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September 2009 | #1
Harvard
Humanitarian
Initiative
HARVARD HU MANITARIAN INITIATIV E WORKING PAPER SE RIE S
POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS 9
Big World Potential Solutions 9
Small World Potential Solutions 10
BIG WORLD
1 2 3 4 5 6
SMALL WORLD
2 September 2009
INTRODUCTION TO THE WORKING PAPER SERIES ON CRISIS MAPPING
The purpose of this Working Paper Series on Crisis provide simple snap-shots that are quickly
Mapping is to briefly analyze the current use, and outdated and the quality of analysis suffers
changing role, of information communication from data deficits.
technology (ICT) in conflict early warning, crisis
The Working Paper Series will address each of
mapping and humanitarian response.1 We
these critical components in three different
demonstrate that ICTs have the potential to play
working papers. However, each working paper
an increasingly significant role in three critical
will draw on the same conceptual framework to
ways by: facilitating the communication of
identify the cutting edge developments in our
information in conflict zones, improving the
field, the lessons learned, and the best practices.
collection of salient quantitative and qualitative
This framework takes into account the “big
conflict data, and enhancing the visualization
world” and “small world” context.3
and analysis of patterns.
The “big world” denotes a Western governmental,
The Organization for Economic Co-operation and
institutional and top-down perspective while
Development (OECD) recently carried out a major
the “small world” describes a Southern, local
review of operational conflict early warning
community perspective with associated capabilities
systems. In March 2009, the OECD published their
and agendas. The parallel big-world-small-world
findings in a comprehensive report entitled: “Can
approach also serves to shed light on how both
Violence be Prevented? The Future of Operational
“worlds” can connect and inform each other with
Conflict Early Warning and Response Systems.”
One of their main findings relevant to this the use of appropriate protocols, platforms and
Working Paper: interoperable technologies.
Technological advancements have played an In this paper, we discuss six critical information
important role in improving the efficiency and pathways relevant for conflict early warning, crisis
effectiveness of early warning systems. Most mapping and humanitarian response. As depicted
inter-governmental and non-governmental in Figure 1 on the preceding page, pathways exist:
systems, however, have not gone beyond the (1) between “big world” headquarters and their
use of email and websites for dissemination, offices in the field; (2) among “big world” field-
offices; (3) between “big world” field-offices and
and communication technology for data
collection. Governmental and some inter- “small world” organizations and affected popula-
governmental systems do benefit from access tions; (4) among “small world” organizations; (5)
and resources to use satellite and GIS2 in between “small world” organizations and affected
populations; and (6) between or within “small
their analysis and reporting. However, access
world” affected populations themselves.
to technology remains very unequal between
systems. Existing analytical tools fundamentally The impact of the information revolution on
over-simplify complex and fluid violent each of these pathways is more extensive than
conflicts and situations of state fragility. They ever before. The diffusion of ICTs coupled with
new ICT-enabled participation will further expand
and shift these pathways from unidirectional
1 Research used to write the papers in this working
paper series on crisis mapping was generously
information flows to two-way and peer-to-peer
supported by grants from Humanity United.
2 GIS refers to Geographic Information Systems which
3 Ted Okada was the first to introduce these terms
store, integrate, analyze and display geographic
during an HHI workshop on July 10, 2008.
information.
networked modes of information exchange. This first working paper will address the use of
The potential impact on conflict early warning, ICTs for communication purposes in conflict
crisis mapping and humanitarian response is zones. The second and third working paper in the
significant, and raises important questions for the series will address information collection and
organization of formal response.4 The challenges visual analysis respectively. Each working paper
and opportunities are no less significant. will highlight existing projects or case studies;
draw on informative anecdotes; and/or relay the
By analyzing the varied uses of ICTs in fields that most recent thinking on future applications of ICTs.
are typically early and/or creative adopters of
technology, this study seeks to identify their This working paper series is not meant to be
applicability to our own field in the hopes that exhaustive since humanitarian technology as a
these technologies might improve the impact field of study and practice is still in formative
of our own work on conflict early warning, crisis phases. The analysis that follows is simply one
mapping and humanitarian response. step forward in trying to understand where the
field is headed. We very much welcome feedback
and input from fellow colleagues in the community.
4 September 2009
I N TROD U CTI ON
E XAMPLE S OF I CT IN ACTION
6 September 2009
CHALLE N GE S OF ICT IN CRISIS SETTINGS
Communication in crisis zones does face two very the use of VSATS6 and BGANS7 in humanitarian
real and important challenges. The first challenge relief operations. Télécoms Sans Frontièrs (TSF),
is access to communication technology. Access is was forced to leave Burma during the relief
most often limited due to political imperatives efforts following Cyclone Nargis since they were
and lack of economic development. The second not allowed to deploy these technologies. The
challenge is security, both in terms of field-security government of Sudan regularly switches off the
and data-security. (Data validation will be mobile phone network when authorities are
addressed in the second working paper). These engaged in activities that the government does
challenges affect the “big world” and the “small not want reported.8
world” in similar and different ways. Note that
Since the invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq,
these challenges necessarily pose constraints on
ensuring the security of humanitarian workers in
data collection as well.
the field has proven to be more challenging than
ever and communications between and among
1 | Big World Challenges field workers, their local agencies, and their “big
From the perspective of the “big world” interest in world” headquarters is closely monitored and
promoting the uses of ICT for understanding and viewed with high suspicion. Communicating any
responding to crises, the major challenges of kind of information the local authorities or the
access and security arise from the lack of economic regime considers sensitive information places
development, the prevalence of oppressive humanitarian workers in further danger. In the
regimes, and the increasingly hostile environment Sudan, humanitarian and human rights workers
for humanitarian aid workers throughout the have managed to bring or send important
developing world. Access to communication information out of the country but often at great
technologies during crises in the developing personal risk.
world is often constrained by limited economic
development. The lack of information communi- It is unclear how advanced and effective some
cation infrastructure as well as basic (and reliable) repressive regimes are in acquiring and using
utility infrastructure in developing countries surveillance technologies. However, the most
presents important limitations for the widespread
use of ICTs. For example, the lack of broadband
access or limited mobile phone coverage beyond 6 VSAT refers to a Very Small Aperture Terminal, a
state capitals presents important hurdles for small two way satellite ground station with a dish
real-time and sustained communication from the antenna that transmits narrowband data such as
polling, radio frequency identification and credit
“big world” to the areas in crisis as well as blocks
card transactions, or broadband data such as internet.
or severely limits information flow from the
7 BGAN refers to the Broadband Global Area Network,
affected region out to the “big world.”
a global satellite internet network enlisting portable
Political factors and territorial sovereignty terminals usually used to connect laptops to broad-
band internet in remote areas.
continue to constrain and define the scope and
timing of humanitarian response efforts. Access 8 Humanitarian workers in the Sudan recently
communicated to HHI the varied excuses that the
to communication technologies becomes an
Sudanese government uses when mobile phone
important problem when repressive regimes, communication is interrupted: “A dog bit through
such as the military junta in Myanmar, restrict the power cable connecting the cell phone tower,”
“The cable that needs fixing is next to a hive of
bees…the only repairman is allergic to bees…”
8 September 2009
POTE N TI AL SOLUTIONS
The following section presents the results of a frequency radio waves), satellite communication,
critical inventory of existing communication and public telephone systems.
technologies and their potential capacity to meet
Internet. If Internet communication is permitted
the challenges that have been identified. The
and possible, then a number of information
findings are somewhat positive but we note the
communication platforms are available. The Virtual
persistent real problems, related to access and
On-Site Operations Coordination Centre (OSOCC),
security, that still block timely and substantive
for example, is an operational platform maintained
communication from Small World zones to the
by UN OCHA that facilitates both communication
Big World during periods of active conflict or in
and storage of (primarily) qualitative data. The main
circumstances of severe political oppression.
purpose of the platform is to facilitate decision-
making for international response to major
1 | Big World Potential Solutions disasters though real-time information exchange
In this section, we address the ways in which by all actors in the international disaster response
the Big World can make use of technologies that community. Users have the opportunity to create
could potentially resolve some of the “small e-mail and SMS messages that are sent automati-
world” communication challenges. In general, cally to subscribers about critical situation updates
ICTs tend to be more useful for communication during disaster response operations. Discussion
purposes when they are mobile. Mobile tech- forums are also available on Virtual OSOCC for any
nologies are typically linked to a relatively area of interest, including information exchange
distributed and decentralized communication on best practice and lessons-learned after disaster
network. This feature means that mobile ICTs are response operations.
not prone to a single point of failure. Here we
address the following mobile or distributed forms Skype. Secure communication is allegedly possible
of ICTs: walkie-talkies, radios, Internet, Skype, and via Skype — assuming, again, that access to the
satellite communication such as satellite phones. Internet is possible and permitted.10 Only the
National Security Agency (NSA) is said to possibly
Walkie-Talkies. Commercially available walkie- have enough computing power to decrypt Skype
talkies have become increasingly more sophisti- calls. Indeed, the German government has
cated with time, but the average range of 25 repeatedly expressed their frustration over the
square kilometers is still limiting and, as is the inability to intercept Skype conversations to crack
case for any devise-based communication down on organized crime. Skype uses a 256-bit
technology, customs officials can confiscate the long encryption key; a length that experts say
units at the port of entry. would theoretically require a literal eternity to
crack. However, some still speculate that Skype has
Radios. In situations where the UN is already
a “back door” entry that allows third parties to
present, the use of radio base stations such
intercept conversations.
as Codans provides for secure countrywide
communication. The Red Cross and Red Crescent, Satellite Communication. The most recent
Oxfam, Care, Save the Children, Médecins Sans development in this technology is 10 kilo GSM
Frontières (MSF), and the International Organiza- mobile phone network developed by the EU
tion for Migration (IOM), also use Codans. The
radios are flexible and can interface with other
10 Not surprisingly, a number of repressive regimes
communication mediums including VHF (very
block the Skype website to prevent individuals from
high frequency radio waves), UHF (ultra high downloading the software and registering an account.
funded project Wireless Infrastructure over Satellite 2 | Small World Potential Solutions
for Emergency Communications (WISECOM) In this section, we identify innovative technologies
project. This technology enables rescue workers that may serve as potential solutions to “small
to set up communications with the world mobile world” challenges. These include: (1) technologies
and landline networks in a matter of minutes. The that can provide access to electricity in remote
system works anywhere there is satellite coverage, locations; and (2) the following communication
i.e., almost everywhere in the world. technologies: Internet (blogs), radios, SMS, flash
At the “big world” level, if a government renders drives and “sneakernet.” Tactical solutions to
the use of satellite communication technology maintain personal security and data security are
illegal, humanitarians with satellite phones can also addressed.
(and many do) smuggle them across borders and Chargers. Limited social and economic develop-
then use the phones clandestinely at their own ment in crisis-prone regions means that access
risk. If intercepted, customs officials at ports to communication technology is limited by access
of entry will confiscate phones. Once inside, to electricity. A number of solutions to address
however, the technology can be used more easily this problem are just coming online, ranging from
without being detected. This tactic among portable solar panel chargers and wind-up
organizations is one of the only real, albeit partial chargers to bicycle powered chargers and wind-
and unsatisfactory, solutions at the moment. powered chargers, although these are unlikely
A possible alternative communication technology to become widely available any time soon.
is the Ground Antenna Transmit and Receive, Nevertheless, they are important steps in the
or GATR, an ultra-light inflatable satellite commu- right direction.1 1 Solutions for “small world”
nication device with an ultraportable antenna challenges are often more likely to be found at
encased inside. The GATR provides superfast the local, community level as described below.
broadband satellite connection at any location in Internet (blogs). The violence in Kenya was
a disaster zone. It is designed for disaster-relief documented by hundreds of bloggers armed with
responders who require digital information-video, cameras and mobile phones. Their numerous
Internet, and calls in and out of remote places. blog entries were considerably more timely and
The device weighs about 70 pounds and fits into informative than the national media. Because of
two backpacks. In addition, GATR can be powered the volume of information they were providing to
by a car’s cigarette lighter or a small generator. the public, their accounts could be triangulated
The technology was used at a Red Cross shelter with other blogs and local media. However,
following Hurricane Katrina and served as an Internet diffusion in Kenya is less than 5 percent.
electronic lifeline to the outside world. To this end, blog posts were regularly read on
However, for conflict zones there are obvious local broadcast radio stations, thus allowing for
problems with the GATR in its current configura- the wider dissemination of information to even
tion. Its visible size (even when packed and then the most rural corners of Kenya. Indeed, 90% of
certainly when deployed in operational mode) Kenyans have access to a radio.
and its weight make it impossible to bring into
a country’s port of entry without the permission
of authorities. In addition, the current $50,000
price tag on GATRs makes it prohibitive even for
11 India, for example, is installing solar-powered GSM
many “big world” organizations. systems for remote and rural areas.
10 September 2009
Radios. In Zimbabwe there are no independent with repressive regimes, Internet access is highly
radio stations and permits to broadcast information restricted and telephone conversations regularly
are required by law. Besides The Herald, a govern- surveyed. Communicating politically sensitive
ment newspaper, only the state-run television information is therefore a challenge. Some activists
and radio stations provide daily news. Local have therefore collaborated with a technology
communities are therefore rarely able to access design initiative to develop flash drives (or thumb
independent news sources. To this end, SW Radio drives) with several innovative features. The flash
Africa broadcasts into Zimbabwe from London. drives developed can exchange data directly
The station does so on multiple frequencies to without requiring a computer. Because few have
avoid being jammed by the government. Another access to computers in some of these authoritarian
example is the dial-up radio technology designed states, the customized flash drive is also designed
by activists in the US for specific use within to be accessible via regular television sets. In
Zimbabwe. The software program allows users other words, text-based documents and YouTube
to record and/or upload audio files that are then videos can be viewed on TV sets.
automatically made accessible via a dedicated
“Sneakernet.” Such innovations are examples of
telephone number. Mobile phones and regular
what “sneakernet” can achieve. The term is used
fixed-line telephones can then be used to dial up
to describe the transfer of electronic information
access to the broadcasts.
by physically carrying removable media from
SMS. After radios, mobile phones are often the one machine to another. (Sneaker refers to the
most prevalent technology used to communicate shoes of the person carrying the media). Another
in the developing world. The use of SMS is example of “sneakernet” is the use of cassette
particularly widespread, as recently witnessed tapes in Zimbabwe. A number of Zimbabweans
during the post-election violence in Kenya. who do have access to international news have
Toolkits such as Frontline SMS enable NGOs to run begun to copy the broadcasts on cassette tapes,
SMS campaigns directly from a computer. TXTmob which they then distribute to long-distance bus
is an open source program that also facilitates drivers. The latter play the tapes to bus occupants
SMS broadcasting. These tools could be used in on long trips to distant towns and villages.
the future to facilitate mass communication in
Field and data security. Mobile phones can be
crisis zones. It is important to recognize that
easily traced. Activists and members of resistance
integrated (or networked) technologies can also
groups therefore remove the batteries from their
help to connect the “last mile.” Zimbabweans
phones when not in use. Switching the phones
themselves are increasingly turning to SMS in
off is not sufficient. They also use multiple SIM
creative ways by integrating texting with radio
cards when engaged in tactical and strategic
broadcasts. SW Radio Africa, for example, sends
action. Unregistered SIM cards are easily bought
text messages to some 25,000 listeners a day
on the parallel (black) market and are therefore
with thousands more subscribing every week.
not traceable to a particular individual. Other
Furthermore, the communication pathway is not
precautions include not adding any numbers to
just one-way. The station uses a local phone
the phone’s address book and frequently deleting
number in Zimbabwe so listeners can send texts
text messages along with any call data.
or leave voicemails without having to pay for
international calls to the UK. In terms of secure SMS communication,
CryptoSMS.org provides a free-and-open-source
Flash Drives. Access to information is often
tool to encrypt text messages. Lastly, a tactic
restricted for political reasons. In many countries
12 September 2009
Summar y and Conclusion
ICTs have demonstrated the potential to markedly application in conflict settings. For example, the
improve communication in crisis zones and enable “big world” can pulse warnings to the “small
multiple information pathways bridging the “big world” using SMS broadcasting. The applicability
world” and “small world” context. The challenges of disaster communication technologies to
of making ICTs more widespread for communica- conflict zones, however, is limited since a host of
tion purposes are two-fold: access and security. other issues such as armed violence and state
Access to technology in countries facing unfolding oppression present specific obstacles not typically
crises is limited for both socio-economic and encountered in disaster contexts. In other words,
political reasons. The security implications are communication technologies for disaster zones
also two-fold: security of field staff personnel and are not designed for conflict environments. The
local communities on the one hand, and data significance of technology design is particularly
security on the other. Potential solutions at the evident at the “small world” level — as the Cuba
“big world” level include expensive new commu- flash drive and Zimbabwe dial-up radio examples
nication technologies that can easily be confiscated demonstrate. Using technologies of liberation
by customs officials upon entry and clandestine that are designed for a specific political, economic,
tactics. Potential solutions at the “small world” cultural and/or conflict context are more likely to
level include the use of “technologies of liberation” be effective than those technologies designed for
developed for activists by activists but these disaster management.
peer-to-peer or community-to-community tactics
We have identified the need for design and
do not easily support getting the warnings out to
development of communication technologies in
the “big world.”
conflict zones that are intentionally aimed at
The main conclusion to draw here is the impor- allowing societies to bridge the gap between Big
tance of technology design, i.e., intentionality World and Small World, permitting messages to
in design. In the “big world,” the conflict early get out as well as in, and without compromising
warning, crisis mapping, and humanitarian the security of local people. The constraints are
response community has the option of making significant but a focus on this intention might well
more extensive use of existing technologies accelerate innovation in this critical arena.
already employed in disaster management for