DATABASE SYSTEM

A database system is a computer based record keeping System whose overall purpose is to record and maintain
information that is relevant to the organization necessary for making decisions.

With the growth of the database, these systems are used in various applications of real world such as

• Banking System and ATM's machines.

• Stock Trading Systems.

• Flight Reservation Systems.

• Computerized Library Systems.

• Super Market Product Inventory System.

• Credit Card/Credit Limit Check System.

Database can range from those of a single user with a desktop computer to those on mainframe computers
with thousands of users.

COMPONENTS OF DATABASE SYSTEM

A database system is composed of four components;

• Data

• Hardware

• Software

• Users

which coordinate with each other to form an effective database system.

Fig. 1.1 Data Base System

1. Data - It is a very important component of the database system. Most of the organizations generate, store and
process 1arge amount of data. The data acts a bridge between the machine parts i.e. hardware and software and the
users which directly access it or access it through some application programs.
Data may be of different types.

• User Data - It consists of a table(s) of data called Relation(s) where Column(s) are called fields of attributes and rows
are called Records for tables. A Relation must be structured properly.

• Metadata - A description of the structure of the database is known as Metadata. It basically means "data about data".
System Tables store the Metadata which includes.

- Number of Tables and Table Names

- Number of fields and field Names

- Primary Key Fields

• Application Metadata - It stores the structure and format of Queries, reports and other applications components. '

2. Hardware - The hardware consists of the secondary storage devices such as magnetic disks (hard disk, zip disk,
floppy disks), optical disks (CD-ROM), magnetic tapes etc. on which data is stored together with the Input/Output
devices (mouse, keyboard, printers), processors, main memory etc. which are used for storing and retrieving the data in
a fast and efficient manner. Since database can range from those of a single user with a desktop computer to those on
mainframe computers with thousand of users, therefore proper care should be taken for choosing appropriate hardware
devices for a required database.

3. Software - The Software part consists of DBMS which acts as a bridge between the user and the database or in other
words, software that interacts with the users, application programs, and database and files system of a particular storage
media (hard disk, magnetic tapes etc.) to insert, update, delete and retrieve data. For performing these operations such
as insertion, deletion and updation we can either use the Query Languages like SQL, QUEL, Gupta SQL or application
softwares such as Visual 3asic, Developer etc.

4. Users - Users are those persons who need the information from the database to carry out their primary business
responsibilities i.e. Personnel, Staff, Clerical, Managers, Executives etc. On the basis of the job and requirements made
by them they are provided access to the database totally or partially.

DBMS Functions'

There are several functions that a DBMS performs to ensure data integrity and
consistency of data in the database. The ten functions in the DBMS are: data dictionary
management, data storage management, data transformation and presentation, security
management, multiuser access control, backup and recovery management, data integrity
management, database access languages and application programming interfaces,
database communication interfaces, and transaction management.
1. Data Dictionary Management

Data Dictionary is where the DBMS stores definitions of the data elements and
their relationships (metadata). The DBMS uses this function to look up the required data
component structures and relationships. When programs access data in a database they
are basically going through the DBMS. This function removes structural and data
dependency and provides the user with data abstraction. In turn, this makes things a lot
easier on the end user. The Data Dictionary is often hidden from the user and is used by
Database Administrators and Programmers.

2. Data Storage Management

This particular function is used for the storage of data and any related data
entry forms or screen definitions, report definitions, data validation rules, procedural
code, and structures that can handle video and picture formats. Users do not need to know
how data is stored or manipulated. Also involved with this structure is a term called
performance tuning that relates to a database’s efficiency in relation to storage and access
speed.

3. Data Transformation and Presentation

This function exists to transform any data entered into required data structures.
By using the data transformation and presentation function the DBMS can determine the
difference between logical and physical data formats.
4. Security Management

This is one of the most important functions in the DBMS. Security

management sets rules that determine specific users that are allowed to access the
database. Users are given a username and password or sometimes through biometric
authentication (such as a fingerprint or retina scan) but these types of authentication tend
to be more costly. This function also sets restraints on what specific data any user can see
or manage.

5. Multiuser Access Control

Data integrity and data consistency are the basis of this function. Multiuser
access control is a very useful tool in a DBMS, it enables multiple users to access the
database simultaneously without affecting the integrity of the database.

6. Backup and Recovery Management

Backup and recovery is brought to mind whenever there is potential outside

threats to a database. For example if there is a power outage, recovery management is
how long it takes to recover the database after the outage. Backup management refers to
the data safety and integrity; for example backing up all your mp3 files on a disk.
7. Data Integrity Management

The DBMS enforces these rules to reduce things such as data redundancy,
which is when data is stored in more than one place unnecessarily, and maximizing data
consistency, making sure database is returning correct/same answer each time for same
question asked.

8. Database Access Languages and Application Programming Interfaces

A query language is a nonprocedural language. An example of this is SQL

(structured query language). SQL is the most common query language supported by the
majority of DBMS vendors. The use of this language makes it easy for user to specify
what they want done without the headache of explaining how to specifically do it.

9. Database Communication Interfaces

This refers to how a DBMS can accept different end user requests through
different network environments. An example of this can be easily related to the internet.
A DBMS can provide access to the database using the Internet through Web Browsers
(Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Netscape).
'10. Transaction Management

This refers to how a DBMS must supply a method that will guarantee that all the updates
in a given transaction are made or not made.All transactions must follow what is called
the ACID properties.

A – Atomicity: states a transaction is an indivisible unit that is either performed as a

whole and not by its parts, or not performed at all.It is the responsibility of recovery
management to make sure this takes place. C – Consistency:A transaction must alter the
database from one constant state to another constant state. I – Isolation:Transactions must
be executed independently of one another.Part of a transaction in progress should not be
able to be seen by another transaction. D – Durability:A successfully completed
transaction is recorded permanently in the database and must not be lost due to failures.

The advantages of DBMS are as follows:

-Controlling redundancy
-Providing storage structure for efficient query processing.
-Restricting unauthorized users.
-Providing concurrency.
-Providing backup and recovery.
-Enforcing integrity constraints.

The role of data models

How data models deliver benefit.[4]

The main aim of data models is to support the development of information systems by
providing the definition and format of data. According to West and Fowler (1999) "if this
is done consistently across systems then compatibility of data can be achieved. If the
same data structures are used to store and access data then different applications can
share data. The results of this are indicated above. However, systems and interfaces often
cost more than they should, to build, operate, and maintain. They may also constrain the
business rather than support it. A major cause is that the quality of the data models
implemented in systems and interfaces is poor".[4]

• "Business rules, specific to how things are done in a particular place, are often
fixed in the structure of a data model. This means that small changes in the way
business is conducted lead to large changes in computer systems and interfaces".[4]
• "Entity types are often not identified, or incorrectly identified. This can lead to
replication of data, data structure, and functionality, together with the attendant
costs of that duplication in development and maintenance".[4]
• "Data models for different systems are arbitrarily different. The result of this is
that complex interfaces are required between systems that share data. These
interfaces can account for between 25-70% of the cost of current systems".[4]
• "Data cannot be shared electronically with customers and suppliers, because the
structure and meaning of data has not been standardised. For example,
engineering design data and drawings for process plant are still sometimes
exchanged on paper".[4]

The reason for these problems is a lack of standards that will ensure that data models will
both meet business needs and be consistent.[4]

[edit] Three perspectives

The ANSI/SPARC three level architecture. This shows that a data model can be an
external model (or view), a conceptual model, or a physical model. This is not the only
way to look at data models, but it is a useful way, particularly when comparing models.[4]
A data model instance may be one of three kinds according to ANSI in 1975:[5]

• Conceptual schema : describes the semantics of a domain, being the scope of the
model. For example, it may be a model of the interest area of an organization or
industry. This consists of entity classes, representing kinds of things of
significance in the domain, and relationships assertions about associations
between pairs of entity classes. A conceptual schema specifies the kinds of facts
or propositions that can be expressed using the model. In that sense, it defines the
allowed expressions in an artificial 'language' with a scope that is limited by the
scope of the model. The use of conceptual schema has evolved to become a
powerful communication tool with business users. Often called a subject area
model (SAM) or high-level data model (HDM), this model is used to
communicate core data concepts, rules, and definitions to a business user as part
of an overall application development or enterprise initiative. The number of
objects should be very small and focused on key concepts. Try to limit this model
to one page, although for extremely large organizations or complex projects, the
model might span two or more pages.[6]
• Logical schema : describes the semantics, as represented by a particular data
manipulation technology. This consists of descriptions of tables and columns,
object oriented classes, and XML tags, among other things.
• Physical schema : describes the physical means by which data are stored. This is
concerned with partitions, CPUs, tablespaces, and the like.

The significance of this approach, according to ANSI, is that it allows the three
perspectives to be relatively independent of each other. Storage technology can change
without affecting either the logical or the conceptual model. The table/column structure
can change without (necessarily) affecting the conceptual model. In each case, of course,
the structures must remain consistent with the other model. The table/column structure
may be different from a direct translation of the entity classes and attributes, but it must
ultimately carry out the objectives of the conceptual entity class structure. Early phases of
many software development projects emphasize the design of a conceptual data model.
Such a design can be detailed into a logical data model. In later stages, this model may be
translated into physical data model. However, it is also possible to implement a
conceptual model directly.

A database is a system intended to organize, store, and retrieve large amounts of data
easily. It consists of an organized collection of data for one or more uses, typically in
digital form. One way of classifying databases involves the type of their contents, for
example: bibliographic, document-text, statistical. Digital databases are managed using
database management systems, which store database contents, allowing data creation and
maintenance, and search and other access

A Database Management System (DBMS) is a set of computer programs that controls

the creation, maintenance, and the use of a database. It allows organizations to place
control of database development in the hands of database administrators (DBAs) and
other specialists. A DBMS is a system software package that helps the use of integrated
collection of data records and files known as databases. It allows different user
application programs to easily access the same database. DBMSs may use any of a
variety of database models, such as the network model or relational model. In large
systems, a DBMS allows users and other software to store and retrieve data in a
structured way. Instead of having to write computer programs to extract information, user
can ask simple questions in a query language. Thus, many DBMS packages provide
Fourth-generation programming language (4GLs) and other application development
features. It helps to specify the logical organization for a database and access and use the
information within a database. It provides facilities for controlling data access, enforcing
data integrity, managing concurrency, and restoring the database from backups. A DBMS
also provides the ability to logically present database information to users.

Normalization is a process of structuring an unstructured relation into

structured one with the purpose of removing redundancy and
anomalies. It is a technique which helps to determine the most
appropriate grouping of data items into records, segments or tuples.
This is necessary as the data items are arranged in tables which
indicate the structure, relational integrity in the relational databases.
The normalization process was proposed by codd in 1972 which takes
a relation schema through a series of tests to certify whether it
satisfies a certain normal form.
Normalization involves a series of steps done against
prespecified rules.
1. First normal form (1NF)- A relational schema is said to be in 1NF
if the values in the domain of each attribute of the relation are
atomic.
2. Second normal form (2NF)- A relational schema is said to be in
2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-key attribute is fully functionally
dependent on the prime key.
3. Third normal form (3NF)-A relation R is in 3NF if and only if it is in
2NF and every non key attribute is non transitively dependent on
the primary key.
4. Boyce codd normal form(BCNF)-A relation is in BCNF if and only if
the only determinants are candidate keys.
5. Fourth normal form(4NF)-A relation is in 4NF if and only if for all
multi-valued dependencies of the form X->> Y ,either X->>Y is
a trivial MVD or X is a super key of R.
6. Fifth normal form(5NF)-A relation R is in 5NF, also called project
join normal form(PJNF) if and only if every nontrivial join
dependency that holds for R is implied by the candidate keys of
R.