Dalton Exam III Review2

3/31/2011
Biochemistry 3100 Exam Review Dalton
Dalton Exam Question Sheet I
• What is the name of the enzyme that breaks
down fat in the small intestine?
– Lipase
• A lipase is a water‐soluble enzyme that catalyzes the
hydrolysis of ester chemical bonds in water‐insoluble
lipid substrates
1
3/31/2011
• Where are bile salts made?
– Bile salts are made in the liver
• Where are bile salts stored?
– Bile salts are stored in the gallbladder.
• What type of molecules are found in bile salts, and how do
they function?
– Bile Salts: amphipathic cholesterol derivatives
– After neutral acids are converted to glycerol and fatty acids,
fatty acids are assembled into bile salt micelles which emulsify
(cause the formation of small lipid droplets within water).
– The emulsified bile salts can be absorbed into the intestine.
• What types of enzymes are secreted from the
pancreas.
– Proteases
• Trypsin
• Chymotrypsin
• Elastin
– Lipases
– Amylases
2
3/31/2011
• Describe the process through which proteins and
carbohydrates are digested and absorbed by the
body following a meal.
– Mouth: Food is consumed in the mouth where it is
initially masticated and small amounts of
carbohydrates (starch) are broken down via enzymes
in the saliva (ex. Amylase).
– Stomach: Food is further broken down via stomach
acid (Hydrochloric Acid HCl). Specifically, proteins are
denatured and through hydrolysis and pepsin activity,
producing chyme. (carbohydrates are not further
degrated in the stomach because the high pH
inactivates amylases)
• Describe the process through which proteins and
carbohydrates are digested and absorbed by the body
following a meal.
– Small Intestine: When chyme enters the small intestine,
the low pH results in the release of the hormones secretin
and cholecystokinin into the blood; this stimulates the
production of pancreatic juices.
– Pancreatic Juices: Alkaline solution that neutralizes chyme
and contains enzymes such as proteases and
glucosidsases.
– Proteases: convert proteins into free amino acids.
– Glucosidsases: enzymes which cleave glycosidic bonds of
carbohydartes, producing monosacharrides.
3
3/31/2011
• How are amino acids and carbohydrates
released into the lining of the intestine?
– Both free amino acids and carbohydrates are
absorbed into intestinal epithelial brush cells via
ion pump transport proteins (secondary active
transport).
• How are amino acids and carbohydrates
released into the bloodstream?
– Once transported into the epithelial cells of the
intestine, glucose and amino acids are passively
transported into the blood stream through
transport proteins.
4
3/31/2011
• Ion Pump Transport Proteins:
– A transport protein which spans the membrane wall, and
uses ATP, to transport three eq. of sodium across the
membrane wall while at the same time, allowing 2 eq of
potassium to flow into the cell (antiport).
– The transport of sodium across the membrane wall is an
uphill process which requires energy (ATP) and creates a
Na+ concentration gradient across the epithelial
membrane.
– The concentration gradient created by Na+ allows for the
flow of Na+ back into the cell, through passive transport
(symport). This process is coupled by the transport of
carbohydrates or amino acids into the cell.
BCMB 3100 Dalton Exam III
5
3/31/2011
• Explain the difference between insulin‐independent
and insulin‐dependent glucose uptake by cells.
– Function of Insulin:
• Insulin functions to control the concentration of glucose in the
blood.
• When blood glucose levels are high, insulin is released into the
blood stream and causes insulin dependent tissue to absorb sugar
in the blood.
• The absorbed sugar enters glycolysis in the cytosol of the insulin
dependent cells and is broken down.
– Insulin‐dependent glucose uptake:
• Glucose uptake in the muscle and adipose tissue is insulin
dependent.
• Explain the difference between insulin‐
independent and insulin‐dependent glucose
uptake by cells.
– Insulin‐dependent glucose uptake explained:
• Glucose uptake in the muscle and adipose tissue is insulin
dependent.
• Glucose in the muscle and adipose tissue is insulin
dependent because these tissues utilize glucose by
converting it into energy (muscle tissue) or other
metabolites for energy storage such as acetyl CoA (adipose
tissue)
• Neither muscle tissue or adipose tissue directly stores
glucose.
6
3/31/2011
• Explain the difference between insulin‐
independent and insulin‐dependent glucose
uptake by cells.
– Insulin‐independent glucose uptake:
• Glucose levels within these tissues are not regulated by
insulin.
• In liver, brain and red blood cells, glucose uptake
through transporter is insulin independent.
• Explain the difference between insulin‐independent
and insulin‐dependent glucose uptake by cells.
– The Need for Insulin‐Independent Glucose uptake in the
Brain, Red Blood Cells and Liver Explained:
• Brain: Brain function is required for life thus, a steady flow of
glucose must always be available, otherwise the body will begin to
shut down.
• Red Blood Cells: Red blood cells, as glucose transporters do not
undergo oxidative phosphorylation (no mitochondria). Insulin
regulation of glucose uptake in the red blood cells would inhibit
the flow of glucose throughout during times when the body’s
glucose levels were high, this would inhibit glucose from reaching
the brain.
• Liver: One of the liver’s primary functions is to store glucose in the
form of glycogen when glucose levels are high and to produce
glucose through gluconeogenesis when glucose levels are low.
Insulin regulation of glucose uptake in the liver would prevent liver
from releasing glucose formed through gluconeogenesis into the
bloodstream when blood glucose levels are low.
7
3/31/2011
• What is the significance of glucosekinase being
found in the liver as and hexokinases being found
in other tissues?
– Glucosekinase: Found in the liver.
• The liver is used for the storage of glucose (fed state) and for
glucose production (starvation).
• At low concentrations of blood glucose, the activity of
glucosekinase, in the liver, is low. This means that the liver
will not store much glucose
• The decrease in glucokinase activity at low blood glucose
concentrations prevents the liver from storing glucose,
making glucose more readily available for tissues.
– Hexokinase: Found in other tissues.
• In the brain, hexokinases can still phosphorylate
glucose at low concentrations which allows for glucose
retention in the brain at low blood glucose
concentrations.
8
3/31/2011
• What is the difference between ΔG and ΔG0’
• The difference between ΔG and ΔG0’ is simply that ΔG0’
measures the energy change in a reaction conducted
under standard conditions, 1 atm and 250C.
– The prime of ΔG0’ means that the reaction is conducted at pH 7.
• In contrast, ΔG corresponds to the energy change between
a reactant and a product is the amount of energy released
or consumed during a reaction at constant temperature
and pressure.
• Why is it difficult to know the actual ΔG for a
biochemical reaction?
– Because the concentrations of products and
reactants are likely never near 1M in the cell
– It is challenging to determine exactly what cellular
concentrations of all products and reactants are
within the cell.
– Measurement of change in enthalpy within a cell
cannot be measured because cellular
temperatures are generally observed as constant.
9
3/31/2011
BCMB 3100 Dalton Exam III
• What is NAD+
– NAD+ stands for nicotinamide adenine
inucleotide.
– NADH stands for nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide hydride.
• What is the function of NAD+ in catabolic
pathways such as glycolysis.
– NAD+ is an enzymatic cofactor which functions as
an oxidizing agent.
20
10
3/31/2011
Glycogen Synthesis from Glucose
CH2OH CH2OPO32- CH2OH
H O H O H
ATP ADP H H O H
H H Phosphoglucomutase H
OH H Hexokinase or OH H OH H
Glucokinase
OH OH OH
OH OH OPO32-
H OH H OH H OH
-D-Glucopyranose -D-Glucopyranose-6-phosphate
UTP
UDP-Glucose
pyrophosphorylase
CH2OH CH2OH PPi
CH2OH
Non-Reducing End Reducing End
O O H O H
H H H H
H H H
H OH H
OH H OH
O OH OH O O
OH O
H OH P O P O Uridine
H OH H OH
O O
Glycogen Synthase
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
O H H O H H O H
H
H H H
OH H OH H OH H UDP
O O OH
OH
H OH H OH H OH 21
CH2OH CH2OPO32-
O H ATP ADP O ATP ADP

H H H CH2OPO32- OH
O CH2OPO32- OH
H H O
H H H OH
OH Hexokinase or OH H OH
Glucose-6-phosphate Phosphof ructokinase-1
Glucokinase
OH OH OH OH isomerase H CH2OH H CH2OPO32-
OH H
OH H
H OH H OH
-D-Glucopyranose-6-phosphate -D-Fructofuranose-1,6-bisphosphate
-D-Glucopyranose -D-Fructofuranose-6-phosphate
Aldolase
H O
H O
CH2OPO32- C
CH2OPO32- C
C O H C OH
C O H C OH
Triose
CH2OH phosphate CH2OPO32-
isomerase CH2OH CH2OPO32-
Dihydroxyacetone D-Glyceraldehyde- Dihydroxyacetone D-Glyceraldehyde-
phosphate 6-phosphate phosphate 6-phosphate
H O OPO3-2 O -
O O -O O -O O -O O
C NAD + Pi NADH + H+ C ADP ATP C C C ADP ATP
H2O C
H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OPO32- C OPO32- C O
Glyceraldehyde- Phosphoglycerate Phosphoglycerate Enolase Pyruvate kinase
3-phosphate kinase
CH2OPO32- CH2OPO32- CH2OPO32- mutase CH2OH CH2 CH3
dehydrogenase
D-Glyceraldehyde- D-1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate D-3-Phosphoglycerate D-2-Phosphoglycerate Phosphoenolpyruvate Pyruvate
6-phosphate
22
11
3/31/2011
• In glycolysis, the conversion of fructose 6‐
phosphate to 1,6 fructose bisphoshate requires
ATP and has a ΔG value of ‐14.2 KJ/mol. Is this
reaction likely to be reversible?
– Reversibility: Reversibility in biochemical reactions
result when the ΔG0’ of a reaction is near zero.
– Because the ΔG0’ of the phosphofructokinase reaction
is highly negative (more than two orders of magnitude
away from equilibrium), the reaction is irreversible.
• Key Step linking glycolysis to the citric acid
cycle
24
12
3/31/2011
O
H2O
NADH H3C SCoA
NAD + HS CoA H+
COO-
COO-
C O Citrate
Malate Synthase
COO- CH2
dehydrogenase
CH2
HO C H
HO C COO-
COO-
CH2 Oxaloacetate CH2
Aconitase
H2O COO-
COO-
Fumarase
L-Malate
Citrate COO-
COO- CH2
H C COO-
H C
Citric Acid Cycle
C H HO C H
COO- COO-
Fumarate Isocitrate
COO-
Isocitrate
Succinate COO-
COO- CH2 dehydrogenase
dehydrogenase
complex CH2
CH2 CH2
NAD+
QH2 CH2
CH2 C O
via FAD a-ketoglutarate CO2
NADH
COO- Succinyl-CoA dehydrogenaase
C O COO-
Q Synthetase complex
Succinate
S CoA -ketoglutarate
Succinyl CoA HS CoA NAD+

NADH
GTP (or ATP) Pi
CO2 25
HS CoA GDP (or ADP)
Begin Here Glucose
2
Glycolysis Products 2 ATP 2 NADH
Pyruvate
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase 2 Acetyl
2 NADH
Products CoA
Citric Acid Cycle Products 2 QH2 2 ATP 6 NADH
Total cofactors entering ETC 2 QH2 10 NADH

from 1 eq. glucose
Total ATP From each Step 3 ATP 4 ATP 25 ATP
Total ATP 32 ATP
26
13
3/31/2011
Dalton Review Sheet II
• The TCA cycle and electron transport chain are coupled at two
places.
– Reducing equivalents of NADH formed from the TCA cycle begin the
electron transport chain at Complex I.
– Reducing equivalents are obtained from succinate to via succinate
dehydrogenase in Complex II to form QH2 .
Complex I Complex II
• The electron transport chain consists of how many complexes?
– Five: Complex I [NADH Dehydrogenase], Complex II [Succinate Dehydrogenase
Complex], Complex III [Ubiquinol‐Cytochrome c Oxidoreductase], Complex IV
[cytochrome c oxidase], & Complex V [ATP Synthase].
– The complexes have allow electrons to flow from high reduction potential to
low reduction potential. The complexes contain nonmobile electron carriers
that have different reduction potentials.
Increasing Reduction Potential
14
3/31/2011
• What else is required to pass electrons down
an electrochemical gradient?
– Electrochemical Gradient: The ability to pass
electrons from high free energy (high reduction
potential) compounds to low free energy
compounds.
– Terminal electron acceptor. This is O2 for the
electron transport chain.
15
3/31/2011
– Mobile electron carriers to permit transfer of
electrons between complexes.
Ubiquinone Cytochrome c
• What is protonmotive force and how is it generated across the inner mitochondrial
membrane?
– Protons are ejected out of the mitochondrial matrix, the process of which is coupled to
the electron transport chain.
– The flux or protons into the intermembrane space is produced by complex I, II, and III of
the electron transport chain. The protons ejected from the matrix acidify the
intermembrane space, generating an electrochemical gradient across the membrane.
– The electrochemical gradient is called protonmotive force. Protons then flow down the
electrochemical gradient. The electrochemical energy is converted to mechanical
energy which drives the ATP synthase complex.
16
3/31/2011
• Describe the structure and function of ATP synthase.
– Flow of H+ down an electrochemical gradient through a proton
conducting channel
– Electrochemical energy is converted to F0 mechanical energy and
rotation of the stalk occurs.
– Rotation of the stalk is lined to rotation of ATP synthase catalytic
subunits which drives ATP synthesis.
Intermembrane Space
Proton
F0 Complex conducting
channel
Stalk
Matrix
F1 Complex
• What is it meant by fatty acid activation?
– Fatty acid activation refers to the conversion of
fatty acids into fatty acid acyl CoA molecules via
acyl CoA synthase.
17
3/31/2011
• Once activated, the fatty acid acyl CoA is converted ito acylcarnitine in a
reaction catalyzed by carnitine acyl transferase I.
• Acylcarnitine then enters the mitochondrial matrix in exchange for free
carnitine via carnitine:acylcarnitine translocase.
• In the mitochondrial matrix the isozyme carnitine acyltransferase II
catalyzes the reverse reaction converting aclycarnitine into carnitine and
fatty acid acyl CoA.
• What are the major products of the fatty acid
oxidation cycle?
– Acetyl CoA
– NADH
– FADH2
18
3/31/2011
• Explain why gluconeogenesis cannot occur through a
simple reversal of glycolytic reactions.
– There are three irreversible reactions which are associated
with glycolysis.
• Hexokinase: Conversion of glucose to glucose‐6‐phosphate.
[consumes ATP]
• Phosphofrutokinase I: Conversion of fructose 6‐phosphate to 1,6
fructose bisphosphate. [consumes ATP]
• Pyruvate kinase: Conversion of phosphoenol pyruvate to pyruvate.
[Produces ATP] (the phosphoenol pyruvate product has higher
energy than ATP and thus cannot be produced from ATP)
– Because these three reactions are irreversible, the reverse
reactions must be carried out via other enzymes.
• What is the major source of pyruvate used for
the generation of glucose in the liver?
– Amino acid catabolism
– Alanine can undergo transamination to form
pyruvate
19
3/31/2011
• What is lactic acidosis?
– Occurs when lactic acid is released into the body
and body pH levels drop.
• How does the Liver help prevent lactic
acidosis?
– The liver converts lactic acid into pyruvate which
can subsequently enter into gluconeogenesis.
• Photosynthesis can be broken down into two
broad series of reactions. What are they?
What are the products of the two stages
– Light reactions
• 2 ATP & 2 NADPH
– Dark Reactions
• 3‐phosphoglycerate (sugar)
20
3/31/2011
Photosystem II Photosystem I
P700*
e‐
P680* e‐ PhA
A0
e‐
PQA 8 H+
e‐
Reduction Potential
2H2O O2 + 4H+ e‐ PQB A1

e‐ Plastocyanin
e‐ e‐ e‐
e‐ Cytochrome P700+ Fx
e‐ bf complex e‐
Electron P680+ e‐ FB
Evolving Fd‐NADP
e‐ oxidoreductase
Complex FA e‐
Fd
P700
NADP+ NADPH
hv
P680
hv
Photophosphorylation
Cyclic Electron Flow
• In the context of photosynthetic reactions, what
is it meant by carbon fixation?
– Carbon fixation refers to the capture and subsequent
reduction of CO2 gas to form sugars by the Calvin cycle
using ATP and NADPH produced in the light reactions
of photosynthesis.
• What is the role of carbon fixation in the electron
transport process?
– Carbon fixation function to accept electrons from the
electron transport process, and store the energy
generated in the form of carbohydrates, amino acids,
and fatty acids.
21
3/31/2011
Dalton Sample Questions
• Glucosekinase and hexokinase are two enzymes that
perfom identical reactions folloing the import of
glucose into a cell.
– In what cell types are these enzymes found?
• Glucosekinase: Liver
• Hexokinase: Brain
– What reaction do these enyzmes catalyze?
• Glucose → Glucose‐6‐phosphate
– Why doe some cells use glucosekinase and why do some
use hexokinase?
• The brain depends on glucose as an energy source, and hexokinase
is active at low concentrations of glucose, unlike glucokinase.
• Hexokinase can effectively utilize glucose under starvation
conditions as opposed to glucokinase.
• Where in the cell do the following occur?
– Oxidatin of pyruvate to acetyl CoA.
• Cytoplasm
– Generation of Pyruvate.
• Cytoplasm
– Converstion of 2‐phosphoglycerate to phosphenol pyruvate.
• Cytoplasm
– Conversion of glucose to glucose 6‐phosphate
• Cytoplasm
– Conversion of succinate to fumarate.
• Inner‐mitochondrial membrane
– Accumulation of H+ as a consequence of the electron transport
chain.
• Inter mitochondrial membrane space.
22
3/31/2011
• What key metabolic step needs to occur
before the products of glycolysis can be fed
into the TCA cycle? Name the enzyme and
coenzyme involved in this reaction.
• Describe the major steps involved in the TCA cycle including
the major products and reactants. Include a description of
the initial step involving the formation of citrate and the
relative amounts of major products generated.
23
3/31/2011
O
H2O
NADH H3C SCoA
NAD+ HS CoA H+
COO-
COO-
C O Citrate
Synthase
CH2
CH2
HO C COO-
COO-
Oxaloacetate CH2
COO-
Citrate
Citric Acid Cycle
FADH2
NAD+
FAD
NADH CO2
NADH NAD+
GTP (or ATP) Pi CO2
GDP (or ADP)
• Name two Coenzymes required for the TCA
cylce and their oxidized and reduced states.
Indicate which his oxidized and which is
reduced.
– NAD+ (oxidized) NADH (Reduced)
– FAD+ (Oxidized) FADH2 (Reduced)
24
3/31/2011
• What is protonmotive force and how is it generated
across the inner mitochondrial membrane?
– Protons are ejected out of the mitochondrial matrix, the
process of which is coupled to the electron transport
chain.
– The flux or protons into the intermembrane space is
produced by complex I, II, and III of the electron transport
chain. The protons ejected from the matrix acidify the
intermembrane space, generating an electrochemical
gradient across the membrane.
– The electrochemical gradient is called protonmotive force.
Protons then flow down the electrochemical gradient. The
electrochemical energy is converted to mechanical energy
which drives the ATP synthase complex.
• Name two types of mobile electron carriers
that participate in the electron transport
chain.
– Cytochrome c
– Ubiquinone
25
3/31/2011
• Describe the structure and function of ATP synthase complex.
– Flow of H+ down an electrochemical gradient through a proton
conducting channel
– Electrochemical energy is converted to F0 mechanical energy and
rotation of the stalk occurs.
– Rotation of the stalk is lined to rotation of ATP synthase catalytic
subunits which drives ATP synthesis.
Intermembrane Space
Proton
F0 Complex conducting
channel
Stalk
Matrix
F1 Complex
• Describe how acetyl CoA is produced from fatty acyl CoA as part of
fatty acid oxidation and how ATP is eventually generated.
– Fatty acid oxidation is a 4 step process
– Each cycle of fatty acid oxidation produces
• One Acetyl CoA
• One NADH
• One FADH2
– Each turn shortens fatty acyl CoA by 2 carbons forming acetyl CoA
– NADH, FADH2 fed into the e‐ transport chain to generate ATP.
– Acetyl CoA is fed into the TCA cycle for energy production.
– Fatty acyl CoA reenters the cycle multiple times to maximize oxidation
and energy production. Each time the fatty acyl CoA is introduced,
Acetyl CoA must be added.
26
3/31/2011
• Draw the reaction involving the conversion of
glucose to glucose 6‐phosphate, name the
enzyme involve.
• Draw the reaction catalyzed by glycogen
synthase involving the incorporation of UDP
glucose into an unbranched molecule of
glycogen.
27
3/31/2011
• Where in the cell does glucose 6‐phosphate isomerase particpate in the oxidation of glucose?
– Cytoplasm
• Pyruvate is generated from the oxidation of acetyl CoA (true or false)
– False
• Where in the cell is 2‐phosphoglycerate converted to phosphoenol pyruvate?
– Cytoplasm
• How many molecules of acetyl CoA are produced from one turn of the fatty acid oxidation cycle?
– One
• Trans‐amination of amino acids in the liver result in the generation of a 3 carbon molecule starting
point for gluconeogenesis. What is this molecule?
– Pyruvate
• How many net molecules of ATP are generated from the oxidation of one glucose?
– Two
• Where in the chloroplast does plastocyanin perform its function?
– Thylakoid membarane
• Which compartment of theh chloroplast becomes acidified as a consequence of H+ accumulation
during electron transport.
– Thlakoid Space (lumen)
• The conversion of phosphoenol pyruvate to
pyruvate is shown below
– What pathway is this a part of?
• Glycolysis
– What is the role of pyruvate kinase in this reaction?
• Catalyzes the formation of pyruvate from phosphoenol
pyruvate
• Transfers the phosphoryl group from phosphoenolpyruvate
to ADP generating ATP.
– In terms of metabolic fluxes, what is important about
this reaction?
• It is irreversible.
28

Dalton Exam III Review2

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Dalton Exam III Review2

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

3/31/2011

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

O H ATP ADP O ATP ADP

Succinyl CoA HS CoA NAD+

Citric Acid Cycle Products 2 QH2 2 ATP 6 NADH

Total cofactors entering ETC 2 QH2 10 NADH

Total ATP From each Step 3 ATP 4 ATP 25 ATP

2H2O O2 + 4H+ e‐ PQB A1

GTP (or ATP) Pi CO2

GDP (or ADP)

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen