that h.e could
that he began to be
and eczenta, from which
aouareutly neurotic, bro
nlisi,.le world intruded,
attack. Illness became a
hint the intense solitude
has been described as a "
Frorn the time of his
the r}cory of the e
his work tc lhe world?
temDerament?ll requisite
impact, and. he wanted
daia. So he Proceeded
prepared to write a brief
later he exPanded this in
to keep his ideas from the
abotanist, For 15 more
Thr: Evoluliorr Rtrtrirlintt
Tlrc Lheory oI hrtman
wolrrtirx proposetl hy
Charl* Darwin (i8(la-
stlir'lrlist tlle
rirrn o[becoming thc keen, hartl'wr:rlcin11 1BB2) sct the sngc for
J. i,. ,no*.a liltle indicatiorr ol br:corning anythirrg lunctional p-sychology,
*ln-.poro,rl"n ln his e;rrly years he sh'wetl s't littlc which studied the
adaptive role, rathcr
woulcl l:c a
hy physician, worriecl that yorrng Clharlt:s rhan thc content. o[
well in it' he
consciousness.
and, probably as a result' never did
ttiraty ttta i" .ollecdng coins' shells, artcl nlinerals'
t', rita" ""ai.ine, Char les ior"rncl it dull Awirre that the
a cletgy:
frir irtnJt decirled that Charles should bcconrc
wasted"
rbridge, ancl described the experience as "entirely
later referred
ft" aia, no*"u".' have a marvelous rinre' and
tnpfi.t, ofhis li{e. He collected beetles' went shooting
with a
d"jt'of ,i*" clrinking, singing, and playing cnrds
Ito as dissipated and "low'mindetl'"'i
Darwin's
boranist Johl Steven-s Hensloii' promoted
H.M,S. Beagle, which rhe llritish government,.was
-lhis tlmous exr;ui:s;i.n' lasting lrr:nt
;;;;,; *te.',rrid.
il;;;;; wiltcrs, proceeiled to'lahiti and Nerru Zealand'
tr4r afforded
of Ar.".uior, tsiancl and the Azores the
a variery of plant and anilnal life' and Darlvin was
serue
cltaracter' Nrt
,rrnt of dutu, ih" unyug. altred Darwin\
I *ni", f" ..*toecl to ingland a ceclicatctl' ctxtmitted'
pittio" aim in li[e-'ihe promul6letiott ol dre theory
^na
).
yeats latcr he movetl lo Down, lCr.miles.ft:om
t-on{or'
iir *"tf, *i tt""t the distracdons ol city life lt was then
ihe plryrical clistr.rrbances, includingvonririnc'
M:::::
*o"tlf irf"t for most of his long life ' Thc illnesscs were
r"y.t,r"gc in his rigicl daily routiue WJ;errev1p1
""iVi'"f'6"t*i"'r.o,n h: *'lld
'oiking, "lt"i il].::l:j
i."i.i, pr"""itg hiur Irom mundane affairs a*'1]:l*llli
hc rieeded to create his rheory His conditiou
(Pickering, 1974)'
ive maladY"
convinced.of rhe valiclity o{
r with the Beagle, Darwin was ing, to be sure rhar when he did hnally publish, the theory would be unassailable
.p".i.t wf,y,inen. did he wait 22 vcars *fltt
l:::::l:"1 (Richards, 1983).
attttude' a
ru*"r ra"n r'ro lie in his extreuely con"ervative
'r.t""io, No oue knows how much ionger Darwin might have worked over his hndings
He knew his theory wtlulcl have a revolutionary
if inJune of lB58 he had not r:eceived a*.$ltsfi;erin8,letter fronr Alfre,d Russel wallace,
a
it was buttressed with sufficient suPporting
aaroln ,tto, yourig naturalist. Wallace, while stai'ing in the East Indies to recover lrom an illness'
;;;;;hi's caudon,It was not ':il
l,eil 'T:.:::[:: i,nd ieveloped the p-u.tlius-of a theory o[ evolution that was amazingly similar ttr
Two years
ro'* ,..*^"]w ot rhe developnrent o[ hls thcorll Dar.win's. FIis woLk hacl taken three days. ln his letter to l)arwin, wallace askecl
the
;1; ;;;;- but still he was ttot satisfied lle conti*ued olcler man'.s opinion o[ the thcory and for help in getting it publishecl.
We can irnagine
Hooker'
Uf if.itt"g ,(.,n only with Lyell and witlr Jotph
t., Darwin'.s fcel.ings afier more than rwo clecircles oI laborious and painstaking work k
revrs-
oor.in pJr.a ovcr tile data, checking' elaborating'
L
 'l"he
Evohrion

l-1? :i:h1Pl':'-tl11"l:f1r]ifl' tul:'''a.'.lll {t/ll*t'l:

Natural selccrion was not the only tnechanism o( by Darwin. Hc
that
theory did not rest on the wealth oI data docrine tbat c
also believed in the l--amarckian
utust be noted' however, that Wallace's
l)arwinis did. rience during an
ambition--not unknown among frilffeligionists were receptive to the idea of ionary theory, others
Darwtn possessed another characteristic--personal
on the Beagle he had written in ht:'dliry it to be inconsisrent a literal interpretadon
scientists, Sometime U"f"t"'ttit ".pft*tions saw it as a threat because they believed
irii u*ong scientilic men." later he wrote: "l wish it "an attempt to
that he was,,ambirious ro";ke-; fh.. of the biblical account of creation. A disdnguished
f. "l rather hare the idea of writing for the Darwinian theory
I could set less value o" -U*U,[f^*t;' ani' dethrone God" and "a huge imposture from the beginning"
vexed if any one were to publish my doctrines befote is true, Genesis is a lie . ; and the revelation of God to mal
we Christians know
priority, yet I certainly tt'ottta Uu

me'0nl"itott, f957, PP 647-648) it, is a delusion and a snare" Nvhite, 1896/1965' p 93) controversy raged for
ilt Wallace's letter and decided
with an enviable *rrlJ "f nf'y' Darwin considered many years.
ititiia nrany years'sunding' but I Oxford, at a meeting
rhat "lt seems n",a ot *i
iiut lose my prioriw of wiJhin u year of the book's publication' a debate took
' cannot feel ult su'" ttrat"ttt**r'*t ti"l"J"toi tit ot"' ' ' ' lt would be dishonourable of the British Associadon for the Advancement of Science, the biologisr Thomas
^t puutirwj o,r.;;;;i'g;?' p' 6a8)' At.this motnent of apparent def$t Henry Huxley, who defended Darwin and evolution, and , defending
in me now rn
him into a qreater despair. His friends
Darwinb mentally *rra"i^r".-li.J,throwing the Book of Genesis.
oapir-and ponions of his own
Lyell an<l noot'o
'uggtiJ;iih:..ua ryl*::.
forthcoming book at a meeting of the Linnean Soci"'y onjuty l' 1858 The rest is history' Referrins to the ideas of Daruin, lWilberforcel congratulz
that he
I had to choose,
oagin o1 species was sold was not bescendtd lrom a monkey. The rcply came from Hu
Every one or tn" rzrciiJp-i"t oitit 6ot printing of on lhe
I would orefer to be a descendant o[ a hrrmble monkey ra of a man who
excitement and controversy'
ol the day of p,,uri-tioni"fi" *ork generatecl immediate "the ernploys his knowledge and eloquence in ms-r-epresenting who arc wearing
sJ;;"rl *"".i. anci criticlsm, nevertheless won out'tbii. liues in the siarch for ruth." (!Vhite, 1896/1965, p
ancl Darwin, rh"rgh ^fr*.
haublc famc." Bible over iris head,
During the debate a man walked about the hall hold
shouting, "The Book, the Book." He was Robert Firzroy, ca1 of the Bcagle during
, The Works of Darwin Darwini voyage. A religious fundamentalist, Fiaroy blamed for his part in the
of evolution is so well $"yt:hit "1f::.::::::jil: development dfthe theory ofevolution. Five years after the debate he committed
The Darwinian theory
il:rffi il;fi ,il;il*;;i;eieitanrngwith,*:.*:::-t1'j*:11T:"J'1T*:
tf*iJt,-n"tytt lt^tlnla
suicide (Gould, l97ti, P. 34).
Newly discovered data of history have led to a reevaluation
lnmous confronta-
individual members {t"t$it-lp!11q1!
lnnerluDte'
"f " i" p'iffi:T::::::t;t the elimination o[ those not frt'
IHLurs urcrr D 4ri/ivvl'""tito''*ott
inheritable. ln nature,r,..u tion. Apparently, the story of the Oxford debate €tflns lrom
own aDticlerical
as rr scientist. l[ was
iffi#Gganlsms best suired fo ancl
..,-^.. "-,{ thnce fonns atritude ancl his atternpt (perhaps u4lyj$ind to bo"]$gr his
il:ill'ffi ff&il*#;;i';;i.;;iil.'"i:i:1?Tt::::::::l*:::llT: ,less a debate than a series ofspeec'hes. Fitzroy nlgxely*took at the podiunr, and
Darwin himself
the ones that Hooker, not Huxley, offered rhe more g[e.cg!Ye'rehu$al"K)
that cannot adaPt the bishop's remarks
renrained on good ternrs with WilbeLfrrrce, noting that he
"uncommonly clcver, not wonh anything scientifically-, but me in splendid
style" (Gould, 1986, P. 3l)
ln 1925, at the famorrs "monkey Uial" in
The battle is not yet finished
for teaching
Dayron, Tennessee, a high school teacher (John T Scopes)
Afi :ffi ii#1'ffi ffi ffi ;;;;;;;;;;J::"1"1''ryll:iil'1"":::':ili* .uolrtion. Ahnost half a century later, in L972, a local clerl charg,ed that Darwin's
is that manv n'*i"
illiffl';:ffi"1":"ff'*-':"i;;;;; fr:;; -!"-1ff:,:llll'"" theory "breccls comrption, lust, immorality, greed and such of criminal depravitY

derconclltlorlsortrcar5tdrvaLrvrr'-"^/ "'-':velopedtheconceptof :Jl :::::

ff":Hffi;:1f;#1"?'"'l;'ilt'i" *"'t rorcerur and-otrn'r*i'ng
as drug adclictitrn, war and atrociotts acts of genocidc" Sl
Tirnes, C)ctober I,
1972). A 1985 survey showed that half of a national sample of
aud rican aclults reiected
nartin.*t"rrd"d principle to all livingor:ganisms
rhis l' -,^' ,.-,r .^
---,-,..,
traturalsetectlort. rilu)crvrr'r1qr"ar"r""g*,r]",tnable<tther-ntosurvive.Further,
""'cst', i"9,J:11.:::l1'J i::1
j: evoludonary theory (Washington Post'June 3' 1986)
""ilff'ff:ill.:il:',"'"#;""'*"ir"
transmit to their offspring the s ,-.ia'i^n among
,-:r ^L^,", varihrion Darwin rcmaine<l3ffiliom the disputes of his time and books of interest

since variadon is anorher g"r,"*i to, of hered-ity, .ffspring win show 'rinnp
level
to psychologiss. I-iis second major report on evolution, ol Man (1871),
to a higher life, emphasizing the
themselves; some will p*'*'^'h;;;;ttg""titq*li"es*devel'rped .nishaled tf,e evidence for human evolution from lower f
rhan their parents. rhese quatioes ttna-to
titl"t'
io in the course of many generations
for
similariry between aninral and hurnan mental processes and st dre imponance of
can be so extensive as to account
dJ;; il*;:ilges natural selection as a lhctor in evoludon.
grear changes in form rnay
ih. diff"..i.u, u*ong species that cxist torhy'

L-
 I'g:i{y1_Ut. f::_sI FrancL\ Galtnn (1t822 rj3_1q

of emotional methods o[ psychology, ,aLq a result, the kinds of dan psychologiso cr:liected werc
oadened consldcrnbly.
br

Ejrpl€ssiotl A founh effect <lfevolutlon on psychology was seen in the growing focus on individual
were resmais 0[ fferences. The hct of varlqtlon amonq nrembers of the same sDecies was obvious to

Beginning in 1840, in k"pt a diary of his infant son, recording the child's not occur Hence, variation was
development. He 'A Biographical Sketch of an lnfant" in the jor'rrnal Mind in
1877, and the article was of the early sources,for modem child psychr:logy.
The importance of factors in the evoiution olspecies was apparent iI] Darwin's
theory, and he frequentl conscious reacdons in humans and animals. Ilecause of lilferencel. The psychology o[ the structuraliss had liule
this role accorded ness in evolutionary theory, psychology was compelled to-= anlmal minds and individual diffeiences. It remained for
accept an evolutionary of view. $
:scientists of a functionalist pcrsuasion to pursue these problems. As a result, the nature
,# rand form of the new psychology changed.

The Influence of onPsychology ;

Darwin's work in the t o[ the nineteentli" century was a major force in shaping INDwTDUAL DIFFERENCES: SIR FRANCIS cAmoN ( rS22-l9ll )
modcrn psychology. ry raised theintrigulng possibility o[a continuity in.mental
functioning between and humans. The ividence was largely anatomical, but it Galton effectively brought the spirit of evoludon ro bear on psychology with his work
slrongly stlggested co ties in the development of behavior and nlental prcccsses' if on the problems of menal inhelitance and individual diflerences iu humari r^pz.itt/.
thc hunran rnind had flom more primidve minds, rt would follow that sirnilari- Before Galton's effors, the phenomenon of individual differences had not been consid-
tics in menulitY rnight between animals ancl humans. Ihe gap between snirnals ci"ed a subject for serious study in psychology; this was a serious omission. Only a few
and humans Posited earlier by Descartes was tirus open to se::ious ques- isolated attempts had been rnade, notably by Weber, Fechner, and HelmhoLz, who had
tion, Scicntists turned invcstigation of animal mental futlctioning. introducing a reported individual differences in their experimenrs but had not invesrigated them
new sublect into the rhological laboratcrry., Animal psychology' a lielcl wirh lar- systernatically. Wundt and f itchener did not consider individual differences to be a parr
reaching implications, thc result. {,
of psychology.
Darwin's work also rght a change iu the $b.ject ma$er and goal of psycirolugy
The focus of the structu was the ;nalysls of conscious content Darwin inflrren':cd The Life of Galton
somc prychologists, Pz r Americans; torlonsider the fr"rnctions that conscicus-
serveJhis to nvlny researchers ro be a more imponant task than Galton possessed an extraordinary intelligence (an estimated IQ of 200) and a wealth of
ness might
determining thd elenre of consciousness. Th-us, psychology came to be rrtore con- novel ideas. He is perhaps without equal in the history of modem psychology. His
o[ the organism to envirunment, and t]rc detailerl inves- creadve curiosity and genius attracted him to a variety of problems, the details of which
cerned with the adaPtat $ he lefi to be hlled in by others. A few of the areas he invesdgated are fingerprins (which
ngadon o[ mental began to lose its
A third point of Ji o"r*int theoilon psychology wrrs thffiffi€ ol S<.otland Yard adopted for identification purposes), fashions, the geographical disrribu-
Wundt'.q tion of beauty, weight lifting, the future of the race, and the efficacy of prayer. There was
from little thatdid not inrerest this versatile and inventive man.
auffld- Galton was bom in IB22 near Birmingham, England, the youngest of nine childrer.r.
Darwin's
His fadrer was a prosp€rous banker whose wealthy and socially prominent family in-
cluded important persons in all spheres of influence-Parliamenr, the clcrgy, and the
[{is dau carne
obse
military. From an early age Galton was acquainted with influential persons through his
"rhe [anrily connections.
that a
At the age of 16, at his father's insistence, Galton began the study of medicine as a
(Mackenzic, 1976, p. 334). house pupil at the Birmingham General Hospital. He worked as an apprentice to the
evidence that scientists could stt:dy hunran nature hospital physicians, dispensed pills, studied medical books, set broken bones, ampu-
Herc was tangible
tated Rngers, pulled teeth, vaccinarcd children, and found diversion in reading Horace
by means o[ tirer than experimeiul introspection Following Darwin's
who were influenced by evolutiunary thecry and is enrpha' and Flomer lt was not a pleasant existence and only the continued pressure from his
example, the psyc
more eclrctic witir rcgar.l to the hther kept him there.
sis on the functicns of

t*.
 lndivrrir,rrti I )i//tt r:

iiondlie| A nltr h'!!:y!

i | 6 ( :hdf ,ldr b/ F1r n( i'l:":
rent. l{e retumed
clegree, although he guduated without ltonors' a glcnr dis
him from this
EvolutLon left in first trri.fty',o the stuciy il>[ rnedicine until the death ol hi:; laLl
rnrFrinr on PsYcholugY in profcssion, which he hacl come ro dislike intenscly
ro the Sudan in 1845
ihe work o[ Sir Fmncis Travel ancl e,tploration claimed Galton's attention Hc
teletyl:e printer) He
tB22-19ll) on ancl to Soutirwest Africa in 1850 (ln 1850 he also
r-latron ( invent'
inlrerimnce and
p"hJft.a accounLs of his travels Td *":::"*d
nenul a rned,lli the Royal GeograPhic
individual differences' Africa' then an unknr land.
lociety for his cxploration of Southwest
poor health, but he
ln iire IB5Os lre stopped his travels because of martiage
zt gu explorerc (The Art of
continuecl to serve on scholarly committees and wrore
expeditions lbr others; and gave on camp life to
Trwel). He also organized
soldiers training for duty in the Crimean War'
of instruments
ilis spirrted i=.tl".rr',"r, led him next to meteorology and
summarized in a
with which to plot weather data His meteorological hndi
weather pa on an extensive scale-
book that is considererl the first atternpt ro chart
Datwin, published On the Origin Species, Galtonimme'
When his cousin, Charles
biological a of evolution capti-
diately became interested in the new theory The
blood tran between rabbits
vated him at [irst antl he invesrigared the effecrs of
acqu'irecl charactetisucs could be inhe Alrhough the genetic
to detemrine whether
ol evolution did not hold his attention for long' the I implications guided
sicle
Galtons work ancl cletennined his inlluence on modern

The Works of Caltorr

Menlal Inheritatrce
published in 1869.
Galton's first important work tbr psychology was Heteditary
gre?rneJ: or occurred in families
His pu5pose was ttl demonstrate rhat individual
to t e explained by environmental influences-h his thesis that enli-
fur ioo-oi
"n studies reporred in
nent *"n have eminent sons For the most Pan' *te biograp
such as scientists
iiri, tiook *"." invcstigaticns into the ancestries of influential
pelson not only genius
and physicians. Galtons data showed that each famous
but a specific form of genius. A grant scientist, for example' torn into a familY that
lrzrd attained eminence in science.
more inent or fit individuals
Galton'.s ult'imate aim was to encourage the lrirth')[ th3
hirth of the unfit. To help achieve this founded the science

were
resrilt
selected and
apprentrceshin his ever-pr€sent curiosity' be de
One incident during this tnedical 1i\,c^l pharmacy' Galton
oi the uarious tnedicjnes itr the He rhat those
Wanting to learn for hirnsell the effecrs and
;;; ;;ki";;.,"'
9"*": :: ::':;:jf f ;: ;:::ffi::'i:H-':t
ar rrrc rr((Lr
;:'J;;:1X :li
travine;i;Ae nurnber oI childrcn (Fancher,
lctter A. Thi; sciet;tihc venture cncreo
, riil..Jil:rl':l'JJJ metlicaleducarion ar Kings College
noupitar Garron contin'ed his rlr is inrcrcstinq thal Calton, lvho founded rhe seierlcr uf cugenics ae'l i - orly the vcry inlelligPrr
nrolled in Triniw collese' Cambridge'
ch;il'ht;;l;;; neither oI Galtonb brothers
in Lon.lon. A vcar later he ";l.e .rr.rri,.p,"Jtr'."- alJnot havc any chiklren fhe problcrn wuapparcndy
6"pl"t"' he studied mathematics' Although
whcre, wtb a bust o{ N"ttt"'trtni"'l'Jhi'
(athered chiklren.
he d:d rnanage to earn his
;;;J'i""^rta"*"'
his studies r'.'eie iuterruptcci
';'"t#:;;

1tR (..I|/ln'lr 6lFune li(,nalism:
!.-... ,--.-
ln atterrpdng to
of hereditY
categories acct:rding to
population. He found t
sons than do average
as to be one in 4000
Drominent relative; inst
ivas high, but not hig,h
o[ superior environ
families he studied
nat-aloPpodunr4r
Galton wrote English
.]0 papers on Problems
lndividuai and the famil
possibilitY of imProvit
a science of hereditY
Biome triha in 1901 , the
London, in 1904, and
imprcvcment, all o[
5t4ttsti64l Methods
We notcd Galton!
ncver secmed fully
bJt [c also develcrPed
Adolph Quetelet (l
sutistical methods an(
normal curve had
ments and errors in
not been applied to hu
measurements of u #;':t; nilns typically vicld
demonsrated that
curve o[ distribution,
exDress the fmding
diitribution, and fer
extreme.
Galton was i
obuined for mental
university
icil measurement
ove.r a number of
ingfully defined and
and the disPersion or
and the standard
raits could be red
ley dySW:y*' !:: yl:.!:!!_tu
" llV:t_11i1 _ ll?
ol Galton's work in statistics yielded one of science'.s rnost important rneasures,-$g-
< eusenic rhesis, Qabgu..hgge{rg.JlyQly'gd-ip*p19llcrtrs 6el"rgLrtim Thc fi$r reFnrl of whut he callecl "co-rela[iol1l" appearedjnl!99,_!4gdCtn
cttnct:pts to ttte
tn ierrdito,T Genius hc applied statisticnl
lrrto th\t::''t.:l
,.r,"J ,t" .'"I"b..t.d *un in lti'.satrplc
occtrrted ln tne
i."qu"nry with which their level o[ abiltty crniltent
that inherited characteristics tend to regress toward the mean. For
,"ti"o, -"o have a higher probability of faihcring example, he observed that tall men are, on average, not as tall as thcir fathers, while the
**"[ .""to,.a of 677 ta't'out nren' each so otltstttnding sons of very short uren are, on average, taller than their fathers. He devised the graphic
il'ilil;;oup woulcl be expected to lrnvc only o.e means to represent the basic properties of the correlation coefficient and developed a
;;ffi5it. il; ii"u'"r'lu'v o[ emlnence in certuln fnmilies
formula for its calculation, though rhe formula has trot remained in use.
,; consideiseriouslv anv possible lnflucnce Galton applied the correlational merhod to variations in physical measuremenls,
"*
';i:;r-;;i;; open to th; sons of the outstanding
demonsuating, for example, a correlation berween body height and head length. With
""".t*",o
i-l^']5t'i-i--**l ftnction o[ hereditv' Lre argrred'
Gahons encouragement, his student Karl Fearson developed the mathematical formuia
used today for the precise calculation of the correlation coefficient-the Pearson
, of kience(1874),Naturallnheriance (1889)' and more than product-moment coefficient of conelation. The traditional symbol for correlation
ili:#..:;; *i"i.t*t heredity grew in scope lrorn the coeffrcient, r, is taken from the first letter of the word "refression," in recognition ol
with the
lit!^#.-* " -n"i.. n' t'tt u"t"*t'm-orc coucerned Galton's discovery of the tendency of inherited hurnan traits to regress toward the
#;;;il;i'"Ji"g, he made formal his.ProPosal ror
average ot rnean.
;:'itil;;;il.d bv the creation of the joumal Correlation is a lundamenal tool in the social and behavioral sciences, as well as in
rbtratnry at unwetsitl College'
;i;"ffi ,r," e,rg.nio t
engineering ancl ttre natural sciences. Many other sutistical techniqucs have been devel-
il1"###;eJi;i*' r"' p'n'oot"'g the idr:a o[ racial oped on the basis of Galton's pioneering wotk.
are in existencc todaY'
MentalTests
With the development of specific nlenul tesis, Galton may properly be called the 6rst
n,ffi :lLX;ffi -ili''s:lillllii;r:"1:
statistil:al metht;ds'
H. no, onfy
^ppliecl
pragltionelglpjyqhglggy. lt has been said that h9 originated mentalresrs, a\hough the
term itself came from Cattell, an American disciple of Galton's. Galton began by assum-
irrg that intelligence could be measured in terms of a person's level o[sensory capaciry-
l techniques. i
fr:t: the higher the intelligence, the higher the level ofsensory discrimination.
i,iirj,'"""r*t* statist'ician' hacl been'l't" :"-'qi'J
a;rd social dara
.rhe ' I{e needed to invent the apparatus with which psychological measurernents could be
;:;J' ffi;';;ii ;;;;; on thc clistril:ution o[ nteasurc-
biorogicar
made quickly and accurately for large nurnbers of people. With characteristic ingenuity
usecl in work and enthusiasm, he devised several instruments. To determine the highest frequenry ol
""r"J'""a ;;r' ii. p'i".ipr.. of orrnal rJistr ibutio' had
ffi:Hff n
sound that could be heard, he invented a whistle, with which he tested animals as well
;r#it;;.*.ilnu.t l"t d"^on't':':"i th"t
""'ltT::]tt;:
a .or'ral curve He as people. (He tested anirnals by walking through the stree$ o[ London and the Royal
approximaieci rh': nolnl
Zoological Gardens with the whistle fixed in the lower end of a hollow walking stick
.,i'il;"';iio'boo iut';"L with a rubber bulb at the other end.) The "Galton whisde," in improved [orm, was a
matr) to
h" rrsed the nhrase l'honrrne 'noytn {th" averaqc standard piece of psychological laboratory equipment until it was replaced by more
n' *:::::.11:
;:t:ffi;d':i""'
)st rrlurvtuud' -'*i'"' --" ""'**rtn"
'*"ng"
from the c-e'ter roward eithet
sophi"sdcated electronic apparatus in the 1930s.
fewer are found as i,ne moves Galton's other devices included a photomerer to rneasure the precision udth which a
$ L,
-.-r-! be subject could match two spos of color, a calibrated pendulum to measure reaction time
assumetl that similar results would
bv Ouetelet's au,u ro sounds and lights, a series ofweighs to be arranged in order ofheaviness to measure
"'id on
;;;;. ili;und, for ilrsance' tlrar the marks,given kinesthetic sensitivity, a bar with a variable distance scale to test esdmadon of visual
distriburicn as Quetelet's phys-
-"iii.*1.
.i'il.
".*it"icu'u"
of the notmal curvc and iLs co'siste-ncy
extersion, and sets of bottles containing different substances to rest olhctory discrimi-
ti*pr"tty nation. Mbst o,f his tests were prototypes for the standand equipment used in psycholog-
;;;il il;if of tneasurei:::',::::i:il,ff:: labonitories today.
ica I
'ange uu"'uo' ual*e of tlre disrribution
;::#t"#o1.u;'rj;"--t1'" th:**: Armed with his new tests, Galton proceeded to obuin a mass of data. He established
*."ni this averagc v'alrre (essentially' the Anthropometrlc l-aboratory in l8B4 at the Internsdiorral f{eairh Exhibition, later
"iil#ra"
;'il;:;;;;.-; ;i;*';'enls or var'.tes on humatt
moverJ to the South Kensington Museum in London. Tha laboratory rernaincd rctive lor
these two frgures. i
e
ft
:i;
,i
 lndividudl
l.l0 (.iraptrr 6/Fr mclionalism Attttctdent lflTuencts

were coliected lnstruments [bt' the to bc similnr to developrnent in these r:apircities describetl in't hological literature
six years, and data lrort more than 9000 1:cople to have been slightly
were arranged on along uble at orre rorJay, alrhoLrgh the ratt of developrnent 1.00 years ago a
unrilopo-*.i. and psychometric tneasuternents
:;lowcr'. Thus, 6alton'.s dan ccr'ltlinuc ttt be ir,stmctive
a person coulcl pass along thc
end of a narrow room. l'or a threepence adnissioli fe'c'
by *ho tlien wrote the data on a card' ln addition Assor:iation
rable and be measurecl
"r, ^tt"ndu"r
included height, weight' breathing power' stlength
ro rhose nored above, measurenents
(ialton worked rrn two problem\in the area o[association rsitv of associatiotrs
of pull and squeeze, quickness of blow, hearing' ""1":' i": ::]:-t-ty" arruiiiiir..-;Ti ii.r?yit.,g
o[ human oI iclcas ancl the tinre requirecl to i,'od,rce
the aim of this largc-scale tesring Program was to
the endre so fhAt ,i ng Putt l, the street in london
mental tesources runnrng bctwcen lralalgar Square and 5t..James Palace, his attention on an
level of their
s data (Johnson et oblcct until it sugge$ted olle or two associated ideas to him. firsr time he did this,
he was amazed at thc nuniber of associations that developed the nearly 300 objects
on developmental he ha,,l seen. Fle found that many ol t]:*c associations were of past expe-
dlta. tn addition, tit" auta provicled usefui information days later, he [ound
riences, including incidents long forgotten. Repeating the wa
ir"# "f,ft"
"iifuy tested
a,r.i.tg childhood, adolescence, and maturity within the population 'Mea-
were showtt considerable repetition ol thc associations that had occurred ng the first walk. This
sures such as weight, armsPan, breathing
power' and strength o[ squeeze
greatly diminished his interest in the study of the diversity of , and he turned

ro reaction-tin]c er?enments instead, which produced more results.

Galton prepared a list of 75 words, writing each on a slip r. Alter a week he
viewed them one at a time, using a chronometer to record the necessary to Produce
inhislabrrtatoryarSouthKensingtonMtueunr,Galtonuseclavarietyofnoveldevicestocondilctthefirst words, but severaI
two associations for each word. Many o{ the associations we
iarge-s<:alc psychological testirrg
appeared as iurages or nrental pictures that required a nu words to describe
\.
His next msk was to determine the origin of these He discovered ,{." }i
that about 40 percent o[ thegr could be traced to events in ldhood and adoles . t'I.il.qQ\
cence, an early detnonsnation of the influence of cliildhood on tlre adult
\l .. ii'
fersonaliLy. ,t't
Of greate r importance was the introduction of the experi study of associatiorr V;{ ,.,:tl
to subiect associ- \l.v
\L1'r Llalton's Lnventioil of the wlud-cseo5!4linp-i-g5t marked the first
arrou to laboratory,:xpe rinriii-tation. Wundt adapted the techr ,limited thc r(sponsc
to a sirrgie r,ord. ancl rrsed it at Leipzig. CarlJutrg elabora it frrr his owu rvorcl
as;sociation srudies (Chaprer l4).

Mental lmagery
(ialton'-s investigation of mental
E asked to as their breakfast table
morning.*ancl rq to
dre or cleai ,an so on
group ances, reported
no clear imagery at all. Some were not eveu sure whal ulking about when
he questioned them alrout irnages. Funher investigation, u of more average
ability, resulted in reports of clear and disriuct images rhat often full of detail ancl
color. hle found that tlre iilragery of women and childrert icularly concrete and
cletailed *geqris-murgor less
normallySijgribrrted iuhe
popuJaticr".
---iiiron's rvork begian 2 lr'vrg linc ol rescrt, lr oll irllrllcry; ne;'al. his results have
been suppcrred. As with most of his reserlrch,,l,llc intqlrest in was tootcd in his
attenrDt to clemr:nstrate hereiitar:y sinlilarities. For er'emp1e, ,rd that similaniy in
inugery is gnrxtcr bctwecr :;ibhngs tiran bcl*,een inciividnals are unrelated
 rl
-" .. " ----ll1'rrsf:1-f {l4 l't'}-l9q:lJsl'gr:lll- l
THE INFLUENCE OF AI{IM.AI, PSYCHOLOGY OT,{ FUI..ICTIOI{ALTSM
Additional Studtes
The areas o[ research rhus far constitute Gnlton'.s chicl'sour^ccs o[ inllucnce on fhc evolutionary tlreory of Charles Darwin plovided the imperus for animal psychology.
psychology. Because he :d many other studies, wc will dlscuss a leu' of therr to Before Darwirr publlshed his theory there was no teason for scientists to be interested
irrdicate the richness of his nlent. in the animal mind because animals were considered to be soulless or mindless autom-
Galton tried to Put ,tf into the sute of mind of the insane by imagining ttnr au, possessing no similarity with humans, a point srassecl by Descartes.
saw while he was taking a walk was a spy, "By the end of
the
everyone or everything
jrrst as suspi- On the Origin oJ Spdcic.s radically altered this notion. It became clear that there was no
moming stroll, every seemed to be watching him either directly or, sharp break between the human and animal minds. Instead, a condnuity between all
cious, disguising their :nage by elaborately paying no attentioll" (Watson, l97B' aspecs-mental and physical-of humans and animals was postulated, because we
pp.328-329). were believed to be clerived from anirnals by the continuous evolutionary process of
Galton lived at a the debate between evolution and fundanrentalist theol- change and development. "There is no fundamental difference between man and the
ogy was acute. With (Darwin, l87l, p. 66). If mind could be
^higher mamnrals in their mental Jaculties"
although large ffif continuiry ben'reen the animal mind and the
such beliefs are valid human mind could be shown, such evidence would sewe as a defense of Darwin's
cluded that it was of theory against the human-animal dichotomy espoused by Descanes. A quest was begun
invoking weather for e.vidence of mind or intelligence in animals.
Galton believed Darwin undertook the defense of his theory in Erpression of the Emotions in Man and
in one o[ the manY of religion and those who do not, itr terms of their dealings Anvnals (1872), in which he argued that our emotional behavior results from the inher-
', en oic,r,al lives. Hc wotrld have liked to give thg lvlrrltl a
with others or in t iunce of behavior once uselul to anitnals, but no longer of any use to humans. One of
ncw sct of beliefs, red in terms of science, as a substitute for religious dogma lie Darwin'.s famous examples to demonstrate this point is thc way our lips curl when we
thought that the development ofa finer and nobler race through eugenics srreer. Darwin held this to be a remnant o[ the animal b4ring of the canine teeth in rage.
should be our.goal,
Galton always hnmans
at the theater bY
qlitihdyears
that followed the publication of On the Origin of Species, the topic of
measr:re of boredom, animal intelligence became popular not only among scientiss but with the general
ofbrusir public as well. ln the 1860s and I870s, letters to scientific and popular magazines
of numbers. After reported instances ofarrimal behavior that suggested hitherto unsuspected mental abil-
he assigned number' ities. Thousands of stories circulated about the highly intelligent feats of pet cats ancl
add and subtract bY dogs, horses. pigs, snails, birds, and most other creatures.
exercise came a Even Wilhelm Wundt was affected by the trend. In 1863, before he became the
issue of the American Psychologlcal Retiew. worlds first psychologist, he wr.ote about the intellectual abiliries of a wile range of
living fonns, tiom pollps to beetles to beavers. He argued that animals that displayed
Comment even minimal sensory capacides must also possess powcts o[judgment and conscious
nature' inference. The so-called infcrior animals differed from humans not so much in their
Galton spent onlY 15 s engaged in investigating activities o[ a psychological
abilities but in the fact that they had not received as much training and educadon. Thirty
yet his efforts during ,t o.t p""tiod tttongl| affected the direcdon psychology would
years later Wundt would become much lcss generous in attributing high intelligence to
rake, He was not nwcholoqist, any more than he was a eugetticist or an anthro-
''emelv gified iniividual whose talent and temperament could animals, but, for a tin-re, his voice was added to the many others that su2gested that
pologist. He was an animals might be as intelligent as humans (Richards, 1980).
not be bound bY the of on" discipline. Consider again the studies that
"ny The person who formalized and systematized the study of animal intelligence was the
Galton initia(ed in psychologiss became interested: qdaputior-r, her:dilly4gs
- British physiologist, GeorgeJbhu.Romanes (1848-1894). fu a young man, Romanes
oi species, child development, tb9 quqttorytugg-1g9!trsS'
had been impressed by Darwin's writings. Some time later, after he and Darwin had
did Wundt's of the become friends, Darwin gave him all of his notes on animal behaviot Darwin chose
American
6 ue.saile, so wide in his interests Rornanes to carry on that pordon of his work, to appiy the theory of evoiution to the
sclence
mind as Darwin had applied it to the body. Romanes became a worthy successor.
.

ion per:haps of wiilism James) arc In l8B3 Romanes published Animal Intelhgence, generally considered the first book
Compared with him, ;heil@th iE.*.il*cep t

l..ou, und pedantic, a little blinlered in their outlook" (Fiuget on c.ornparative psychology. Romanes collected data on the behavior of fish, birds,
apt to appear a linie
..domestic animals, and r,onkeys. His purpose was.to..demonstrate the high level of -,--.--,-.-....
6rWest, 1964, P. lll
 Commml

L:l:4c,:!:!ptc-.-9/r!!,1'!l:!l-lAlg"lill1]:t1'9l9CI

sor. Mtrrgan, iri adclitron to Lteing one of the lirst men ervcr to a bicycle in the city of
intellectuai functioning' thus
animal hrtelligence as well as its similariry to human Bristol, England, was a geologist ancl zo,rlogi.st (Jones, He proposed a krw oJ
illustradng a continuity rn mental developmeirt
His methodology is referred to in er the tendenry to
parstmony (olien called "l-loyd Morgan'.s canon"), in an efforr
sontewhat contelnptuous terrns as the anictlotal
method-the utilizati<ln oi observa' animaLs. The principle
anthropomorphize and thus attribure too mtrch intelligencc
by Romanes
il"""i, .fr"" .^t"al. reports about animal behavior' Many of the repors used states that an animal! bchavior must rlot be interprcted as outcome ol a higher
chargcs
**. iro*.,r,.ritical and untrained obsewers' and' of course' were opetl to the menml process when it can be explained in terms t>f lower processes. Morgan
J i*o*at oft.rvadon, careless description' and biased interpretation may have dcrived his law, which he advanced in 1894' a law of parsimony
HowdidRomanes<]erivehisfindingsonthenarureofaninralintelligencefrorn published by Wundt just two years earlier' Wundt stated "complex explanatory
He *orked through a curious and ultimately (Richards,
anecdotal observatlons of animaibehauior? principles can be used only when the simpler have
anaktg..using this approach, invesdga-
discard€d technique known as introspectionby 1980, p. 57).
m""nl ptoc"st"t th"t occur in their own minds also occur ilt as Romanes. He
tors assume that the same Morgan followed essentially the same methodological
ot"r*tion' The exisrence of tnind and specific mental
,f,. *i"a, .i,f," un.l.. observed an animal's behavior and tried to explain that be through an introspec-
"ni*"is
by obs;ng behavior ancl then drawing an analogy'from human parsirnony, however,
i"r.ri""r tr infened (ive examination o[his own menul processes. Applying the
,""n"i f.o..o"t to those assume-d rc be taking place in animals' he relrained from ascribing complex, higher-level rnental asses to animals when
in these terms: "*ayi18
il;;t* described the process of introspeaion by analogy their hehavior could be explained more simply in terms of level processes. He
niy own irrdMdual mind' anci of the
ft;;;; I mow sub;".tiu.ty oiit'" opttutions of
believed, for example, that most aninral behavior could as a result of
in my own Jrgnnirroih.s" operations seem to prompt' I proceed.by lower-level "psych-
activities which
d':i3:' leaming or association based on sense expericnce; learning is a
;;;,; i;i;; ].o* ,t . "b;;;;; activities displaved bv other -olain':'*'. ical faculry" than rational thought or ideation. With Morgan non, introspection by
these activities" (Mackenzie' 1977'
thdt certain m€nul opcrations underlie or accompany analogy carne to be utore restficted in use, and 6nally was ded by more objective
pp. 56-57). methods.
that animals rvere capable of
Through the use o[ this technique, Romanes conc]uded Morga* rvas tlre 6rct to cunduct largc-scale expcrimental in anirnal psychol-
*tionuiJiio", ideation, complex reasoning' and problem-solving
,t.'."*"'t ina, ol
animnls with a level of
ogy. Although his early experiments wcre llot pel[ofmdd laboratory concli-
abiliw as humans. Some o[ i"rrtt*t followers "utn t'"tlitud ' tions, they did involve careful; demiled obsewations ol the of animals in thei.r
far superior ro that of the average human being 'Ihese studies did
intclligence
""f. animal natural environtrtents, witlt some amiltcially induced
any-other
IS,"JV which h" cor,si.iere.t Io he rnore intelligent rhan
not permit the same degree of control as did laboratory but they were a
a*a.p,
"f.its,
t"rif.*y, and Romanes wl'ote ahout the behavior of the cat
that
great advance over Romanes',s anecdotal merhoc!.
"lephants, the cat was able
u.i"IgJ r" UiJ c.s.hrnan. rtt'o*gtt u" ifit$care patlern o[ movements' These earl;v approaches to compatative psychology were in origin, but leadcr-
tntrospeiting by analogy' Romanes reached the
;;;il" cloot leading it'ttn th"
'tlblt' ship in the freld t:a1:idly passed to tlre Llnited States for this shifr inclucle
^ to one in adrnin
following condusion: Romanes! early death and Morgan's chang': from a cateql'il.)
as ro.the. mechanicat propenlcs ol." istration at the Llniversity College of Btistol
Cats in suclr cases have a very deFnite idea
it to
9*t'
pl"l:i-:-: ('ionta0vefS',r lll:litl:'i -
th"y Lno* rhat to nral<e it open, even when unlatched' :utlt1t"t, ,D" Comparatlve psychology was an outgrc"'th of the
is opcned by thc hfild graspnS
Firsr thc ununnl nr,151 hXys observed ttrar thc tloor dered by Dilrwin'.s notion of continuitl. :'-erhaps col ology ri sltlci h3.
by "the logic of fedlngs"-
itt" it^"al. r-a ,,.ouitg tt't t'*ttt Next she must reason' begun without the dreory of evr:lutir:n, hut roerst Iiktiy iL noi h*r.r iacl st
;;;;;"
lf a hand catr rlo it, paol trre irushins'wirh the hind feet after
sound or ir:rfl/:itart. '!'vb shaii cotttinlte the stotl ci'iht 'je'"":
ilt;;.i;;-ih- tur.lt -l',t'b" llt" tu ncnottuc r"oioning' (Romanes' 1883'
or-,'itr -- ;auLL:, : ;
pp.'i2I-422)
Jlonianes'-c worh leli 1?rr sh'rl of m*'lili 31!3;r'i:il riqor' i'le c[ci' i.rowever' ett:l"ilir
*,rtoin ..i,".'o [i:-., ' ,'iq;'g the reliability oi
ri:: rllri:-rLs he use':l' and he adhtt:1i:,:T: litMMEl"lT
ille line rq1::1;'i; f16126i subjcctlve lnterpretattoll tn
:;itirctl.y. Despile ti;,ue p:elautitrn:i,
,,',,irl,.ooLinrleat Alrr::ughri:reareciei:ci'ar:i'l:;irhisdaiaandmethod'llot.anesispsy-
iris pio:reer elfo|i-s :ti stiil-'1:j'-r:!;:3 :i:; rJe:' c'1';111n"tt
of^c;omparative
.;.;;.;J; thaL followed' ln mnny
txttrit;renu'i appr':ach
.U"il.i:' ,la pr.ouri,-; lhe way [cr the
t:
arcas ci ::.ie:: r-r: , ielia;:;re on ohiervalionai
na:a has ',.eccde r.the developme"l
"f siage
-o::1
irleihodology, and it was R',]riranirt riir; launctled ibe tlbseruatic;nai
""pari*.',r'
0[ c0mi]riratt'iil ogiY
PsYci.l "r: Were
anc' *;:rirOSpectiOn by analOgy
fii:,{fjrii:r.(:sses lnl::rent in thq anecr'c;lai mcthod United States
'852..'i936), the person Romanes chose as his sucies-
i :.r cF tl :'..: ':'; C. ':.-',.. ir'.a' '
"..Mf

\26 6lFunctionatLsm:
-t7 SUGGESTED READINGS
Darwin and
-l'he
Angell,J R. (1909)
Boring, E. G. (1950). The
thought. In S. Persons t
Yale UniversitY Press.
Darwin, F. (Ed.). (1958)
Dover. (Original work
6ruber, H. E. (1974)
Dutbn.
Mackenzie. B. (1976)
development of
Macleod. R. B. (f970)
lunaloJ theHsntY ol
Richards, R.J. (1983).
otscbnce. Joarnal oJ
Russett. C. E. (f976)-
W. H. Freeman.
Vorzimner, P.J. (1970)
d.ks,!859-18E2.
Yount, R. M.(1971). Tht
& s"li#;lidt],
M.itnlc, J. JaYncs,
New York: SPringer
Galnn
3u5s, d. R. (1976)
and economic forces.
3uss, [.
R. (1976)
Behavioral Sciences,
Crovitz' H. (1970)'
New York: HarPer &
Diemond. S. (1977)
Scicwa,291, 47 -55
Fonest, D. W. (197'l)-
Gahon, F. (1908).
Pearson, K. (1914'
England: Canrbridge
AnimalPsycholog
Boakes. R. (1984).
England: Cambridge
Gn, H. (1927). The
Lockard, R. B (1971)
us all? American
toeb,J. (1918). Forccd
Morgan, C. L. (1930).
j,gg.114 ry{g. l2i
Richards,
Joutwtl ol
R. J,
ahc
(I97n. Lloyd Morgan! theory o[ irstinct: From Darwinism to neo-Darwinism
Hlsaory of the Bchavioral Sciences, 13, 72-32.
Warden, C. J. (1927), The hismrical development of comparative psychology. Psychological .
Theory Revktl,'. 31, 57-85, 135-168.
16' 152--169 Wate$, R, H. (1939). MorS;an's canon and anthropomorphism. Psychologi.rat Review,46,
o[ Darwin on psychology. Psychokrglcal Rcvicw,
psychological 53,r-5,t0.
ncc of evoludonary theory upon Amedcan
it
ir"f ror,r"tl t in Atwia (pp' 267-298) New l{aven' CT: Yerkes. R. M. (1913). Earlydaysofcomparadvepsychology. Psychobg1cdRuhw,50,74-76.
""gi
autobiography oJ Charles Dauin and selecltt)letlnrs' New York
r892)
on mm: A psychological sudy o! scientifc crcctivily New York
and somc altcmatlves'
onian and Darwinian concePtiors of man,
Behavioral Scienccs, 6' 208-218'
history
aruin dclaved, or interesting problems and models in the
'nry oJ the'Behniotal Sacrces, 19,45-53
San Francisco:
in. America: The inullecrtal tcsponse, 1865'1912'
Dami:n, the ycars controversr: The Origin of Species ond its
oJ
phia: TenrPle Univesity Ptess'
debate
: of psychology in the ninereenth-century evolutionary .ln
Hisnrical conceptions oJ psvchnbg $p' 180-2()4)
polidcal'
the binh of difierential psychology and eugcnics:-Social'
i oJ thcnsnry oJ the Behavbtal kiences, 12' 47 -58
o! the Hiswry of the
scx diflercnces: An hlstorical note Journal
in:rrlli1err"c ' dnA crco.ttuity'
wath: Methods Jor thc unlysrs oJ thinhing,
the New Yorh Aca'lemy oJ
Galton and American psychology An nab oJ
New York: Taplinget'
Galtnn: The Iift and worh { aVktnrian g,enius'
oJ ny lde London: Methuen.
The life, Ieturs and labors oJ Franris Ga116n
(l vols' ) Cambridge,
Press,
oJ animals' Cambridge'
tobehaviowitm: Psycholog ani the minds
Press.
of the anirnal mind . Psycholagcal Rcvtrw'
34' 87-106'
a message fot
comparadve psychology: ls there
ions on the fell of
25, 168-179.
J B' LiPpinc(ttt'
tqisw, arit aaimal conduct' Philadelphia:
antullollmind. New York longmans, Green I
I
i
i
'"..
 "-*---.;=-7-

t
I
I

to psychology had been overshadowed in the tJnired States by the broader, more prac- I

tical appro:rch of the functionaliss. The funcdonalist victory was complere by 1930, and I
in the Unitetl Sutes today psychology is, to some extent, functional in its olientation,
though functionalism as a separate school of thought nr: longer exisls. Because of its
it to retain the characteristics of a school.
success, there is no longer any need for
Be'haviorism. AnteceCenr Infl
SUCGESTED READINGS

Functtonalism

C.an, H. A. (1930). Funcrionalism. ln C. Murchison (Ed,), Psychologies oJ 1930 (pp. 59-78).

Wor-c€stcr, MA: Clark University Press.
Lhrrison, R. (1963). Functionalism md ia historiulsignificance. tierrefir'Psycholog Monogrophs,
68,387-423.
Heidbreder. E. (1969). Functionalism. In D. l-- Kranu (Ed.), Schoob oJ psychology (pp- 15-50). INTRODUCTION
New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
By the wcowl decacle of the rweildeth century fewer than 40 years
Jamcs, W. (1904). Thc Chicago school. PsychologictlBulletin, l, l-5. Wundt formally
launched psychslogy, the science had undergone clrasric revisior No longer did all
McKinney, F. (197{}). Funcrionalism at Chiugo-Memories of a gracluate student: t929-19-}1.
psychologists agree on rhe valuc of introspeciion, on the exi:
Jounul ol the Htsnry oJ the Behavioral Scienus, 14, I4Z-148. eleme-nts o[ the
mind, r:r on rhe necessiry of psychologyii remaining ,,pure."
Raphelson, A. C. (1973). The pre-Chicago association of the earJy funcrionalists. J ournal oJ the were
Hiswy oJ tfu Behavioral kienccs,9, l15-122. rewriting the rules of psychology, experimenting wittrand
ln ways
that could not be admitred inro Leipzig or Conrill.
Dewey The movement froni Wundtian psychology ancl from srnrctur to functionalism
Boring, E. G, (1953). John Dewey: 1859-1952. American loarnal oJ Psycholog, 66, 145*147. was less revolurionary rhan evolutionary. The functionalisrs did
set out to destroy
Crirsrmn, P (1942). The psychology ofJohn Dewey. Psyclrokgical Reviev49,44l-162. the establishmenr of Wundt and Titcherier. Insread, they modihecl
addilrg a bit here,
changing rhere, so that slowly, over a ngmber of years, a ne*
fiewey, J. ( 1896). Thc rcflex arc conctpt in psychology. Psychologcal Reviev, 3,357 -370. ;,s1 emerged. lt
was more a chipping away li.on-r wirhin than a delibcrate atuck
fi hout.
Angt:ll The leaders of rhe lunctionalist movement did nor even feel r
to solidify or
frrrnu]ize their position into a school. After all, it was, as they
Angcll,.f. R. (1907). The province of functional psychology Prychologicd Revicw, 14, 61-9L . not a break with
the pasr but a building rrpon ir.
Angtll,J. R. (191-l). Beluviorzrsacategoryof psychology. PsychnlogicalReview20,255-270.
The change from sructurali.sm ro functionalism was, thei,efore,
that noticrable
Carr at the time ir was raking place. There is no pardcular clay or year
I can point to as
the sart of functionalism, a time when psyciol rgy seeme.l to
Can, H. (1917). Tht: nature of mental prftess- Prychrriogical Review,24, 18I-l8Z rnighl lndeed,
it is difficult, as we have noted, to point to a particular in, the lbunder of
Whitely, P L. ( 1976). A niw name lor an old iclea? A student of Haruey Can refiuts. ]mrnal oJ
functionalism. This was the situation in the second decade of the
the History oJ the Behavioral kieaces, 12,260-274. cenrury ln
the.Llnited States. Functir.lnalism was maturing and structuralism
'Woodworth treld a srong bur
n() lorlger cxclusjve position.
tn f91.3 a rcvolurlon againsr both of'rhese posirions eruptecl. lit truly a revolt,
Poffenberger, A.-l] (1962). RobertSessionsWoodworth: 1869-1962. Anaricunlwtrlr,loJ
arr open break, a rotal war againsr the esublishment, inrcnt
Iisycholog, 75, 677 -692. on shar both points of
view- Nothing about rhis evenr was gradual or smoorh. lt was
Thorne, F. C. (1976). Reflections on the goldea age of Cotumbia psychology Journal ol tlv , traumatic, and
History of the Behavioral kiences, 12, l5S-t65. dramatic, no modi6carion o[ t]re past, no ccmpromise, but a co
Woodmrth, R. 5. (f939). Pryihobgcalissues: Selectcdpaptrs oJ RobertS.Wwdworth. New York:
Clolumbia Univershy Prtss.