UM Electronics Lab Manual Guide

ENME 350 Electronics and Instrumentation I Lab Manual (draft - Jan 14, 2011)
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ENME 350
Electronics and Instrumentation I
LABORATORY MANUAL
Department of Mechanical Engineering

University of Maryland
College Park
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PREFACE
The laboratory is an integral part of the course. Students must complete the laboratory
assignments in order to obtain a passing grade for the course. Students will perform
experiments in groups of 2 to 4, or as assigned by the lab instructor. All partners are
expected to take an active part in preparation for and execution of each experiment.
Each student in a group is responsible for a separate report on each experiment. Lab
partners will be rotated every week. Lab reports are not accepted if the student did not
attend the associated lab.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Lab no. Title Page no.
Time-Varying Signals: Generation and Measurement

Laboratory 1 4
Laboratory 2 Voltage and Current Measurement and Verification of 7

Basic Circuit Principles
Laboratory 3 Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit, Mesh Analysis, and 12

Maximum Power Transfer
Laboratory 4 Introduction to PSpice 16
Laboratory 5 DC Circuit Analysis Using PSpice 28
Laboratory 6 First Order Circuits: RC and RL Transients Using PSpice 32
Laboratory 7 RC Circuits Transient Response 36
Laboratory 8 RLC Circuits: Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis, Phasor 39

Analysis, and Resonace (using PSpice)
Laboratory 9 Diodes and Their Applications 42
Laboratory 10 Operational Amplifiers 46
Appendix A Report Writing 49
Appendix B Solderless Breadboards Schematic 54
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Laboratory 1: TIME-VARYING SIGNALS: GENERATION AND

MEASUREMENT
OBJECTIVE
The goal of this experiment is to demonstrate time varying signals (AC signals) and their characteristics.
Students will use a function generator to generate various types of time varying signals (also called
waveforms). An oscilloscope will be used to view the generated signals and to measure their
characteristics.
INSTRUMENTS NEEDED
Power supply (PS)
Function generator
Oscilloscope (Tektronix TDS 220)
Probe
Digital multimeter (DMM)
DESCRIPTION
A function generator is an instrument that is used to generate various types of waveforms (sinusoidal,
square and triangular waveforms) where the frequency and the amplitude of the waveform can be
selected.
An oscilloscope (also called a scope for short) is a device that is used to view both DC and AC
waveforms and measure their characteristics (such as amplitude for both DC and AC signals and
frequency or period for AC signals). The scope has two input channels so that two waveforms can be
viewed simultaneously. The waveform to be viewed must be connected to one of the channels of the
oscilloscope. Your lab instructor will explain to you how to use both the function generator and the
oscilloscope.
GENERATING AND OBSERVING SIGNALS
Step 1: Turn on the oscilloscope. Only channel 1 will be used.
Scope settings (channel 1):
Vertical Mode Horizontal Mode

• Set the sensitivity to 1 volt/division • Set the sweep rate to 500ms/division
• Set the input coupling to DC coupling
Connect the probe to channel 1 of the scope and connect the two terminals of the probe together using a
wire (i.e., form a short circuit between the two terminals of the probe). The display should show a spot,
moving left to right (or a horizontal line). This is called “the trace”. Use channel 1 vertical position
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control to bring the position of the trace to the mid-point of the screen and adjust the horizontal position
control so that the trace starts at the left end of the screen.
DC VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT USING THE SCOPE

In this part, the oscilloscope will be used to view a DC signal. The voltage to be measured must be
connected between the inner conductor of the input terminal and the outer, grounded conductor. You
will be making connections to the scope’s input through an “x1 probe.” The probe has an x1/x10
selector. Note that x1 means the probe does not attenuate, or reduce the signal; and x10 means the probe
attenuates the input signal by a factor of 10. (For example, if the input signal is 4 V DC, when the probe
selector is set to x1, it will be displayed as a 4 V on the scope whereas if the probe selector is set to x10,
the signal will be displayed as a 0.4 V signal on the scope.)
Connect the probe to the input of channel 1 and set the selector on the probe to x1. Of the two leads of
the probe, the flexible one with an alligator clip is the ground terminal.
Step 2: Turn the power supply on, and use a multimeter to set the output voltage of the PS to 2
volts. Connect the scope’s probe to the output of the PS. Observe and record its effect on the
vertical position of the trace. Change the output of the PS to 3 volts and record the effect on the
vertical position of the trace. Set the selector on the probe to x10 and record the effect on the
scope. Disconnect the probe from the PS.
Step 3: Set the output voltage of the PS to 4 volts. Use the multimeter to make sure that the
output of the PS is exactly 4 volts. Connect the output of the PS to channel 1 of the scope using
the probe. Set the probe selector to x1. Set the sensitivity of channel 1 to 2 volt/division.
Setting the sensitivity is like setting the range on a voltmeter.
Measure and record the PS voltage on the scope by observing the vertical displacement of the trace from
the zero-reference level as follows:
Voltage (in V) = displacement (in major divisions) × sensitivity (in V/division)
Note that displacement upward is taken as positive, whereas displacement downward is taken as
negative. Change the voltage of the PS to 6 volts and repeat the measurement. The values measured on
the scope should coincide with the PS output values measured by the multimeter.
AC VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT
In this part, the function generator will be used to produce time varying signals or AC signals. The
function generator produces time-varying voltages (waveforms), just as the PS produces DC voltages.
There are controls on the function generator to choose the type of the output waveform (sinusoid,
square, or triangular) and to set the amplitude and frequency of the output waveform. Use the following
settings:
Frequency: 500 Hz
Amplitude (peak value): 4V
Function type: Sinusoidal
DC offset: Off
Set the scope’s vertical sensitivity to 2 V/division and the scope’s sweep rate to 1 ms/division.
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Step 4: Connect the output of the function generator to channel 1 of the scope using a coaxial
connector (do not use the probe).
Step 5: Vary the frequency controls on the function generator and the sweep rate control on the
scope, in a coordinated fashion, so that each time you can see a few cycles of the waveform on
the screen. Observe the effect on the trace. Continue experimenting until you fully understand
the function of these controls.
Step 6: (Measuring the frequency of a sinusoid using the scope) Set the function generator
output frequency to 500 Hz and the amplitude level to 1 V. Set the sweep rate on the scope to 1
ms/div so that you can observe several periods of the waveform on the screen.
Measure and record the period of the sinusoidal waveform (the period is the time it takes the waveform
to repeat itself).
Period (in seconds) = # of divisions it takes the signal to repeat itself × sweep rate (in sec/div)
1
Frequency (in Hz) =
Period
Step 7: Use the function generator to produce a square waveform (simply press the button with
a square wave symbol on the function generator). Repeat Step 4 through Step 6 for a square
wave.
Note: The oscilloscopes in the lab are equipped with built in functions for measurement of
various waveform characteristics (e.g., peak-to-peak value, mean value, frequency).
Experiment with these utilities by using the measure function on the scope. Ask your TA for
help if you have any questions.
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Laboratory 2: VOLTAGE AND CURRENT MEASUREMENT AND VERIFICATION OF
BASIC CIRCUIT PRINCIPLES
OBJECTIVES
• To illustrate how voltages and currents are measured in direct current (DC) circuits and how
the voltage-current (v-i) characteristics of a resistor are calculated from voltage and current
measurements.
• To verify fundamental circuit properties such as Ohm’s law and to illustrate series and
parallel DC resistive circuits.
• To become familiar with potentiometers and the way resistance is measured.
INSTRUMENTS NEEDED
Power supply (PS): is used to power circuits.
Digital multimeter (DMM): is used to make measurements of current, voltage and resistance.
PARTS NEEDED
A 1.5 V Battery
A Solderless Breadboard
A Switch
1 KΩ, 10 KΩ Resistors
A Potentiometer (0-1 KΩ)
TESTING CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS

You will use an ohmmeter to test circuit connections. These tests are usually performed after
building the circuit. You will practice circuit connection testing on a “single-pole, double-throw”
switch (see Figure 2.1). The position of the switch determines which terminals are connected, A-B
or A-C. When two terminals of the switch are connected (terminals A-B in Figure 2.1), a short is
established between them, with virtually zero resistance. When two terminals of the switch are not
connected (terminals A-C in Figure 2.1), an open circuit exists between the terminals, with virtually
infinite resistance.
Getting familiar with the switch: Mark the terminals of the switch provided to you as A, B, and C.
Use an ohmmeter to verify that when terminal A is connected to terminal B, the resistance between
A-B is zero and the resistance between A-C is infinite (or very large).
B
A
C
Figure 2.1 A schematic of a switch.
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VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT
The goal is to measure the voltage drop across a resistor. To do that, a voltmeter must be connected
across the resistor in parallel. You do not need to break the circuit connections when making voltage
measurements. The voltage between two points A and B is measured by connecting the two leads of
the voltmeter between A and B (refer to Figure 2.2). Note that the polarity in DC measurements is
important. If you want to measure the potential of point A with respect to point B, the red terminal of
the voltmeter should be connected to point A and the black terminal to point B.
Step 1: Set up the circuit shown on Figure 2.2 (without the voltmeter). You will be provided
with a 1.5 V battery (which will be used as a power source), a switch, and a 1 kΩ resistor.
Keep the switch open (off). Set the multimeter as a voltmeter for direct current (DC)
measurements (VDC mode). The voltage between two points A and B is measured by
connecting the two leads of the voltmeter between point A and point B as in Figure 2.2.
Switch
PS
R V
Voltmeter
B
Figure 2.2 Voltage measurement.
Step 2: Connect the voltmeter across the resistor as shown in Figure 2.2. Set the multimeter to an
appropriate measurement range. The maximum of the range should be higher than the voltage to be
measured. Measure the voltage across the resistor (the voltage of point A with respect to B), first
when the switch is open and then when the switch is closed. Repeat both measurements for the
voltage of point B with respect to point A. Relate the readings with the previous ones (i.e., relate
VAB to VBA).
CURRENT MEASUREMENT
The goal is to measure the current through the resistor. To do that, an ammeter (a current meter)
must be connected in series with the resistor. Note that to connect the ammeter in series in a circuit,
you need to break the connection in the circuit and connect the ammeter there. Also, for current
measurements in DC circuits, the direction of current is important. In order to measure a current in a
given reference direction, the ammeter must be connected such that the current enters the ammeter
through the red lead and exits through the black lead. Note that when an ammeter is connected in a
circuit, it is (ideally) equivalent to a short circuit (wire), so it does not affect other elements in the
circuit (DO NOT CONNECT THE AMMETER IN PARALLEL, DOING SO WILL BURN THE
AMMETER).
Step 3: Disconnect the multimeter from the circuit of Figure 2.2 and open the switch.
Set the multimeter as an ammeter for DC measurements (ADC).
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Connect the ammeter in series between the switch and the resistor as shown in Figure 2.3 (a) and set
it to an appropriate measurement range.
Ammeter Ammeter
A A
Switch Switch
i1 i1 i2 i2
PS PS
R R
(a) (b)
Figuer 2.3 Current measurement.
Close the switch and record the measurement of i1.
Repeat the steps above and measure the current i2 in Figure 2.3 (b). Notice that only the reference
direction is different in this case. Compare the values of i1 and i2.
MEASURING RESISTANCE AND CALCULATING V-I CHARACTERISTICS

The plot of current versus voltage for a circuit element is called the v-i characteristics. In this
experiment, the v-i characteristics of a resistor will be calculated. A voltmeter and an ammeter will
be used. You will also use a power supply instead of a battery.
Step 4: Connect the circuit of Figure 2.3 (a) with the power supply off and connect the voltmeter
across the resistor. Set the ammeter and the voltmeter to appropriate measurement ranges. Close the
switch and turn the power supply on.
Step 5: Vary the voltage of the PS between -5 V and +5 V in steps of 1 V and record the
measurements of the current through the resistor and the voltage across it. Note that to obtain a
negative voltage; you need to reverse the + and − terminals of the PS.
Plot the current i versus the voltage v and find the slope of the graph. Verify that the plot satisfies
Ohm’s law:
v = Ri
Disconnect the circuit and configure the multimeter as an ohmmeter. Connect the terminals of the
ohmmeter to the terminals of the resistor that you used above (the resistor should not be connected to
anything else). Measure and record the value of the resistance and compare its value with the one
you obtained from the v-i plot.
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RESISTIVE CIRCUITS
In the remainder of this lab, students will build simple series and parallel circuits on the provided
breadboards. These circuits will be used to verify fundamental circuit principles. You will also be
given a potentiometer. The potentiometer is basically a variable resistor (i.e., an adjustable voltage
divider circuit) where the total resistance of the potentiometer is fixed but one can obtain a variable
resistance with values between 0 Ω and the maximum potentiometer resistance value.
A SERIES RESISTIVE CIRCUIT

Step 6: Use a power supply, two resistances (R1 = 1 kΩ, R2 = 10 kΩ) to construct the series circuit
shown on Figure 2.4. Set the voltage of the power supply to 10 V. Use a voltmeter to measure the
voltage across vs, v1 and v2. Record the measurements in your notebook. Verify that your
measurements satisfy Krichhoff’s voltage law (KVL):
v s= v 1 + v 2 (1.1)
Set the voltage of the PS to 15 V and repeat the voltage measurements and verify Eq. (1.1).
A PARALLEL RESISTIVE CIRCUIT

Step 7: Construct the circuit of Figure 2.5 by connecting the two resistances in parallel with the
power supply. Set the power supply voltage to 2 V. Use an ammeter to measure the currents i1, i2,
and i3 (see Figure 2.5). Record the measurements in your notebook. Take into account that direction
matters when measuring DC currents. Verify that your current measurements satisfy Kirchhoff’s
current law (KCL):
i=
1 i2 + i3 (1.2)
+ i1 i3
R1 v1 i2
−
vs + vs R1 R2
R2 v2
−
Figure 2.4 A Series circuit. Figure 2.5 A Parallel circuit.
SERIES AND PARALLEL RESISTIVE CIRCUITS
You will use the resistors R1 = 1 KΩ and R2 = 10 KΩ to verify fundamental circuit properties.
Step 8: Measure the values of R1 and R2 using the ohmmeter. Calculate what the equivalent
resistance would be if you connect R1 and R2 in series. Now connect them in series, and measure the
total resistance. Compare the reading to your calculation.
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Step 9: Repeat Step 8 for the two resistors connected in parallel.
Include the following table in your report.
R1 R2 R1 in series with R2 R1 in parallel with R2
Value (theoretical)
Measured value
VOLTAGE DIVIDER
Step 10: Set up the voltage divider circuit shown in Figure 2.6 using two resistors R1 = 1 KΩ and R2
= 10 KΩ. Set the PS to 5 V. Measure and record v2, and verify that it satisfies the voltage divider
formula
R2
v2 = vs
R1 + R 2
R1
vs +
R2 v2
Figure 2.6 A Voltage divider circuit.
POTENTIOMETERS
A potentiometer is basically a variable voltage divider where the division ratio can be changed with
the slider (see Figure 2.7 for a schematic).
The total resistance of the potentiometer is the resistance 3

between the terminals 1 and 3 which is equal to the resistance
between terminal 3 and terminal 2 (denoted by R1 in Figure
R1
2.7) plus the resistance between terminal 2 and terminal 1
(denoted by R2 in Figure 2.7). The arrow represents a slider, 2
which can slide up and down over the length of the R2
potentiometer. This results in changing the values of R1 and
R2 while R1 + R2 = constant = the total resistance of the
potentiometer. 1
Figure 2.7 A potentiometer.
Step 11: Use the potentiometer provided to you and identify the terminals 1, 2, and 3. Use an
ohmmeter to measure the values of R1, R2 and R1 + R2 as the slider is moved from its lowest value to
its highest value. Determine the minimum and maximum values of R1, R2 and R1 + R2.
Step 12: Replace the two resistors of Figure 2.6 with the potentiometer provided to you. Set
the PS voltage to 2 V and measure v2 (the voltage across R2). Change the slider position and
determine the minimum and maximum attainable values of v2? Compare the minimum and
maximum values of v2 to 2V (the power supply voltage).
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Laboratory 3: THEVENIN’S EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT, MESH ANALYSIS, AND MAXIMUM

POWER TRANSFER
OBJECTIVES
• To illustrate that a linear circuit containing one or more voltage sources can be replaced by an
ideal voltage source and a resistance in series with it.
• To illustrate that current and voltage within a circuit can be determined by means of mesh
current analysis.
• To illustrate that power transferred from an ideal voltage source with an internal resistance
depends on the load and can be maximized by the choice of load (this is known as impedance
or resistance matching).
BACKGROUND
Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin's Theorem states that a linear circuit containing ideal sources and resistors may be
represented by an equivalent circuit consisting of an ideal voltage source in series with an equivalent
resistance. Thevenin’s theorem simplifies circuit analysis by reducing a linear circuit which may
contain several voltage sources, current sources and resistances by a single voltage source in series
with a resistance (see Figure 3.1). The Thevenin equivalent voltage is equal to the open circuit voltage
after the load is removed (see Figure 3.2 (a)) and the Thevenin equivalent resistance is give by the
ratio of the open circuit voltage to the short circuit current (see Figure 3.2 (b)). Thevenin’s theorem is
particularly useful when doing power calculations and selecting a load resistance that consumes the
maximum amount of power from a circuit. It applies to both DC and AC linear circuits.
Rth
a a
Circuit with
resistances and Vth +
voltage/current −
sources b
b
A linear circuit. Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

Figure 3.1 Demonstration of Thenvenin’s theorem.
a
a
Circuit with + Circuit with
resistances and resistances and ISC
VOC voltage/current
voltage/current
sources − sources b
b
(a) Vth = VOC . =
(b) R
Vth VOC
= .
th
I SC I SC
Figure 3.2 Calculation of the equivalent circuit parameters.
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Mesh-Current Analysis
The Mesh current analysis method is a general circuit analysis technique that is used to determine
mesh currents in a planar circuit. Unlike branch currents, mesh currents are assumed to flow in a
closed path (see Figure 3.3). Mesh current equations are found by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law
(KVL) around all the meshes (simple loops) in the circuit. This results in a system of linear equations
where the unknowns are the mesh currents. Once the mesh currents of a circuit are determined, all
other voltages and branch currents can be determined using Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s current law.
(a) Circuit with branch currents. (b) Circuit with mesh currents.
Figure 3.3 Mesh current analysis method.
Impedance Matching or Maximum Power Transfer
Maximum power transfer by a circuit to a load resistance is achieved when the load resistance is equal
to the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance of the circuit as seen from the load terminals. This is also
called impedance matching, that is, the load resistance matches the equivalent resistance of the circuit:
R L = R th
It is straightforward to show that the maximum power delivered to the load by the circuit is given by
V2
PLmax = th
4R th
Rth
a
a
Circuit with
resistances and Vth + RL
RL −
voltage/current
sources b b
(a) A linear circuit with a load resistance. (b) Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with load
resistance.
Figure 3.4 Application of Thenvenin’s theorem for a circuit with a load.
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EXPERIMENT: "EQUIVALENT" CIRCUITS
This experiment illustrates that a single ideal voltage source with a resistor in series can be used to
replace a more complicated circuit of resistances and voltage sources.
1. Use Mesh current analysis to calculate the open circuit voltage in the circuit shown in Figure 3.5 (a).
Use resistors with the following values: R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = 100 Ω.
2. Use Mesh current analysis to calculate the short circuit current in the circuit shown in Figure 3.5 (a).
3. Use Thevenin’s Theorem to replace the circuit with an equivalent voltage source and a resistor in
series with the voltage source. Draw a schematic diagram of your equivalent circuit.
4. Use the variable DC power supply and resistors to create the circuit shown in Figure 3.5 (a) on the
breadboard. Make sure that the negative terminals of the two voltage sources are not connected (i.e.,
V1 and V2 have separate grounds).
5. Measure the open circuit voltage and the short circuit current at the output terminals (i.e., between the
terminals a-b). Record your observations.
6. Add each load resistor (all are 240 Ω) one by one across the output of the original circuit (Figure 3.5
(a)) and measure the output voltage and current every time you add a resistor. Record your
observations.
7. On the breadboard, build your equivalent circuit (which has a single equivalent voltage source and a
single resistor in series with it) and repeat the measurements of the open circuit voltage and the short
circuit current. Record your observations.
8. Calculate the power absorbed by the load (and generated by the circuit) and plot versus the load
resistance.
9. For what resistance value is the power maximized? Compare the load resistance that absorbs the most
power with the Thevenin equivalent resistance. Record your observation.
R2 R3
a
V1 + R4 R5 RL1 RL2 RL3 RL4 RL5

−
b
−
+
R1
V2
(a) R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = 100 Ω and V1 = 5 V, (b) RL1= RL2= RL3= RL4= RL5= 240 Ω.
V2 = 10 V.
Figure 3.5 The circuit used in the experiment.
Include in your report:

1. The Mesh current analysis for calculating the short circuit current and the open circuit voltage,
2. The calculation of the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and the schematic of the equivalent circuit,
3. All data measurements in a table format.
4. The plot of the load power as a function of the load resistance and indicate for what value of
resistance the power is maximized.
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5. What is the relationship between the load resistance that maximizes the load power and the
Thevenin’s equivalent resistance for the circuit?
6. Calculate the power absorbed by an arbitrary load on the Thevenin equivalent circuit as a
function of the load resistance. Differentiate the expression to determine the value of load
resistance that results in the maximum power absorbed.
REFERENCE
Electrical Engineering, Principles and Applications, by Allan R. Hambley (any edition).
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Laboratory 4: INTRODUCTION TO PSPICE

OBJECTIVES:
• To become familiar with the circuit simulation software PSpice.

• To simulate/analyze simple circuits using PSpice.
BACKGROUND:
Spice (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis) is a program widely used to
simulate analog electronic circuits and mixed mode analog and digital circuits. PSpice is a
personal computer version of Spice. PSpice can be used to perform transient and steady state
analysis. Spice was developed at the University of California at Berkeley in the mid-1970s. Since
its development, it has been widely used in educational and research institutions.
I. Starting PSpice
To run PSpice, go to Start menu  Programs  Cadence SPB16.01  Design Entry CIS.
The following window (Figure 4.1 (a)) may appear. If it appears, choose the first option Allegro
PCB Librarian XL and click OK. The window shown in Figure 4.1 (b) will appear.
Figure 4.1 (a)
Figure 4.1 (b) Starting PSpice.
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To start a new session, go to File  New  Project  Choose Analog or Mixed A/D (see
Figure 4.2). Choose a name for the new project and type a path in the location field then click
OK. May sure you copy your files on a flash drive or email them to yourself before you leave the
computer lab.
Figure 4.2 Starting a new project in PSpice.
In the "Create PSpice Project" window, make sure that the "Create based upon an existing
project" is checked then click OK.
Double click on your project name, click on Schematics then choose Page 1. A schematic page
window will appear. If the schematic page is not empty, highlight everything on the page by
pressing CTRL + A and then delete.
II. Drawing the circuit
A. Getting the Parts
Before building a circuit, you need to place all the components in the schematic window. This can be
done by selecting Place from the menu then choosing Part or by pressing the keyboard letter p.
Make sure all the libraries are loaded by pressing p  Add Library then highlight all the files
(refer to Figure 4.3) then click Open. Click "Cancel" after completing loading the libraries.
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Figure 4.3 Loading the libraries in PSpice
Circuit components can be placed by going to the place part window (keyboard shortcut “p”)
and either scrolling down the list of components and selecting the desired component or by typing
a shortcut for the component (for example, type "r" for resistor).
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Figure 4.4 Placing circuit components (in this example placing a resistor).
Figure 4.5 Placing a DC source by using the keyboard shortcuts VDC.
Upon selecting your part, click OK and place it in the Schematic page. Table 4.1 below lists
keyboard shortcuts for some commonly used circuit components.
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Table 4.1 Keyboard shortcuts for commonly used circuit components.

Keyboard shortcut Component
R Resistor
C Capacitor
L Inductor
VAC AC voltage source
VDC DC voltage source
0 Ground or Zero reference voltage
D Diode
Once you have the parts in the Schematic page, you can build the circuit by connecting the
components using wires. You can rotate a part by highlighting the part and pressing "r" (or by
choosing “Edit” then “Rotate”). Flipping a part can be achieved by pressing "f" (or by choosing
“Edit” then “Flip”).
Figure 4.6 Sample circuit components placed in the schematic page.
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C. Connecting the Circuit:
Once all the parts are placed in the schematic page, connect the components using wires. This is
done by going to the tool bar on the right of the screen and selecting “Wire” (or by using the
keyboard shortcut “w”).
With the plus “+” looking pointer, click on one end of a component, when you move the mouse
around, a solid line appears. Attach the other end of the wire to the next component in the circuit
then right click and press END WIRE to get rid of the “+” looking pointer.
Figure 4.7 Connecting components using wires.
Repeat this process until your circuit is completely wired. An example is shown in Figure 4.8
below.
Figure 4.8 A circuit example.
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Creating Netlist: After the circuit is completely wired, a netlist must be created before
starting the simulation. To create a netlist, go to PSPICE  then click CREATE NETLIST.
D. Changing the Name/Value of a Circuit Part or Element:
You can change the label/value of a part by double clicking on the present label/value. For
example, double clicking on a resistor value results in the Display Properties window shown in
Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9 Display properties window.
E. Circuit Ground "GND" :
In PSpice, every circuit must have a ground before simulation can be performed. If you aren't
sure where to put the ground, place it near the negative side of your voltage source (if any) or
connect it to the bottom line of the circuit (with no voltage source). You can place a gound by
typing “0” in the place part window or by going to the menu and selecting Place  GND.
F. Voltage and Current Measurements:
Voltage and current markers are used to measure voltages and currents in a circuit. The voltage
marker measures the voltage with respect to ground. The current marker measures the current in
the branch where the current marker is placed.
To add a voltage or a current marker, from the tool bar go to PSPICE  Markers  Select
Voltage Level for Voltages and Current into Pin for currents.
Voltage Makers have to be placed on the nodes. Current Markers have to be placed at the
terminal of the component (beginning or end) as seen in Figure 4.10 below.
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Figure 4.10 Placement of voltage and current markers.
Enable voltage Enable current

Bias display Bias display
Figure 4.11 Enabling voltage and current display on a circuit.
Voltages and currents in a circuit can be displayed on the circuit itself by enabling voltage and
current bias display (see Figure 4.11).
G. Editing the Simulation Profile and Simulating the Circuit:

Before starting circuit simulation, go to PSPICE  click Edit Simulation Profile. This launches
the Simulation Settings window (see Figure 4.12).
Figure 4.12 Simulation setting window.

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On the Simulation Settings window, choose Time Domain (Transient) for Analysis type. (Note
that a different analysis type will be used when simulating an AC circuit), then set the Run to
time to 5 seconds (for example).
Before you run the simulation, make sure that:

• The circuit is properly drawn and has a ground.
• No unattached components are in the schematic page.
• All parts have desired values.
• There are no extra wires.
• The "Simulation Edit Profile" has the right settings provided by the instructor.
Starting Circuit Simulation:

To start simulation, go to PSPICE  RUN (or press F11 or click on the blue play button).
A sample output from the circuit of Figure 4.8 is shown in Figure 4.13.
Figure 4.13 Sample circuit simulation output.
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EXAMPLE 4.1
Draw the circuit shown in Figure 4.14.

R1 R2
5 12
V1 R4
30Vdc R3 5
8
0
Figure 4.14 Circuit for example 4.1.
• Create a Netlist.
• Choose Time domain (Transient) in the Edit Simulation Profile window.
• Place current and voltage markers as shown in Figure 4.15.
Figure 4.15 The circuit of Example 4.1 with voltage and current markers placed.
Start the simulation by pressing F11. The output of the simulation should be similar to that shown
in Figure 4.16.
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Figure 4.16 Sample output for Example 4.1.
Current Marker
Run
Voltage Marker
Display Currents
Display Voltages
Figure 4.17 Shortcuts for doing various operations in PSpice.
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EXERCISE 4.1 CIRCUIT SIMULATION USING PSPICE
1. Draw the circuit shown in Figure 4.18 below in PSpice.

2. Display voltages and currents on the circuit (see Figure 4.11 (b)). Include a copy of the
circuit with voltages and currents displayed in your lab report.
3. Use voltage markers to find the node voltages Va, Vb and Vc. Save the output graphs and
include them in your report.
4. Use current markers to find the branch currents in R1, R2, R3, R4, R5 and R7.
R4 R6
9k 12.5k
R2 R3 R7
Vb Vc
Va
7k 9k
11k
V3
V2 25Vdc
R1 100Vdc 13k
R5
5k
0
Figure 4.18 Circuit for Exercise 4.1.
In your report, calculate the node voltages and branch currents using node voltage analysis and
compare the theoretical results with those obtained using PSpice.
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Laboratory 5: DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS USING PSPICE

OBJECTIVES:
• To simulate/analyze DC circuits using PSpice.

• To use PSpice to find Thevenin/Norton equivalent circuits.
INTRODUCTION
In the previous lab, circuit simulation and analysis using PSpice was introduced. The
procedure for building and simulating circuits was covered and simulation/analysis of simple
circuits was performed. In this lab, PSpice will be used to simulate/analyze DC resistive
circuits to find currents and voltages in these circuits. Moreover, PSpice will be used to find
Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits.
Recall that the Thevenin/Norton equivalent circuits from two terminals in a circuit can be
found by calculating the short circuit current and the open circuit voltage. The short circuit
current is calculated by removing the load (if any) and connecting a short circuit (or a wire)
between the two terminals. A short circuit is equivalent to a zero resistance. In PSpice, a short
circuit can be achieved by placing a very small resistance between the two terminals (e.g.,
place a resistance R = 0.001µ Ω, in PSpice a mico is denoted by u). An open circuit is
equivalent to an infinite resistance. In PSpice, an open circuit can be achieved by placing a
very large resistance between the two terminals (e.g., R = 1000MEG Ω).
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Exercise 5.1
1. Draw the circuit shown in Figure 5.1 using PSpice. The DC current sources in this circuit
are independent current sources. Independent current sources can be placed by typing
IDC in the place part field.
2. Find the values of the node voltages Va, Vb, Vc and Vd. Include a copy of the circuit with
voltage values displayed on the circuit in your report.
3. Find the current through the resistors R2, R3, R4, R6 and R13. Include a copy of the circuit
with the requested currents displayed on the circuit.
4. Simulate the circuit and generate a graph that shows the values of the node voltages Va,
Vb, Vc and Vd. Generate another graph that shows the currents through the resistors R2,
R3, R4, R6 and R13. Include both graphs in your report.
Recall from the previous lab that before you can simulate a circuit using PSpice you need to:
• Create a Netlist.
• Edit the simulation profile and choose appropriate simulation settings.
• Make sure that the circuit has a ground.
V1 R2
25Vdc 2.5
R1 -10Adc I2
7.5
R3 R4 R6 V4 R13
Vc
Va Vd
6 10
5 10 30Vdc
R9 R10
2.5 5.5 R8
5
R5 R7
I1
Vb 11.25 20 V2
15Adc
13Vdc
R11 R12
3 2.5
Figure 5.2 The circuit for Exercise 5.1. The values of the resistors are in Ω.
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Exercise 5.2
Use PSpice to find the equivalent resistance for the circuit shown in Figure 5.3 from the terminals
a-b, i.e., find Rab.
a
3k 9k
6k 9k
12k
Rab 10k
6k
9k
b
3k 9k
Figure 5.3 The circuit for Exercise 5.2.
Describe the method used to calculate Rab. Include all simulation results. Does your method apply
to any circuit?
Hint: Apply a voltage source with a specified value VS between the terminals a-b and calculate
the current through the voltage source (call it IVS) using PSpice. The equivalent resistance is
VS/IVS .
Bonus (3 points) You get a bonus grade if you calculate the equivalent resistance from the
terminals a-b analytically. Show the details of your calculations in your report.
Exercise 5.3
Use PSpice to find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits seen from the terminals of the
load resistance RL.
1k 1k
3.2k
0.5k
V1 RL V2
10V 12V
4.7k
1.6k
Briefly describe your method for finding the Thevenin/Norton equivalent circuits.
Include the simulation results in your report and draw the Thevenin and Norton equivalent
circuits.
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Exercise 5.4
Use PSpice to find the value of Ix in the circuit shown in Figure 5.4. Note that the circuit has a
current controlled current source (CCCS) where the controlling variable is Ix. Simulate the circuit
and find the value of Ix. Figure 5.5 shows the circuit of Figure5.4 drawn in PSpice.
5
Ix
10Vdc V3 2.Ix
5
0
5
2Ix
Ix
10Vdc V3 F1
5
Figure 5.5 The circuit of Figure 5.4 drawn in PSpice.
Note: A dependent current source (CCCS) can be placed by typing F/Analog in the place part
field. The gain can be changed by double clicking on the part F1 in Figure 5.5 and setting the
gain to the desired value (in Exercise 5.4, the gain is 2).
F2
F
Figure 5.6 Symbol for current controlled current source in PSpice.
In your report, compare the value of Ix obtained using PSpice with the theoretical value for Ix.
Include a copy of the circuit with the current displayed on it.
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Laboratory 6: FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS: RC AND RL TRANSIENTS USING

PSPICE
OBJECTIVE
• To simulate/analyze first order circuits (RC and RL circuits) using PSpice and
understand the transient response of such circuits;
• To calculate the time constant of first order RC and RL circuits from the time
response.
INTRODUCTION
In this lab, PSpice will be used to simulate/analyze DC resistive circuits that contain one
capacitor (RC circuits) or one inductor (RL circuits). Such circuits are called first order
circuits. The term “first order” is used to describe a circuit with one capacitor or one inductor
because such circuits can be described using a first order differential equation. Capacitors and
inductors are the energy storage elements in a circuit. The circuits studied in this lab also
contain a switch. Examples of first order circuits are shown below in Figure 6.1. Changing
the topology of the circuit by opening or closing a switch causes a transient to occur. The
transient response typically dies away after a short period of time. PSpice will be used to
study the transient response of both RC and RL circuits.
C L
t=0 t=0
Vs R Vs R
(a) (b)
Figure 6.1 First order circuits; (a) an RC circuit and (b) an RL circuit.
An important parameter of first order circuits is the time constant denoted by τ. The time
constant of a first order circuit is the time interval it takes the response to reach 63% of the
steady state value. The response of a first order circuit reaches steady state in approximately
five time constants (5τ).
The time constant of an RC circuit is give by

τ = RC . (6.1)
The time constant of an RL circuit is give by
L
τ= . (6.2)
R
If a first order circuit contains more than one resistor, then R in Eq. (6.1) and Eq.(6.2) is the
Thevenin equivalent resistance seen from the terminals of the capacitor or the terminals of the
inductor in the circuit.
Denote by x(t) the voltage across the capacitor or the current through the inductor. It can be
shown that x(t) for a general RC or RL circuit takes the form
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x(t ) = x(∞) + [ x(0) − x(∞)]e − t /τ , t≥0
where x (0) is the initial voltage across the capacitor or the initial current through the
inductor and x (∞) is the steady state voltage across the capacitor or the steady state current
through the inductor.
EXERCISES
Exercise 6.1 RC Transients

Find the voltage across the capacitor Vc and the current IC as a function of time and plot them
using voltage/current probe for the circuit shown in Figure 6.2 below. Assume that the capacitor
has an initial voltage of 5 volts.
R1 1ms
1 2
U1
1k
R2
V1 1k
5Vdc C1 -5V
1uF
0
Figure 6.2 An RC circuit for Exercise 6.1.
1. First get the parts and draw the circuit in PSpice Schematics. (In the place part field type
"Sw_tclose" for the switch and "C" for the capacitor).
2. Edit the initial value of the capacitor by double clicking on the capacitor.
3. Change the initial condition IC to -5 V. It shows no value by default. (Note that the value of the
initial condition −5 V actually means 5 V, but in Pspice the polarity of the initial condition is
reversed).
4. Double click on the switch, edit the TCLOSE and change it to 1ms (it is all the way to right of
the screen).
5. Create Netlist.
6. Edit Simulation Profile, and choose Time Domain in the analysis type. Set Run to time to
6ms and check the box for SKIPBP.
7. Add a voltage probe (voltage marker) to the node Vc.
8. Simulate the circuit and save a copy of the graph of Vc to be included in your report.
9. Replace the voltage probe by a current probe to view the current through the capacitor, and save
a copy of the graph of Ic to be included in your report.
10. Now reduce the value of R2 by an order of magnitude (divide the value of R2 by 10) and re-
simulate the circuit again. Keep reducing the magnitude of R2 and simulate each time. What do
you observe? Explain?
11. Fix the value of R2 at 1 kΩ and reduce R1 by an order of magnitude (divide the value of R1 by
10) and re-simulate the circuit again. Keep reducing the magnitude of R1 and simulate each time.
What do you observe? Include copies of the Vc and Ic for R1 = 1 kΩ, 100 Ω and 10 Ω.
Include in your report a copy of the circuit and the graphs of the voltage Vc and Ic versus time for the
following values of R1 and R2: (R1,R2) = (1000 Ω, 1000 Ω), (1000 Ω, 100 Ω) and (100 Ω, 1000 Ω), and
comment on the graphs. Calculate the steady state capacitor voltage and current for these values of R1,
R2 and compare your calculations with the results of PSpice.
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Exercise 6.2 RL Transients
Find the current in the inductor and the voltage across the inductor as a function of time and plot
them using probe for the circuit shown in Figure 6.3 below. Assume that the initial current in the
inductor is zero.
40ms
1 2
U1
R1 R2
1k 100
2
R3
V1 50 L1
10Vdc 1H
0
Figure 6.3 An RL circuit for Exercise 6.2.
1. Draw the circuit shown in Figure 6.3 in PSpice Schematics (to place an inductor, type
L in the place part field).
2. Create Netlist.
3. Edit Simulation Profile, and choose Time Domain in the analysis type. Set Run to
time to 200ms and check the box for SKIPBP.
4. Double click on the switch and change the value of TCLOSE to 40 ms.
5. Add a current probe on the inductor branch to measure the current through the
inductor in the simulation graph. Save a copy of the output for your report.
6. Replace the current probe by a voltage probe and repeat the simulation to view the
voltage across the inductor. Save a copy of the output for your report.
7. Repeat Steps (5) and (6) for R3 = 100 Ω.
Include in your report a copy of the circuit and the graphs of the voltage IL and VL as a function
of time and comment on the graphs.
Calculate the steady state inductor current and voltage and compare your calculations with the
results of PSpice.
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Exercise 6.3 Time Constant for RC and RL Circuits
Determine the time constant for the circuits shown in Figure 6.4.
TCLOSE = 0 R1 TCLOSE = 0 R1
1 2
1 2
10k
10k
2
V1 V1 L1
5Vdc C1
R2 5Vdc
0.5u R2 12H
15k 15k
1
0 0
(a) (b)
Figure 6.4 Circuits for Exercise 6.3.
The initial voltage across the capacitor in the circuit shown in Figure 6.4 (a) is zero. Simulate each
circuit in PSpice and find the time constant from the response (capacitor voltage and inductor current).
In your report, include graphs of the capacitor voltage and the inductor current and indicate the time
constant on the graph. Compare the values for the time constant obtained from PSpice with the
theoretical values.
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Laboratory 7: RC CIRCUITS TRANSIENT RESPONSE
OBJECTIVES
To illustrate circuits with resistors and one capacitor (such circuits are called RC circuits).
To illustrate charging and discharging of the capacitor in RC circuits.
To measure the time constant τ of an RC circuit using the oscilloscope.
INSTRUMENTS NEEDED
Power Supply (PS)
Function Generator (FG)
Digital Multimeter (DMM)
Oscilloscope
PARTS NEEDED
Solderless Breadboard
Switch
16 KΩ, 270 KΩ, and 1 MΩ Resistors
1 μF, and 10 μF Capacitors
RC CIRCUITS
A circuit with resistors and (voltage and/or current) sources connected to a single
capacitor can be represented as a single voltage source connected in series with a
resistor and the capacitor using Thevenin’s Theorem.
EXERCISE 7.1: CHARGING OF A CAPACITOR USING A DC SOURCE
Step 1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 7.1. Use the single-pole, double-throw
switch provided and set the switch to position 2 as in Figure 7.1. Use a resistor R = 1
MΩ and a capacitor C = 10 μF. Note the polarity on the capacitor and make sure you
connect the capacitor in the circuit with the correct polarity. Make sure that the
capacitor has no initial charge (before connecting the capacitor to the circuit, discharge
it by connecting a small resistor between its terminals for a few seconds).
Step 2. Set the output voltage of the power supply (PS) to 5 V.
1
R
2
C + Voltmeter
5V
PS vC
−
Figure 7.1 An RC circuit for exercise 7.1.

Step 3. Set the switch to position 1 (use this time instant as t=0), and use a voltmeter
and a stop watch to record the capacitor voltage, vC, versus time, t (in s) for several
values of t. (If you make a mistake, you need to start over after you discharge the
capacitor completely).
Is the steady state value of the voltage across the capacitor as you expect it to be?
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Plot the capacitor voltage as a function of time. Does the graph agree with the theory?
In terms of the time constant of the circuit, how long does it take the capacitor to reach
steady state?
In your report, calculate vC(t) analytically and compare your measurements to the
theoretical results. Also, include answers to all the questions posed above.
EXERCISE 7.2: DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR THROUGH A RESISTOR
In this part, discharging the capacitor through a resistor is studied. You will use the
same circuit as in exercise 7.1. Keep the circuit connected as in Exercise 7.1 with the
switch at position 1.
Step 4. Set the switch to position 2 and observe the discharging of the capacitor.
Consider the time instant of setting the switch to position 2 as t = 0. Record the
capacitor voltage, vC, versus time, t for several values of t.
Plot the voltage across the capacitor as a function of time and calculate the time
constant of the circuit using the discharge plot (the time constant is the time it takes
the voltage to decrease to 0.37 of its initial value). Does this value agree with the
theoretical value τ = RC? Justify your answer.
EXERCISE 7.3: OBSERVING THE RC TRANSIENT USING A SCOPE
Step 5: Use R = 270 KΩ and C = 1 μF. The time constant for this circuit is much
smaller than the one in Exercise 7.1 and Exercise 7.2. The DMM is not going to be
useful to measure the voltage across the capacitor as a function of time since the
capacitor voltage is changing quickly. Instead, the oscilloscope will be used to view
the response of the capacitor and to perform measurements. Monitor the PS output on
the scope on channel 1 and the voltage across the capacitor on channel 2. Use the same
scale (Volts/Div) for both channels. Set the input coupling of the scope to DC and
triggering to AUTO. Use an appropriate setting for the sweep rate so that you can see a
few cycles on the screen.
Step 6. Observe the capacitor voltage on the scope. Set the switch to position 2 and
observe the capacitor voltage. Sketch the waveforms in your lab notebook and include
copies in your report.
Step 7. Replace the resistor in the circuit with a smaller value (16 KΩ) and set the
switch at position 1. Use an appropriate setting for the sweep rate on the scope for
convenient observation.
Step 8. Think of the voltage waveform produced between points A and B when you
throw the switch back and forth. What is its shape?
Include sketches of the capacitor voltage in your lab notebook to be included in your
report. Comment on the graphs and briefly explain the graphs based on the circuit.
EXERCISE 7.4: THE RC CIRCUIT WITH PERIODIC EXCITATION
In this part an AC source (a square wave signal) instead of a DC source will be used to
power the circuit.
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For each period, the square wave takes two values, -Vmax and +Vmax. Therefore,
using a square wave generator is similar to having a DC supply voltage with value
Vmax and manually switching between position 1 and 2 (as was done in Part III) in
the circuit of Figure 7.1 every T/2 seconds where T is the period of the square wave.
Step 9: Replace the DC power supply in the circuit of Figure 7.1 with a function
generator and set the output of the function generator to square wave. Use R = 270 KΩ
and C = 1 μF. Set the switch to position 1 and keep it there for the remainder of this
part (your circuit should be similar to the circuit shown in Figure 7.2). Set the
amplitude of the square wave to 5 V and the frequency to 1 Hz. Monitor the function
generator output on the scope on channel 1 and the voltage across the capacitor on
channel 2 of the scope. Be careful with the ground connections.
Set the scope’s trigger to channel 1 and the triggering slope to positive.
R
+ vR −
Connect to + Connect to
C +
channel 1 − Vgen channel 2
vC
on scope on scope
−
Figure 7.2 The circuit of Figure 7.1 with a function generator as voltage source and
the switch is at position 1.
Step 10. Replace the resistor in the circuit with a smaller value (16 KΩ) and observe
the capacitor voltage on the scope. Use an appropriate setting for the sweep rate on the
scope for convenient observation.
Step 11. Use the scope display to determine the time constant, and compare it to the
value you expect.
Can you predict what the waveform of the voltage VR across the resistor should look
like?
MEASURING A FLOATING VOLTAGE WITH THE SCOPE

To measure the voltage across the resistor using the scope, you cannot connect a
probe’s input across the resistor because none of the two ends of the resistor is
connected to the ground. If you did so, where would the ground clip of the probe be
attached? Voltages like VR, defined across two terminals, neither of which is
grounded, are sometimes referred to as floating voltages.
Step 12. To display VR, notice that VR = Vgen – VC (using Kirchhoff’s voltage law)
where Vgen is the function generator voltage. Use the math menu on the scope to set
the scope to display difference between channel 1 and channel 2 (i.e., channel 1 −
channel 2). Observe the waveform for VR and compare it to your prediction in step 11.
Include sketches of the voltage across the resistor in your lab notebook to be included
in your report. Comment on the graphs and briefly explain the graphs based on the
circuit.
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Laboratory 8: RLC CIRCUITS: SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS,

PHASOR ANALYSIS, AND RESONACE
OBJECTIVE
• To simulate/analyze second order circuits (RLC circuits) with sinusoidal excitation
and study the circuit response as a function of frequency using PSpice.
• To become familiar with the concept of resonance in second order circuits.
INTRODUCTION
In this lab, PSpice will be used to simulate/analyze second order circuits with sinusoidal
sources. The circuit response will be studied as a function of the source frequency. Steady
state analysis of circuits with sinusoidal excitation is greatly simplified using phasors and
complex impedances. You will use PSpice to analyze two second order circuits.
Complex Impedance, Generalized Ohm’s Law and Phasors:

Phasor analysis is used for steady state AC analysis. A phasor is a complex number
representation of sinusoidal currents and voltages in a circuit. In AC steady state
analysis, capacitors and inductors are replaced with their complex impedances (see
Table 8.1 below).
Table 8.1 R, L, C and their equivalent impedances for AC steady state analysis.
Circuit Element R C L
1 −j
ZR = R =ZC = Z L = j 2π fL
Impedance j 2π fC 2π fC
Note that the impedance of a capacitor and an inductor is a function of frequency

whereas the resistance is not a function of frequency.
The generalized Ohm’s law can be applied to circuit elements represented with their
equivalent impedances in AC steady state analysis. The generalized Ohm’s law is
stated as
V = ZI ,
where
Z = the impedance of the element (refer to Table 8.1),
V = the voltage across the element represented as a phasor, and
I = the current through the element represented as a phaosr.
Once the circuit elements are represented by their equivalent impedances and the
sources are represented using phasors; KVL, KCL, mesh current analysis, node
voltage analysis, Thevenin and Norton Theorems can be used to solve for phasor
currents and phasor voltages in the circuit.
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Resonance
Resonance is a phenomenon that occurs in a variety of engineering systems (e.g.,
mechanical and electrical systems). A system is said to be at resonance if the system
tends to oscillate at a high oscillations when excited close to or exactly at the
system’s natural frequency. A second order circuit is said to be at resonance if the
equivalent impedance for the circuit is resistive, i.e., the impedance is real. For
example, a series RLC circuit has equivalent impedance given by
j  1 
Z eq =Z R + Z L + Z C = R + j 2π fL - =R + j  2π fL - .
2π fC  2π fC 
At resonance, the equivalent impedance for the circuit is resistive, i.e., Zeq = R. This
1
implies that the imaginary part of Zeq is zero, i.e., 2π fL = . This occurs when the
2π fC
1
source frequency is equal to the resonant frequency for the circuit, i.e. f 0 = [Hz].
2π LC
It can be easily shown that the resonant frequency for a parallel RLC circuit is also given
1
by f 0 = [Hz].
2π LC
EXERCISE 8.1 A SERIES RLC CIRCUIT
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 8.1 below. Use PSpice to study the circuit
response (voltage and current) as a function of frequency.
1. Draw the circuit of Figure 8.1 in PSpice and set the amplitude of the input source
to 50V (an AC voltage source can be placed by typing VAC in the place part
field).
2. Create a Simulation Profile. In the Simulation Settings window (From PSpice
menu/Edit Simulation Profile), select AC Sweep/Noise.
3. Enter the start and end frequencies and the number of points per decade. Use 100 Hz,
10 GHz and 10, respectively.
4. Plot the magnitude of the phasor current as a function of frequency (go to PSpice,
choose Markers/Advanced then “dB Magnitude of current”). Run the simulation and
save the figure.
5. Plot the phase of the phasor current as a function of frequency (go to PSpice, choose
Markers/Advanced then “Phase of Current”). Run the simulation and save the figure.
6. Plot the magnitude of the phasor voltage across the inductor as a function of
frequency (go to PSpice, choose Markers/Advanced then “dB Magnitude of
voltage”). Run the simulation and save the figure.
7. Plot the phase of the phasor voltage across the inductor as a function of frequency
(go to PSpice, choose Markers/Advanced then “Phase of voltage”). Run the
simulation and save the figure.
In your report, include the magnitude and phase plots for the circuit current and the
inductor voltage. Calculate analytically the circuit current, I, and the inductor voltage, VL,
using phasors and plot the magnitude and phase plots of I and VL. Compare your
analytical results with the simulation results obtained using PSpice for the frequency
range 100 Hz − 10 GHz.
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Determine the resonant frequency (f0) for this circuit both analytically and from the
simulations. Are the two values in agreement? Explain.
Figure 8.1 Circuit for Exercise 8.1 (R = 1 kΩ, C=1 nF, and L = 10 µH).
EXERCISE 8.2
Use PSpice to draw and simulate the circuit shown in Figure 8.2. The voltage source and
the current source can be placed using VAC and IAC, respectively, from the place menu.
1. Plot the magnitude and phase of the phasor current through R2 as a function of
frequency over the range 1 Hz to 10 MHz and number of points 100.
2. Plot the magnitude and phase of the phasor voltage across L and as a function of
frequency over the range 1 Hz to 10 MHz and number of points 100.
Include a discussion on the results in your report.

R1 C1
1k 1u
L1 R2 I1
V1 1H 1k 100Aac
50Vac 0Adc
0Vdc
Figure 8.2 Circuit for Exercise 8.2 (R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ, C =1 µF, and L = 1 H.).
Note: The dB magnitude plot of a certain variable, say I(f), as a function of frequency is
the plot of 20 log10 I (f ) versus frequency.
Reference
Chapter 5 and Chapter 6 of text book, Electrical Engineering, Principles and
Applications, by Allan R. Hambley (any edition).
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Laboratory 9: DIODES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
OBJECTIVES
To illustrate the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of diodes.
To illustrate applications of diodes in rectifier circuits and in wave-shaping circuits.
INSTRUMENTS NEEDED
Power Supply (PS)
Oscilloscope
PARTS NEEDED
Solderless Breadboard
1 KΩ, 10 KΩ Resistors
1 μF, 10 μF Capacitors
Diode IN4007
BACKGROUND
A diode is a two terminal device that passes current in one direction only (analogous to
valves in mechanical systems). The symbol for a diode is shown in Figure 9.1 (a). The
current-voltage characteristics for a typical diode is shown in Figure 9.1 (b). If the
voltage across the diode (VD) is greater than a threshold voltage (VT), the diode
conducts and the current increases exponentially as a function of voltage. If on the
other hand, VD < 0, then no current passes through the diode. In such a biasing
scenario, the diode is reverse biased. The threshold voltage VT is approximately 0.7 V
for Silicon diodes.
Figure 9.1 Diode symbol and v-i characteristics.
A simple diode circuit is shown in Figure 9.2 (a). If vs> VT then the diode conducts and
current flows in the circuit. Kirchhoff’s voltage law applied to this circuit gives
vS = vD + v,
or v = vS - vD= vS – vT.
If vS is sinusoidal, then the diode conducts only in the positive half-cycle when vS > vT. In
the negative half cycle, the diode blocks the current and the voltage across R is zero (see
Figure 9.2 (b)).
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(a) A simple diode circuit.
(b) Resistor voltage when the source voltage is sinusoidal (vs=Vp sin(ωt))
Figure 9.2
EXERCISE 9.1 DETERMINING THE CURRENT-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF DIODES

1. Set up the circuit shown in Figure 9.3. Use R = 1 kΩ.
2. Vary the voltage of the power supply between -3 V and 5 V in steps of 0.5 V.
For each value of vs, measure iD and vD. Plot iD versus vD, (this is called the
current-voltage characteristics of the diode). Does the slope ∆i D /∆vD increase
or decrease as the current through the diode increases? Does this agree with the
theory?
3. For values of vs > vT , how is vD related to the power supply voltage? Explain?
iD +
vS vD
In your report, in addition to answering the questions posed above, plot the diode current
versus diode voltage and compare the resulting plot with the theoretical current voltage
characteristic of a typical diode.
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APPLICATIONS OF DIODES
EXERCISE 9.2 RECTIFIER CIRCUITS

4. Set up the circuit shown in Figure 9.4. Use a function generator (FG) and set
the output of the FG to sinusoidal with peak value 5 V and frequency 1000 Hz.
Use R = 1 KΩ.
iD + vD -
vs + R vR
-
5. Use the oscilloscope to view both the output of the function generator (on
Channel 1) and the voltage across the resistor vR (on Channel 2). Use DC
coupling for both channels and set the time/div control to an appropriate value
so that you can view a few cycles on the screen. (Pay attention to the ground
connections)
6. Draw the waveform vR. What is the peak value of vR?
In your report, include a sketch of the voltage across the resistor and the voltage
across the diode and compare these voltages with the supply voltage.
AC TO DC CONVERTERS
7. Setup the circuit shown on Figure 9.5. Use a function generator and set the
output of the FG to sinusoidal with peak value 5 V and frequency 1000 Hz.
Use R=10 kΩ , C=1 μF, and a diode.
8. Use the oscilloscope to view both the output of the function generator (on
Channel 1) and the voltage across the resistor v (on Channel 2). Use DC
coupling for both channels and set the time/div control to an appropriate value
so that you can view a few cycles on the screen.
9. What is the average value of the waveform v?
10. What is the ripple (variation) of the waveform v in volts? What is the ripple as
a percentage of the average value found in step 8?
11. Replace the 1 μF capacitor with a 10 μF capacitor and repeat steps 9 and 10.
What is the effect of the capacitor value on the ripple. Explain qualitatively.
Include answers to the questions posed in steps 9 through 11 in your report.
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+ vD -
+
vs + C R v
-
-
Figure 9.5 AC to DC conversion circuit.
VOLTAGE LIMITERS
12. Setup the circuit shown in Figure 9.6. Use R=10 kΩ and both the function
generator (for vin) and the power supply (for vDC). Keep both the power supply
and the function generator off.
13. Use the oscilloscope to view both the output of the function generator vin (on
Channel 1) and the output voltage vout (on Channel 2).
14. Set the power supply output to 2 V and the output of the function generator to
sinusoidal with peak value 5 V and frequency 1000 Hz. Use DC coupling for
both channels of the scope and set the time/div control to an appropriate value
so that you can view a few cycles on the screen.
15. Change the output of the power supply to 3 V and observe both vin and vout.
16. How is vout related to vin. Explain.
17. (17 & 18 are optional, bonus 3 pts) Design a circuit that limits the voltage in
both the negative and positive half cycles. (Hint: the circuit should be a
variation of the one shown in Figure 6).
18. Build the circuit and test it. Include a sketch of the circuit and a sketch of the
circuit output in your report.
R
+
+
vD
- vout
vin +
+
-
vDC
-
-
Figure 9.6 A Voltage limiter circuit.
Include your observations/sketches and answers to the questions in your report.
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Laboratory 10: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

OBJECTIVES
• To build and analyze an inverting amplifier circuit using an operational
amplifier (op-amp).
• To learn the basics of operational amplifier circuits and how the gain of an
amplifier changes with frequency.
INSTRUMENTS NEEDED
Power Supply (PS)
Oscilloscope
PARTS NEEDED
Solderless breadboard
1 kΩ, 10 kΩ Resistors
741- operational amplifier
DESCRIPTION
Amplifiers are used to increase the magnitude (amplify) a voltage signal. Typically,
the output signal of an ideal amplifier is a scaled up version of the input signal. In
this lab, students will build an inverting amplifier circuit based on the schematic
shown in Figure 10.1. It is straightforward to show that the input-output relationship
R 
for the inverting amplifier is given by V out = −  2 V in . This amplifier is called an
 R1 
inverting amplifier because the amplifier gain is negative. A 741 op-amp and
resistors will be provided in addition to a breadboard and wire for circuit
construction. A picture of a 741 op-amp is given in Figure 10.2. Pin layouts for the
741 op-amp are provided in Figure 10.3.
R2
R1
−
+
+ +
Vin
Vout
− −
Figure 10.1 An inverting amplifier circuit.
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Figure 10.2 A picture of a 741 op-amp.
Figure 10.3 The 741 op-amp pin layout.
EXERCISE 10.1: INVERTING AMPLIFIER
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
1. Make sure that the function generator, DC power supply and the oscilloscope
are turned off. Turn the amplitude knobs on the function generator and DC
power supply counterclockwise to zero.
2. Build the inverting amplifier circuit shown in Figure 10.1 on the provided
breadboard using the two resistors (R1 = 1 kΩ and R2 = 10 kΩ) and wire
provided by the lab instructor.
3. Set the output voltages on the DC power supply to +5 V and −5 V. Check the
output voltages with a multimeter and/or oscilloscope before applying any
power to the amplifier circuit. Ask the lab instructor for assistance to check
the power supply readings and inverting amplifier circuit before continuing.
4. With the power off, connect the DC power supply to the op-amp power
terminals (connect the +5 V to the +V pin and the −5 V to −V pin, refer to
Figure 10.3). Set the function generator to output a 100 Hz sine wave.
Connect the function generator, while it is off, to the inverting input of the op-
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_________________________________________________________________________________________________
amp and connect the non-inverting input to the ground. Finally, connect the
oscilloscope to monitor the function generator and inverting amplifier output
signals.
5. Turn on the power for the oscilloscope and then the DC power supply. Next,
turn on the function generator.
6. Slowly increase the function generator sine wave voltage from a minimal
value until the output of the inverting amplifier begins to clip or saturate.
Record the Vout peak-to-peak and Vin peak-to-peak values over this range of
voltage with increments of 0.1 V for Vin peak-to-peak and record the phase
difference between Vout and Vin. Include this data in your report.
7. Sketch Vin and Vout versus time for 3 different Vin peak-to-peak settings.
Include these plots in your report.
8. Estimate the amplification factor (Vout/Vin) for the 0.4 Vin peak-to-peak and
frequency 100 Hz. Compare the experimental based amplification factors to
the theoretical amplification factor ( R2 R1 ). Include these comparisons in
your report.
9. Set the function generator to output a 1000 Hz sine wave and 0.4 V peak-to-
peak. Calculate the gain. Vary the frequency of the output of the function
generator to 10 kHz, 20 kHz, 50 kHz and calculate the gain each time. Plot
the gain as a function of frequency. How does the gain vary as a function of
frequency?
Include your observations, sketches and answers to the questions posed above in
your report.
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APPENDIX A. REPORT WRITING
Report writing is an important skill that engineers need to master. As an engineer, you
need to communicate your results using technical reports. In ENME 350/351 labs, upon
the completion of an experiment, each member of the lab group should submit an
individual report. The purpose of the report is to document the results of the experiment.
The lab report should be concise, neat, and complete. Although hand written reports are
accepted, typed reports are preferred. You are strongly encouraged to use a word
processor software for writing text and graphing software such as Excel or Matlab for
producing graphs. When writing the report, be clear and concise and use complete
sentences. Write as though the person reading your lab report is familiar with engineering
principles but is not familiar with the particular experiment that you have performed.
Check the course website on Blackboard for the times that the Teaching Assistants will
be available for consultation (office hours). Consider taking your preliminary (not draft)
report to your TA for comments.
Also, make sure that you collect names and e-mail addresses of all your partners before
you leave the lab. Each partner should have a copy of the saved data (i.e., don’t depend
on getting the data from your partners later).
WHAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THE REPORT
A full technical report includes all of the following sections shown below. For Spring
2011 semester we are trying to cut down on the amount of work required to prepare a
report. For Spring 2011 the report should only include sections; (1) title page, (5) Data
and Observations, (6) Analysis, (7) Summary & Conclusion, and (9) Appendix – if any.
The goal is to make the report 3-5 pages in length (including tables and figures –
assuming the tables and figures are not full page in size). Some experiments may require
a longer report to answer all questions posed in the experiment. Note, all figures and
tables should be described. It is NOT proper to just say the results are shown in figure x.
State specifically what is shown in a figure or table.
(1) Title page

(a) Title of experiment
(b) Your name and names of partners
(c) Course number and section number
(d) Date of experiment (This is the date when the experiment was performed)
(2) Objective(s)
Briefly summarize the objective(s) of the experiment. Use your own description; do
not copy from the lab manual.
Items (1) should be on the first page (title page). See page 3 for a sample title page. The
second page should start with item (2).
(3) Instruments used
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(4) Description of experiment and experimental setup
In this section, briefly describe the experiment and the experimental setup. Do not
include step-by-step description as in the lab manual. Use sketches/diagrams to
demonstrate the experimental setup.
(5) Data and observations
Tables and graphs should be used for data presentation and should be included inline
with the text of the report. All tables and graphs must be numbered and cited in the
text. A short discussion on each graph should be included. Clearly label the tables and
the graphs using a title for each. For graphs, the x and y axes on each graph should be
clearly labeled with the variables including the units used (e.g., time [s]). Similarly,
for tables, each column should have a header with the variable and units (e.g.,
acceleration [m/s2]) (see Table 1 for an example).
Table A.1 Load versus voltage for the half bridge circuit (given here as an example)
Load [kg] Voltage [mV]
0.2 1.5
0.5 3.2
1.0 6.5
1.5 9.1
(6) Analysis and discussion
Compare your results with theoretical results (if any) and discuss possible sources of
errors and discrepancies. Make sure to address any questions that are presented in the
lab manual. Also, briefly comment on every figure you include in the report.
(7) Summary/conclusion
Summarize the main results of the experiment and write your conclusions.
(8) Literature cited.

Include a list of all resources used (books, papers, and websites).
(9) Appendices (if any)
Details that would make the report very long should be included as an appendix and
should be cited in the text.
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Sample report.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
Laboratory #
Write the Title of the Experiment Here
Your name
Names of partners
ENME 35x Section 010x
Date: Day MM/DD/YYYY

(This is the date when the experiment was performed)
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SAMPLE REPORT: VERIFICATION OF OHM’S LAW
Objectives
The objectives of this experiment are to learn how voltages and currents are measured in direct
current (DC) circuits using a multimeter, to determine the voltage-current (v-i) characteristics of
a resistor from voltage and current measurements, and to verify Ohm’s law.
Instruments Used
• Power supply (PS)
• Digital Multimeter (DMM)
Parts Used
• A resistor (20 k Ω)
• Wires
Experimental Setup and Procedure

The schematic of the circuit used in this experiment is shown in Figure A.1. A resistor R with
value 20 kΩ is used in this experiment. However, the actual measured value of the resistor is
19.89 kΩ. Electric current in a branch in the circuit is measured by connecting the DMM in
series with the branch whereas the voltage across an element is measured by connecting the
DMM in parallel with the element.
The source voltage VS is varied between −5 V and 5 V in steps of 1 V and the current through the
resistor, denoted by IR, and the voltage across the resistor, denoted by VR, are measured for each
value of VS. The data collected is shown in Table 2 below.
IR +
+
Vs −
VR R
−
Figure A.1 The circuit used to verify Ohm’s law
Table A.2 Resistor voltage and current for different values of source voltage.
Source Voltage [V] Resistor Voltage [V] Current [mA]
-5.07 -5.05 -0.25
-3.99 -3.98 -0.20
-3.08 -3.08 -0.15
-1.95 -1.95 -0.10
-0.92 -0.92 -0.05
0.00 0.00 0.00
1.02 1.02 0.05
2.07 2.05 0.10
3.01 3.01 0.15
3.94 3.94 0.20
5.02 5.01 0.25
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Analysis and Discussion
The voltage across the resistor is plotted against the current. The resulting plot is shown in
Figure A.2. A trend line is fit to the data points and has the equation VR = 19.89 I R , where VR is
the voltage across the resistor and IR is the current through it.
Votage vs Current
6.00
V = 19.89i
4.00
2.00
Voltage (V)
0.00
-0.30 -0.20 -0.10 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30
-2.00
-4.00
-6.00
Current (mA)
Figure A.2 The v-i characteristic for a resistor.
This simple exercise verifies Ohm’s law by demonstrating the linear relationship between the
resistor voltage and current. The measured resistance is equal to the slope of the data points as
expected from Ohm’s law:
VR = 19.89 I R .
Conclusion
In this experiment, the way voltage and current are measured in DC circuits using a DMM were
demonstrated. Ohm’s law was verified through the plot of the voltage-current (v-i) characteristic
of a resistor. The v-i characteristic for a resistor was obtained by measuring the voltage across
the resistor and current through it for several source voltages. The v-i characteristic plot of a
resistor obtained in this experiment was linear with the slope of the graph equal to the resistor
value R which is in agreement with Ohm’s law.
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APPENDIX B. SOLDERLESS BREADBOARDS
A solderless breadboard (also called plugboard) is used to facilitate building simple

circuits without the need to solder components. It is typically used to build temporary
circuits. The breadboard is ideal for use in educational settings where students can
experiment with building various circuits and have the flexibility of modifying the
circuit. Another advantage of using breadboards is that circuits built on the breadboard
can be easily stripped and the circuit components can be reused to build other circuits.
Figure A2.1 shows a schematic of the breadboard used in the lab. The way the holes are
connected internally is demonstrated on the schematic. For example, to make a node with
5 branches or less, you can use the vertical holes A-E or F-J. To make a node with more
than 5 branches, one needs to use the horizontal holes along one of the horizontal line W,
X, Y or Z.
Figure B.1 A schematic of the breadboard used in the laboratory showing how the holes are
connected internally.
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ENME 350 Electronics and Instrumentation I Lab Manual (draft - Jan 14, 2011)

Electronics and Instrumentation I

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Lab no. Title Page no.

Time-Varying Signals: Generation and Measurement

Laboratory 2 Voltage and Current Measurement and Verification of 7

Laboratory 3 Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit, Mesh Analysis, and 12

Laboratory 4 Introduction to PSpice 16

Laboratory 5 DC Circuit Analysis Using PSpice 28

Laboratory 6 First Order Circuits: RC and RL Transients Using PSpice 32

Laboratory 7 RC Circuits Transient Response 36

Laboratory 8 RLC Circuits: Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis, Phasor 39

Laboratory 9 Diodes and Their Applications 42

Laboratory 10 Operational Amplifiers 46

Appendix A Report Writing 49

Appendix B Solderless Breadboards Schematic 54

Laboratory 1: TIME-VARYING SIGNALS: GENERATION AND

GENERATING AND OBSERVING SIGNALS

Step 1: Turn on the oscilloscope. Only channel 1 will be used.

Scope settings (channel 1):

Vertical Mode Horizontal Mode

DC VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT USING THE SCOPE

TESTING CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS

Figure 2.1 A schematic of a switch.

Figure 2.2 Voltage measurement.

Close the switch and record the measurement of i1.

MEASURING RESISTANCE AND CALCULATING V-I CHARACTERISTICS

A SERIES RESISTIVE CIRCUIT

A PARALLEL RESISTIVE CIRCUIT

Figure 2.4 A Series circuit. Figure 2.5 A Parallel circuit.

SERIES AND PARALLEL RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

Figure 2.6 A Voltage divider circuit.

The total resistance of the potentiometer is the resistance 3

Laboratory 3: THEVENIN’S EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT, MESH ANALYSIS, AND MAXIMUM

A linear circuit. Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

Impedance Matching or Maximum Power Transfer

V1 + R4 R5 RL1 RL2 RL3 RL4 RL5

Figure 3.5 The circuit used in the experiment.

Include in your report:

Laboratory 4: INTRODUCTION TO PSPICE

• To become familiar with the circuit simulation software PSpice.

Figure 4.1 (a)

Figure 4.1 (b) Starting PSpice.

Figure 4.2 Starting a new project in PSpice.

II. Drawing the circuit

A. Getting the Parts

Figure 4.3 Loading the libraries in PSpice

Figure 4.5 Placing a DC source by using the keyboard shortcuts VDC.

Table 4.1 Keyboard shortcuts for commonly used circuit components.

Figure 4.6 Sample circuit components placed in the schematic page.

Figure 4.7 Connecting components using wires.

Figure 4.8 A circuit example.

D. Changing the Name/Value of a Circuit Part or Element:

Figure 4.9 Display properties window.

E. Circuit Ground "GND" :

F. Voltage and Current Measurements:

Figure 4.10 Placement of voltage and current markers.

Enable voltage Enable current

Figure 4.11 Enabling voltage and current display on a circuit.

G. Editing the Simulation Profile and Simulating the Circuit:

Figure 4.12 Simulation setting window.

Before you run the simulation, make sure that: