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The word ³robot´ was introduced by the Czech playright Karel ß Capek in his 1920
play Rossum¶sc niversal Robots c The word ³robota´ in Czech means simply
³work.´ In spite of such practical beginnings,science fiction writers and early
Hollywood movies have given us a romantic notion of robots. Thus, in the 1960s
robots held out great promises for miraculously revolutionizing industry overnight.
In fact, many of the more far-fetched expectations from robots have failed to
materialize. For instance,in underwater assembly and oil mining, teleoperated
robots are very difficult to manipulate and have largely been replaced or
augmented by ³smart´ quick-fit couplings that simplify the assembly task.
However, through good design practices and painstaking attention to detail,
engineers have succeeded in applying robotic systems to a wide variety of
industrial and manufacturing situations where the environment is structured or
predictable.
Today, through developments in computers and artificial intelligence
techniques and often motivated by the space program, we are on the verge of
another breakthrough in robotics that will afford some levels of autonomy in
unstructured environments.
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ƒ reprogrammable, multifunctionalmanipulator designed to move material,
parts,tools, or specialized devices through various programmed motions for the
performance of a variety of tasksƒ .
-Robot Institute of merica, 1979
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 which performs automated physical tasks, either according
to direct human supervision, a pre-defined program, or a set of general guidelines
using artificial intelligence techniques.
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V ncient Greek poet Homer described mechanical helpers built by Hephaistos, the
Greek god of metalsmiths.
V The golems of medieval Jewish legend were robot-like servants made of clay,
brought to life by a spoken charm.
V In 1495, Leonardo da Vinci drew plans for a mechanical man.
V Real robots were only possible in the 1950s and 1960s with the introduction of
transistors and integrated circuits
V fter the 1950¶s the first commercial robot nicknamed the 'nimateµ, was
created.
V The first nimate was installed at a General Motors plant to work with heated
die-casting machines.
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George Devol applied for the first robotics patents in 1954 (granted in 1961). The
first company to produce a
robot was nimation, founded by Devol and Joseph F. Engelberger in 1956, and
was based on Devol's original
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   play a key role in automation and have helped improve
manufacturing and assembly operations around the world. sing  
, machines and tools can be mounted onto robotic wrists, for example, that
perform functions precisely and quickly.    offer numerous
advantages over manual industrial labor or fixed automation including increased
speed and the ability to function in harsh environments. dded flexibility and
dexterity offered by    help manufacturers get jobs done faster,
while cutting costs. In the future, technological advancements are expected to
further increase the intelligence of robots that will be able to learn, see and sense
things - and complete even more tasks.
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ISO 8373:1994:
´ manipulating industrial robot is an automatically controlled, reprogrammable,
multipurpose manipulator programmable in three or more axes which may be
either fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial applications´.
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general-purpose, programmable machine possessing certain anthropomorphic
(human-like) characteristics.

JIR (now J R ) attributes this success to three characteristics of industrial

robots:
- Industrial robots are programmable automation devices and are, as a
consequence, flexible and versatile (unlike special-purpose automated machines).
- Industrial robots exceed the physical and mechanical abilities of humans during
extended work periods and in uncomfortable or hazardous environments.
- Industrial robots perform with high fidelity and accuracy and in compliance with
their programmed instructions

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There are several definitions used to describe the degrees of freedom (dof) in a
robot arm. Defining the dof by the number of joints on the robot arm is incorrect; a
seven joint robot arm will hardly have seven dof, only six are available in our
definition of six dimensional space. It is also possible to have a robot with six
joints and only three degrees of freedom. The number of dof available influences a
robots ability to orientate the endeffector in six dimensional space.
Most robots are constructed in a fashion to using a single chain of links and joints.
These links and joints are described as a series of prismatic and revolute joints,
counting from the base out.
Each joint, moveable axis, on the arm is considered a degree of freedom. (DOF)±
the number of different ways in which a robot arm can move.

Layout of a robotic arm with 7 degree of freedom

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V Prismatic joints (sliding joints) *P:
a) Linear joint (L)- sliding movement with the axis of the two links being parallel.
b) Orthogonal joint (O)- sliding movement, but the input and output links are
perpendicular to each other.
V Rotary joints *R:

c) Rotational joint ( R) ± the axis of rotation is perpendicular to both in and output

links.
d) Twisting joint ( T)- the axis of rotation is parallel to the axes of the two links.
e) Revolving joint ( V)- the rotation joint is parallel to the input link and
perpendicular to the output link.

These are the following types of robot configurations :-

jc  

The robot consists of three orthogonal slides or prismatic joints. the kinematic
designation of which is . Extra joints may be required at the wrist. The work
volume describes the region within which the robot can position the end-effector.
The work volume depends on the robot geometry and the payload capacity. For

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instance a robot may not be able to support large weights at the extremities of the
work volume, and therefore may have two work volume definitions. Movement is
obtained by displacing the arm in each axis, x, y and z. Movement in a single axis
or a straight line requires displacement in only one axis. circular motion is more
difficult to obtain, requiring a complex set of combined motions. . The geometry of
the robot requires a large floor area, which is greater than the work volume.
Typical applications for this geometry include:
j ssembly, using smaller robot types,
j Palletising and unloading machine tools, using larger machines, and
j Handling, using the gantry configuration.

jc   

The cylindrical arm has a revolving waist, on which is mounted a pillar from
which the arm slides up and down and in and out on prismatic joints. The
kinematic designation for this geometry is „. s the name of the robot suggests
the work envelope is cylindrical in form. Individual axes can obtain rectilinear
motion in a vertical or horizontal direction and rotary motion about the base.
However a rectilinear motion from left to right would require a complex set of

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motions. Cylindrical robots are very robust and have a good work area to floor
area ratio. Typical operations include:
j Loading and unloading machine tools
j Palletising
j Material transfer within a lab situation

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The polar or spherical configuration of robot was one of the earliest machine
configurations, although few are now designed in this manner. The polar robot has
a revolute waist and shoulder with an extending arm. The kinematic designation is
given as „„. dditional joints at the machine wrist are required to ensure the
correct orientation of the parts. The work envelope is partially spherical in form.
The limitations of shoulder rotation and arm reach limit the design from full
spherical motion. These robots are robust and the large work volume enables the
machine to pick up objects from the floor, however they still require complex
control for rectilinear motion. Typical applications for this robot include:
j Handling, of heavy loads e.g. casting and forgings, and
j Palletising

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This configuration is also known as µrevolute¶, µjointed arm spherical¶ or

µanthropomorphic¶. The arm consists of three revolute joints, the waist utilising a
vertical rotation the shoulder and elbow using a horizontal rotation. The kinematic
designation for this configuration is „„„. For the correct alignment of the
endeffector another three revolute joints are required. The work volume is also
spherical in nature with a more comprehensive coverage when compared to the
polar configuration. The base of the robot occupies little space in comparison to
the work volume, however the use of three revolute joints requires complex control
for rectilinear motion. nd although the robot arm can reach over and under
objects it is not very rigid at full extension.
The dexterity of this robot configuration makes it suitable for:
j Spot welding,
j rc welding, and
j Surface coating, including painting and application of adhesive.

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The Selective Compliance ssembly Robot rm or SC R is the most common

configuration of assembly robot. The arm consists of two horizontal revolute joints
at the waist and elbow, and a final prismatic joint. The kinematic designation of the
arm is „„. n additional revolute joint is normally required ensuring the correct
alignment of the end-effector. Note that the kinematic designation is identical to
the polar configuration yet the work volumes are very different. When describing
the robot it is important to provide as much information as possible to avoid
confusion over the machines ability. The work volume is cylindrical in nature,
however the restrictions on joint rotation produce the
work volume .The floor area occupied by the robot base is small in comparison to
the work area, however the rectilinear motion requires complex control of the
revolute joints. The key point to remember about this robot configuration is
compliance. In order to assemble push fit parts, for example, a chip into a holder,
some sideways movement (compliance) should be tolerated to allow the part to
line up. The SC R does this without introducing any change in orientation of the

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part that would cause a part to jam. Therefore this robot configuration is often used
for:

j µtable-top¶ assembly tasks,

j Inspection and measurement, and
j Transfer of components, Forging and castings using larger machines.

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 is the study of the motion (kinematics) of robots. In a kinematic
analysis the position, velocity and acceleration of all the links are calculated
without considering the forces that cause this motion. The relationship between
motion, and the associated forces and torques is studied in robot dynamics. One of
the most active areas within robot kinematics is the screw theory.
Robot kinematics are mainly of the following two types: 

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.Forward kinematics is also known as direct kinematics. In
forward kinematics, the length of each linkand the angle of each joint is given and
we have to calculate the position of any point in the workvolume of the robot. In
inverse kinematics, the length of each link and position of the point in workvolume
is given and we have to calculate the angle of each joint.
Robot kinematics can be divided in serial manipulator kinematics, parallel
manipulator kinematics, mobile robot kinematics and humanoid kinematics.
Often robot kinematics are described in reference to a simplified kinematic
diagram that applies to a large category of physical robots.

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The different types of robot system components :-

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n industrial robot is comprised of a robot manipulator, power supply, and
controllers. The robot manipulator can be divided into two sections, each with a
different function:
rm and Body - The arm and body of a robot are used to move and position parts
or tools within a work envelope. They are formed from three joints connected by
large links.
Wrist - The wrist is used to orient the parts or tools at the work location. It
consists of two or three compact joints.
The robot manipulator is created from a sequence of link and joint combinations.
The links are the rigid members connecting the joints, or axes. The axes are the
movable components of the robot that cause relative motion between adjoining
links. The mechanical joints used to construct the manipulator consist of five
principal types. Two of the joints are linear, in which the relative motion between
adjacent links is non-rotational, and three are rotary types, in which the relative
motion involves rotation between links.

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n actuator is a mechanism for activating process control equipment by use of

pneumatic, hydraulic, or electronic signals. There are several types of actuators in
robotic arms.
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End-effectors are attached to the end of the robot arm and function much like
robotic hands. Robotic end effectors perform multiple applications.
variety of robotic end effectors exist, each suited for a specific task. Some
examples include: grippers, welding guns, vacuum pumps, blowtorches, and drills.

End effectors are also known as:

jc Robotic accessories
jc Robotic peripherals
jc Robotic tools
jc End of arm tooling

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The controller is the processing interface between the robot and its environment. It
provides intelligence and feedback to the robot through the compilation of the
sensor measurements. It also acts as a storage device, retaining the sensory
information and inputted programs.

The computation engine is generally able to process many tasks at one time and
seamlessly changes calculations to account for sensory information. The controller
includes the hardware that interfaces with the outside world. It stores the user
interface, which is used to input various commands.

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Sensors are divided into two main categories: physical and logical. Physical
sensors handle the raw processing of data. Logical sensors then extract data for
modules to interpret.

jc Physical Sensors
jc Logical Sensors

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Sensor data may be gathered from several sensor devices in parallel and processed
in a multitude of ways. complex hierarchy of processing is possible. Varying
characteristics of sensors include accuracy and repeatability.

Robots utilized sensors in one of three ways:

jc Proprioceptive Sensors
jc Exteroceptive Sensors
jc Exproprioceptive Sensors

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The earliest industrial robots were simple sequential machines controlled by a

combination of servo motors, adjustable mechanical stops, limit switches, and
programmable logic controllers. These machines were generally programmed by a
record and play-back method with the operator using a teach pendant to move the
robot through the desired path. 
, the first robot programming language, was
developed at MIT during the early 1960s. It was an interpreted language which ran
on a (& computer. ‘), developed at Stanford during the early 1970s, was a
general-purpose language which ran as an assembler on a DEC PDP-10
minicomputer. MINI, developed at MIT during the mid-1970s, was an expandable
language based on
. It allowed programming in Cartesian coordinates with
independent control of multiple joints. L (Mujtaba, 1982), developed at Stanford,
included some programming features of ‘

and Pascal. )‘
and )‘

(Shimano et al., 1984), developed by nimation, Inc., was an interpreted language
designed to support the PM series of industrial robots
‘
c ( Manufacturing Language) (Taylor et al., 1982) was a completely new
programming language developed by IBM to support the R/S 1 assembly robot. It
was a subroutine-oriented, interpreted language which ran on the Series/1
minicomputer. Later versions were compiled to run on IBM-compatible personal
computers to support the 7535 series of SC R robots. MCL, developed by
McDonnell Douglas, was an extension of the ‘c language ( utomatic
Programming of Tools) originally written for numerically controlled machine

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tools. „‘
, developed by TOM TIX, Inc., was an extension of Pascal
designed to control robot welding and vision systems. Several additional languages
(Gruver et al., 1984; Lozano-Perez, 1983) were introduced during the late 1980s to
support a wide range of new robot applications which were developed during this
period.
)*, developed by dept Technologies, Inc., is a representative modern robot
programming language. It has several hundred program instructions and reserved
keywords. V+ will be used in the following sections to demonstrate important
features of robot programming.

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Replacing humans with robots to perform processes has often led to failure. The
reason is that the robots are often mechanically capable of the manipulation while
being incapable of process planning and control. Thousands of robot installations
have failed because replacing the manual method with the automatic method
lacked adaptability to process related variation. The human operators had been
using their cognitive abilities to do the job. vast majority of successful robot
implementations past and present have a very important common aspect: repeated
execution of fixed programs with little or no on-line modification of path or
position.
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Many products are packaged in boxes of regular shape and stacked on standard
pallets for shipping. Robots are commonly used to palletize and depalletize boxes
because they can be programmed to move through the array of box positions layer
after layer. lthough palletizing is more common than depalletizing, there is no
major functional difference in the manipulation requirements. Transport distances
of several feet are common. Stack heights usually do not exceed 5 ft. Payload
weight can be in excess of 100 lb.
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Packaging is often a combination of palletizing and assembly-type actions.
collection of objects which may not be identical are inserted into a box or other
container. The robot may also be required to assemble, place dunnage, seal, or

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mark the package. Insertion may simply require positioning the pack item over the
opening of the package and dropping it. Boxes most often are supplied partially
assembled, printed, and folded flat. sually human operators or a special machine
will open and prepare the box for packing; rarely will the robot be used for this
purpose.
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Forges, stamping process, some machine tools, and molding machines are now
commonly tended by robots. Historically these types of machines have been loaded
by human operators. Now these jobs are considered to be too arduous and
hazardous. n important benefit of robotic machine loading is improved product
quality resulting from consistent machine cycles. Robots eliminate the
inconsistencies of humanpaced loading and as a result the cycle can be precisely
repeated.

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Robotic spot welding is the most pervasive robot application in the automotive
industry. Resistance spot welds are formed by tightly clamping steel pieces
together with opposing contact electrodes and then passing a large amount of
current through the joint, welding the metal while producing a spray of molten
sparks along with loud noise. Then the joint is held momentarily until the weld
solidifies. Welds are made at discrete positions by moving the robot-mounted gun
to pretaught poses. The spot welding process parameters, pressure and temperature,
are controlled with the separate gun controller. Weld location and therefore
positioning of the gun are critical.
  
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Paint spraying is a major application in the automotive industry. Painting booths
are hazardous because the paint material is often toxic, carcinogenic, and
flammable. Human painters often wear required protective clothing and breathing
equipment. The paint fan projecting from the arm-mounted spray gun must be
manipulated smoothly along paths that are often curved and complex.

Many engineering materials are produced and supplied as stacked or rolled flat
plates or sheets. Further fabrication can require forming and/or cutting these
materials into precise shapes. Robots are frequently used to manipulate a variety of

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cutting tools along paths that are often complex and curved. Many cutting
processes are also used to produce fine features such as holes and slots.
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Robot inspection involves relative part/sensor manipulation to compare, measure,
or detect a physical characteristic of the objective workpiece. Sensors used in
robotic inspection include chemical detectors, computer vision systems, infrared
detectors, sonar, laser radar, radiation detectors, capacitive proximity sensors,
touch probes, X-ray cameras, particle/photon detectors, thread probes, and go-no
go gauges. Robot inspection applications cover the range of manipulation from end
effector position-and-hold to continues in-contact path motion .

++ „!


The term ³workcell´ refers to a grouping of the robot and its peripheral equipment
to assemble any of a large variety of products with little or no human intervention,
driven by electronicallydesigned data. It is often desirable to group equipment
units together into workcells that can, in composite, perform an entire family of
related operations on the product. The work-in-progress enters the workcell,

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remains while several functions are performed, and then leaves the workcell. The
individual equipment units that are used in the workcell (for both processing and
materials handling) can consist of combinations of manual, semiautomatic, and
fully automated equipment .

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