OPTICAL TECHNOLGY

Developed by
By

Taiwo-Jalupon Iman

Introduction

Name:Field
Taiwo-Jalupon Iman
of Education Reg. No.:R073004500609
Field of Health Care
Field of Business
Conclusion

NIIT

1
Table of Contents
OPTICAL TECHNOLOGY………………………………………1

Table of Contents………………………………………………….2

Introduction……………………………………………………4

Chapter 1

Fiber Optic Networking……………………………………….5

Chapter 2………………………………………………………6

Optical Networking Hardware…………………………………6

Optical Cable…………………………………………6

Fiber Buffers………………………………………..6

Fiber Optic Splices………………………………….7

Fiber Optic Connectors……………………………..8

Fiber Optic Couplers………………………………..9

Fiber Optic Transmitter…………………………….10

Fiber Optic Receivers ………………………………10

Chapter 3

Interoperability………………………………………………..12

Synchronous Communication………………………12

Digital Circuits and DSU/CSUs……………………….12

Telephone Standards…………………………………..13

Optical Carrier Standards……………………………14

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 The Local Subscriber Loop ………………………15

Cable Modem Technology………………………..18

Chapter 4

Multiprotocol Label Switching…………………………….19

Requirement and objective……………………….20

Common Misconception about MPLS……………21

Promise of MPLS…………………………………22

Chapter 5

Network Management………………………………………24

What is Network Management? …………………24

A Historical Perspective………………………….24

Network management Architecture………………25

ISO Network Management Model……………….26

Performance Management……………......26

Configuration Management………………27

Accounting Management………………….27

Fault Management…………………………28

Security Management………………………28

Conclusion

References

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Introduction
An optical fiber (or fibre) is a glass or plastic fiber designed to guide light
along its length. Fiber optics is the overlap of applied science and
engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers.
Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communication, which permits
transmission over longer distances and at higher data rates than other forms
of communications. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals
travel along them with less loss, and they are immune to electromagnetic
interference. Optical fibers are also used to form sensors, and in a variety of
other applications.

Optical fiber consists of a core, cladding, and a protective outer coating,

which guides light along the core by total internal reflection. The cores, and
the lower-refractive-index cladding, are typically made of high-quality silica
glass, though they can both be made of plastic as well. An optical fiber can
break if bent too sharply. Due to the microscopic precision required to align
the fiber cores, connecting two optical fibers, whether done by fusion
splicing or mechanical splicing, requires special skills and interconnection
technology.

Two main categories of optical fiber used in fiber optic communications are
multi-mode optical fiber and single-mode optical fiber. Multimode fiber has
a larger core (≥ 50 micrometres), allowing less precise, cheaper transmitters
and receivers to connect to it as well as cheaper connectors. However, multi-
mode fiber introduces multimode distortion which often limits the
bandwidth and length of the link. Furthermore, because of its higher dopant
content, multimode fiber is usually more expensive and exhibits higher
attenuation. Single-mode fiber’s smaller core (<10 micrometres) necessitates
more expensive components and interconnection methods, but allows much
longer, higher-performance links.

In order to package fiber into a commercially-viable product, it is

protectively-coated, typically by using ultraviolet (UV) light-cured acrylate
polymers, terminated with optical fiber connectors, and assembled into a
cable. It can then be laid in the ground, run through a building or deployed
aerially in a manner similar to copper cable. Once deployed, such cables
require substantially less maintenance than copper cable.

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Chapter 1

Fiber Optic Networking

Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and

networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is
especially advantageous for long-distance communications, because light
propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to electrical
cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters.
Additionally, the light signals propagating in the fiber can be modulated at
rates as high as 40 Gb/s [3], and each fiber can carry many independent
channels, each by a different wavelength of light (wavelength-division
multiplexing). Over short distances, such as networking within a building,
fiber saves space in cable ducts because a single fiber can carry much more
data than a single electrical cable. Fiber is also immune to electrical
interference, which prevents cross-talk between signals in different cables
and pickup of environmental noise. Also, wiretapping is more difficult
compared to electrical connections, and there are concentric dual core fibers
that are said to be tap-proof. Because they are non-electrical, fiber cables can
bridge very high electrical potential differences and can be used in
environments where explosive fumes are present, without danger of ignition.

Although fibers can be made out of transparent plastic, glass, or a

combination of the two, the fibers used in long-distance telecommunications
applications are always glass, because of the lower optical attenuation. Both
multi-mode and single-mode fibers are used in communications, with multi-
mode fiber used mostly for short distances (up to 500 m), and single-mode
fiber used for longer distance links. Because of the tighter tolerances
required to couple light into and between single-mode fibers (core diameter
about 10 micrometers), single-mode transmitters, receivers, amplifiers and
other components are generally more expensive than multi-mode
components.

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Chapter 2

Optical Networking Hardware

Optical Cables

Optical fibers have small cross sectional areas. Without protection, optical
fibers are fragile and can be broken. The optical cable structure protects
optical fibers from environmental damage. Cable structure includes buffers,
strength members, and jackets. Many factors influence the design of fiber
optic cables. The cable design relates to the cable's intended application.
Properly designed optical cables perform the following functions: Protect
optical fibers from damage and breakage during installation and over the
fiber's lifetime.

Provide stable fiber transmission characteristics compared with uncabled

fibers. Stable transmission includes stable operation in extreme climate
conditions.

Maintain the physical integrity of the optical fiber by reducing the

mechanical stresses placed on the fiber during installation and use. Static
fatigue caused by tension, torsion, compression, and bending can reduce the
lifetime of an optical fiber.

Fiber Buffers

Coatings and buffers protect the optical fiber from breakage and loss caused
by microbends. During the fiber drawing process, the addition of a primary
coating protects the bare glass from abrasions and other surface
contaminants. For additional protection, manufacturers add a layer of buffer
material. The buffer material provides additional mechanical protection for
the fiber and helps preserve the fiber's inherent strength.

Manufacturers use a variety of techniques to buffer optical fibers.

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The types of fiber buffers include tight-buffered, loose-tube, and gel-filled
loose-tube. Figure 3-13 shows each type of fiber buffer. The choice of
buffering techniques depends on the intended application.

Figure 3-13. - Tight-buffered, loose-tube, and gel-filled loose-tube buffer

techniques.

Fiber Optic Splices

A fiber optic splice is a permanent fiber joint whose purpose is to establish

an optical connection between two individual optical fibers. System design
may require that fiber connections have specific optical properties (low loss)
that are met only by fiber-splicing. Fiber optic splices also permit repair of
optical fibers damaged during installation, accident, or stress. System
designers generally require fiber splicing whenever repeated connection or
disconnection is unnecessary or unwanted.

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Mechanical and fusion splicing are two broad categories that describe the
techniques used for fiber splicing. A mechanical splice is a fiber splice
where mechanical fixtures and materials perform fiber alignment and
connection. A fusion splice is a fiber splice where localized heat fuses or
melts the ends of two optical fibers together. Each splicing technique seeks
to optimize splice performance and reduce splice loss. Low-loss fiber
splicing results from proper fiber end preparation and alignment.

Fiber Optic Connectors

A fiber optic connector is a demateable device that permits the coupling of

optical power between two optical fibers or two groups of fibers. Designing
a device that allows for repeated fiber coupling without significant loss of
light is difficult. Fiber optic connectors must maintain fiber alignment and
provide repeatable loss measurements during numerous connections. Fiber
optic connectors should be easy to assemble (in a laboratory or field
environment) and should be cost effective. They should also be reliable.
Fiber optic connections using connectors should be insensitive to
environmental conditions, such as temperature, dust, and moisture. Fiber
optic connector designs attempt to optimize connector performance by
meeting each of these conditions.

Fiber optic connectors can also reduce system performance by introducing

modal and reflection noise. The cause of modal noise in fiber optic
connectors is the interfering of the different wavefronts of different modes
within the fiber at the connector interface. Modal noise is eliminated by
using only single mode fiber with laser sources and only low-coherence
sources such as light-emitting diodes with multimode fiber. Fiber optic
connectors can introduce reflection noise by reflecting light back into the
optical source. Reflection noise is reduced by index matching gels, physical
contact polishes, or antireflection coatings. Generally, reflection noise is
only a problem in high data rate single mode systems using lasers.

Butt-jointed connectors and expanded-beam connectors are the two basic

types of fiber optic connectors. Fiber optic butt-jointed connectors align
and bring the prepared ends of two fibers into close contact. The end-faces
of some butt-jointed connectors touch, but others do not depending upon the
connector design. Types of butt-jointed connectors include cylindrical
ferrule and biconical connectors. Fiber optic expanded-beam connectors
use two lenses to first expand and then refocus the light from the

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transmitting fiber into the receiving fiber. Single fiber butt-jointed and
expanded beam connectors normally consist of two plugs and an
adapter (coupling device).

Fiber Optic Couplers

Some fiber optic data links require more than simple point-to-point
connections. These data links may be of a much more complex design that
requires multi-port or other types of connections. Figure 4-23 shows some
example system architectures that use more complex link designs. In many
cases these types of systems require fiber optic components that can
redistribute (combine or split) optical signals throughout the system.

Figure 4-23. - Examples of complex system architectures.

One type of fiber optic component that allows for the redistribution of
optical signals is a fiber optic coupler. A fiber optic coupler is a device that
can distribute the optical signal (power) from one fiber among two or more
fibers. A fiber optic coupler can also combine the optical signal from two or
more fibers into a single fiber. Fiber optic couplers attenuate the signal much
more than a connector or splice because the input signal is divided among

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the output ports. For example, with a 1 X 2 fiber optic coupler, each output
is less than one-half the power of the input signal (over a 3 dB loss).

Fiber optic couplers can be either active or passive devices. The difference
between active and passive couplers is that a passive coupler redistributes
the optical signal without optical-to-electrical conversion. Active couplers
are electronic devices that split or combine the signal electrically and use
fiber optic detectors and sources for input and output.

Fiber Optic Transmitters

A fiber optic transmitter is a hybrid electro-optic device. It converts

electrical signals into optical signals and launches the optical signals into an
optical fiber. A fiber optic transmitter consists of an interface circuit, a
source drive circuit, and an optical source. The interface circuit accepts the
incoming electrical signal and processes it to make it compatible with the
source drive circuit. The source drive circuit intensity modulates the optical
source by varying the current through it.

Fiber Optic Receives

In fiber optic communications systems, optical signals that reach fiber optic
receivers are generally attenuated and distorted (see figure 7-5). The fiber
optic receiver must convert the input and amplify the resulting electrical
signal without distorting it to a point that other circuitry cannot use it.

Figure 7-5. - Attenuated and distorted optical signals.

As stated previously, a fiber optic receiver consists of an optical detector, an

amplifier, and other circuitry. In most fiber optic systems, the optical
detector is a PIN photodiode or APD. Receiver performance varies
depending on the type of detector used. The amplifier is generally described
as having two stages: the preamplifier and the postamplifier. The
preamplifier is defined as the first stage of amplification following the
optical detector. The postamplifier is defined as the remaining stages of

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amplification required to raise the detector's electrical signal to a level
suitable for further signal processing. The preamplifier is the dominant
contributor of electrical noise in the receiver. Because of this, its design has
a significant influence in determining the sensitivity of the receiver.

The output circuitry processes the amplified signal into a form suitable for
the interfacing circuitry. For digital receivers, this circuitry may include low-
pass filters and comparators. For analog receivers, this circuitry may also
include low-pass filters.

Receiver sensitivity, bandwidth, and dynamic range are key operational

parameters used to define receiver performance

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Chapter 3

Interoperability

Synchronous Communication

Most voice systems use synchronous (or clocked) technology, while most
data networks use asynchronous technology.
In a synchronous network (also called a synchronized network or
isochronous network):
• Data is moved at a precise rate
• The network does not slow down as the traffic increases
• Data emerges from the network at exactly the same rate it enters
In voice systems, clocked transmission is important for maintain
low delay, low loss, and low variance of delay.Digital Circuits
and DSU/CSUs
It is possible to lease digital point-to-point circuits from common carriers for
use in long-distance computer networks.
The fee depends on the circuit capacity and distance.
A specialized piece of hardware called a Data Service Unit/Channel
Service Unit (DSU/CSU) is needed to interface a computer to one of the
telephone companies digital circuits.

The CSU portion of the DSU/CSU device handles line termination and
diagnostics.

For example:

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 • Surges generated by lightning or other interference
• Whether the line is disconnected
• Prohibits excessive 1 bits (preventing excessive current on the line)
The DSU portion of the DSU/CSU device handles the data.
For example:
• Translates between data formats of the carrier and the customer
Telephone Standards
U.S. Standards for digital telephone circuits are called the T-series
standards. (Japan has a modified T-series, Europe has the E-series)

DS Terminology and Data Rates

T1 rate = 24 voice calls (24 * 64 Kbps)
A device is used at each end of the T1 to mux/demux the voice calls.
T3 rate = 28 T1 circuits.
We distinguish between the T-standards (which define the underlying carrier
system) and the DS standards or Digital Signal Level standards (which
specify how to multiplex multiple phone calls onto a single connection).
For example:
T1 denotes a standard for a carrier operating at 1.544 Mbps.
DS1 denotes a service that can multiplex 24 phone calls onto a single circuit.
Lower Capacity Circuits
Because leasing a T1 circuit is very expensive it is possible to lease a lower-
capacity circuit, called fractional T1.
Fractional T1 are available in (56 Kbps, 64 Kbps, 128 Kbps, 9.6 Kbps, 4.8
Kbps, etc.)
The phone company uses Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) to subdivide
the T1 circuits.
Intermediate Capacity Digital Circuits

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Technology called inverse multiplexing can provide intermediate capacity
circuits (e.g. greater than T1 and less than T3).
A device known as an inverse multiplexor (inverse mux) is needed at each
end of the lines.

Highest Capacity Circuits

A trunk is a high-capacity circuit.
The international Synchronous Transport Signal (STS) standards specify the
details of high speed connections.

Optical Carrier Standards

The STS standards refer to the electrical standards in the digital circuit
interface over copper.
The OC standards refer to the optical signals that propagate across optical
fiber.
The C Suffix
The optional suffix of C is used to designate a concatenated circuit.
For example,
• An OC-3 circuit consists of three OC-1 circuits operating at 51.840
Mbps each
• An OC-3C circuit is a single circuit operating at 155.520 Mbps

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Synchronous Optical NETwork (SONET)
In addition to STS and OC standards, SONET (Synchronous Optical
NETwork) standards define a broad set of digital transmission standards.
In Europe these standards are known as SDH (Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy).

If you lease an STS-1 circuit, you will probably be required to use SONET
encoding on the circuit.
Each STS-1 frame is 810 octets (9 “rows” with 90 “columns”).
SONET uses time to determine frame size, so higher rate circuits will have
larger frames.
SONET is primarily used on single point-to-point circuits, but it also has
additional possibilities for other high-speed configurations.

The Local Subscriber Loop

The terms local loop or local subscriber line are used to refer to the
connection between the phone company Central Office (CO) and an
individual subscriber’s residence or business.
Currently most subscribers obtain access to networks by using analog
signals on a conventional analog telephone service.
ISDN
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
• One of the first attempts to provide subscribers with high-speed digital
services
• Provides digitized voice and data over conventional (twisted-pair copper)
wiring
The ISDN Basic Rate Interface (BRI) is (2B + D) channels

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• B channels: operate at 64 Kbps, intended for digitized voice, data or
compressed video
• D channel: operate at 16 Kbps, intended as a control channel
Note: Both B channels can be bonded to form a single 128 Kbps channel
Note: ISDN sounded promising when it was proposed, but is now an expensive option
that offers moderate thoughput.Digital Subscriber Line Technology
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) is also a technology for providing digital
services across the local loop.
There are several variants of DSL which differ by the first word in their
title, so they are collectively, xDSL.
Defn: Downstream service refers to data flowing out to the user.
Defn: Upstream service refers to data flowing from the user.
ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line)
• Most popular xDSL technology
• Asymmetric service (downstream service higher bit rate than
upstream service)
• Maximum downstream rate is 6.144 Mbps
• Maximum upstream rate is 576 Kbps (640 Kbps – 64 Kbps control
channel)
• Does not require any changes in local loop wiring
• Can run simultaneously with standard phone service

ADSL’s High Speed

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Researchers noticed that many local loops can support frequencies higher
than those used by the telephone system.
Difficulty: No two local loops have identical electrical characteristics---
the ability to carry signals depends on the distance, gauge of
wiring used, and level of electrical interference.
Designers were unable to pick a particular set of carrier frequencies or
modulation techniques that would work in all cases.
Thus, ADSL is adaptive.
• ADSL modems are powered on.
• They probe the line to find its characteristics.
• They agree to communicate using techniques that are optimal for the
line.
ADSL uses a scheme known as DMT (Discrete Multi Tone modulation)
that combines frequency division multiplexing and inverse multiplexing.
DMT is implemented by Dividing the bandwidth into 286 separate
frequencies or subchannels.
• 255 frequencies used for downstream data
• 31 frequencies used for upstream data
• Conceptually there is a separate “modem” running on each
subchannel which has its own modulated carrier.
• Bandwidth below 4KHz is not used (to avoid interference with analog phone
signals)

Other DSL Technologies

Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL) provides symmetric bit rates in
both directions.
High-Rate Digital Subscriber Line (HDSL) provides a DS1 bit rates of
1.544 Mbps in two directions.
• It has a short distance limitation on local loops.
• Requires two independent twisted pairs.
• HDSL2 is a proposal that runs over two wires.
• Moving between a T1 circuit and HDSL is straightforward.
• Tolerates failure gracefully.
Very-high bit rate Digital Subscriber Line (VDSL) can provide a bit rates of
52 Mbps.
• Cannot be used on existing wiring between the Central Office and
subscribers.

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 Cable Modem Technology
Cable modem do not use the telephone local loop, but the CATV (cable
television network), with speeds up to 36 Mbps.
• Uses coaxial cable (immune to electromagnetic interference)
• Broadband signaling (frequency division multiplexing)
In theory, a pair of cable modems (using frequency division multiplexing)
could be used for each subscriber. One at the customer, one at the CATV
center. Unfortunately, the bandwidth is not high enough.
Instead, the cable company uses one frequency for a set of customers, and
time divison multiplexing between the users.

Cable Modem Upstream Communication

Traditional CATV systems do not have a mechanism for upstream
communication.
Two approaches for adding upstream traffic:
1. Dual path approach—uses a second standard dial-up modem for
upstream traffic. Downstream traffic comes from the cable modem
connection.
2. Modifying the cable infrastructure—Requires significant
changes and cost to the cable system. Could support video on
demand and interactive TV.
Examples:
• Using Hybrid Fiber Coax (which combines optical fiber for
trunks and coaxial cable for the feeder circuits) is a promising
approach, but much of the existing cable infrastructure will
need to be replaced.
• Using Fiber To The Curb (FTTC) is also being proposed.
Using fiber close to the subscriber, and then copper for the
feeder circuits to the subscribers.

Broadcast Satellite Systems

Uses asymmetric delivery:
• Broadcast satellite for downstream traffic.
• Lower-capacity network (e.g. dial-up) for upstream.

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Chapter 4

Multiprotocol Label Switching

Multiprotocol Label Switching

MPLS is the latest step in the evolution of multilayer switching in the
Internet. It is an IETF standards-based approach built on the efforts of the
various proprietary multilayer switching solutions.
MPLS uses the control-driven model to initiate the assignment and
distribution of label bindings for the establishment of label-switched paths
(LSPs).
LSPs are simplex in nature (traffic flows in one direction from the
head-end toward the tail-end), duplex traffic requires
two LSPs, one LSP to carry traffic in each direction. An LSP is created by
concatenating one or more label switched hops, allowing a packet to be
forwarded from one label-switching router
(LSR) to another LSR across the MPLS domain. An LSR is a router that
supports MPLS-based forwarding.
The MPLS control component centers around IP functionality, which is
similar to proprietary multilayer switching solutions (see Figure 6).
However, MPLS defines new standard-based IP signaling and label
distribution protocols, as well as extensions to existing protocols, to
support multivendor interoperability. MPLS does not implement any of the
ATM Forum signaling or routing protocols so the complexity of
coordinating two different protocol architectures is eliminated. In this way,
MPLS brings significant benefits to a packet-oriented
Internet.
Figure 6: Multiprotocol Label Switching

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The MPLS forwarding component is based on the label-swapping algorithm.
If the Layer 2 technology supports a label field (such as the ATM VPI/VCI
or the Frame Relay DLCI fields), the native label field encapsulates the
MPLS label. However, if the Layer 2 technology does not support a label
field, the MPLS label is encapsulated in a standardized MPLS header that is
inserted between the Layer 2 and IP headers (see Figure 7). The MPLS
header permits any link layer technology to carry an MPLS label so it can
benefit from label-swapping across an LSP.

Figure 7: MPLS Header

The 32-bit MPLS header contains the following fields:

_ The label field (20-bits) carries the actual value of the MPLS label.
_ The CoS field (3-bits) can affect the queuing and discard algorithms
applied to the packet as
it is transmitted through the network.
_ The Stack (S) field (1-bit) supports a hierarchical label stack.
_ The TTL (time-to-live) field (8-bits) provides conventional IP TTL
functionality.
Requirements and Objectives
The charter of the MPLS working group is to standardize a base technology
that combines the use of label swapping in the forwarding component with
network layer routing in the control component.
To achieve its objectives, the MPLS working group has to deliver a
solution that satisfies a number of requirements, including:
_ MPLS must run over any link layer technology, and just ATM.
_ MPLS core technologies must support the forwarding of both unicast and
multicast traffic flows.

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_ MPLS must be compatible with the IETF Integrated Services Model,
including RSVP.
_ MPLS must scale to support constant Internet growth.
_ MPLS must support operations, administration, and maintenance facilities
at least as extensive as those supported in current IP networks.
Common Misconceptions about MPLS
There are a number of misconceptions concerning the role of MPLS in the
core of the Internet.
Some in the Internet community believe that MPLS was developed to
provide a standard that allowed vendors to transform ATM switches into
high-performance Internet backbone routers.
While this might have been one of the original goals of proprietary
multilayer switching solutions in the mid-1990s, recent advances in silicon
technology allow ASIC-based IP route lookup engines to run just as fast as
MPLS or ATM VPI/VCI lookup engines. Although MPLS can enhance the
forwarding performance of processor-based systems, accelerating packet
forwarding performance was not the primary force behind the creation of the
MPLS working group.
Others in the Internet community believe that MPLS was designed to
completely eliminate the need for conventional, longest-match IP routing.
This never was an objective of the MPLS working group because its
members understood that traditional Layer 3 routing would always
be required in the Internet.

_ Packet filtering at firewalls and ISP boundaries is a fundamental

component of supporting security and enforcing administrative policy.
Because packet filtering requires a detailed examination of packet headers,
conventional Layer 3 forwarding is still required for these applications.
_ It is unlikely that a large number of host systems will implement MPLS.
This means that each packet transmitted by a host still needs to be forwarded
to a first-hop Layer 3 device where the packet header can be examined prior
to forwarding it towards its ultimate destination. The first-hop router can
then either forward the packet using conventional longest-match routing or
assign a label and forward the packet over an LSP.
_ If a Layer 3 device along the path examines the IP header and assigns a
label, the label represents an aggregate route because it is impossible to
maintain label bindings for every host on the global Internet. This means
that, at some point along the delivery path, the IP header must be examined
by another Layer 3 device to determine a finer granularity to continue
forwarding the packet. This router can elect to either forward the packet

21
using conventional routing or assign a label and forward the packet over a
new label switched path.
_ At the last hop before the destination host, the packet must be forwarded
using conventional Layer 3 routing because it is not practical to assign a
separate label to every host on the destination subnetwork.
The Promise of MPLS
The question remains, “Why should an ISP consider deploying MPLS in the
core of its network?” The most important benefit of MPLS is that it provides
a foundation that permits ISPs to deliver new services that cannot be readily
supported by conventional IP routing techniques. ISPs face the challenge of
not only delivering superior baseline service, but also providing new
services that distinguish them from their competition. MPLS allows service
providers to control costs, provide better levels of base service, and offer
new revenue-generating customer services.
Figure 8 illustrates how MPLS provides enhanced routing capabilities by
supporting applications that require more than just destination-based
forwarding. Assume that the routers in the core of the network perform
conventional, longest-match IP forwarding. If either Host A
or Host B transmits a packet to Host C, the packet follows Path 1 across the
core of the network because this is the shortest path computed by the IGP.
Figure 8: MPLS Enhances Routing Functionality

Suppose that the network administrator has been monitoring traffic statistics
and needs to implement a policy to control congestion at Router B. The
policy would reduce congestion at Router B by distributing the traffic load
along different paths across the network. Traffic sourced by Host A and
destined for Host C would follow the IGP shortest path, Path 1.

Traffic sourced by Host B and destined for Host C would follow another
path, Path 2. Using conventional IP routing, this policy cannot be
implemented because all forwarding at Router A is based on the packet’s

22
destination address. Now, if the routers in the core of the network function as
LSRs, it is easy to implement a policy
to reduce congestion at LSR B. The network administer configures LSP 1 to
follow Path 1. The network administer configures LSP 2 to follow Path 2.
Finally, the network administer configures LSR A to put all traffic received
from Host A and destined for Host C into LSP 1.
Likewise, LSR A is configured to place all traffic received from Host B and
destined for Host C into LSP 2. The ability to assign any FEC to a custom-
tailored LSP gives the network administrator precise control of traffic as it
flows through the provider’s network.
With careful planning, MPLS provides ISPs an unprecedented level of
control over traffic,
resulting in a network that is more efficiently operated, supports more
predictable service, and can offer the flexibility required to meet constantly
changing customer expectations. You should note that the remainder of this
section describes the potential for MPLS to assign traffic
to FECs based on an extremely rich set of packet classification capabilities.
Initial MPLS implementations will provide a more restricted set of packet
classification capabilities which should be expected to evolve as the
software implementing the control component matures.
As ISPs are required to roll out new customer services, the MPLS
forwarding infrastructure can remain in place. New services can be deployed
by simply modifying the control component that assigns packets to an FEC
and then maps each FEC to a custom-built LSP (see Figure 9).
For example, packets can be assigned to an FEC based on a combination of
the destination subnetwork and application type, a combination of the source
and destination subnetworks, a specific QoS requirement, an IP multicast
group, or a Virtual Private Network (VPN) identifier.
Similarly, network administrators can provision LSPs to satisfy specific FEC
requirements—
minimize the number of hops, meet specific bandwidth requirements, force
traffic across certain links in the network, and so forth. The final step in
evolving routing functionality is to configure the head-end LSR to place
packets assigned to a particular FEC into an LSP that has been customized to
support the FEC’s requirements.
Figure 9: How MPLS Enhances Routing Functionality

23
Chapter 5

Network Management

What Is Network Management?

Network management means different things to different people. In some
cases, it involves a solitary network consultant monitoring network activity
with an outdated protocol analyzer. In other cases, network management
involves a distributed database, autopolling of network devices, and high-
end workstations generating real-time graphical views of network topology
changes and traffic. In general, network management is a service that
employs a variety of tools, applications, and devices to assist human
network managers in monitoring and maintaining networks.
A Historical Perspective
The early 1980s saw tremendous expansion in the area of network
deployment. As companies realized the cost benefits and productivity gains
created by network technology, they began to add networks and expand
existing networks almost as rapidly as new network technologies and
products were introduced.
By the mid-1980s, certain companies were experiencing growing pains from
deploying many different (and sometimes incompatible) network
technologies.
The problems associated with network expansion affect both day-to-day
network operation management and strategic network growth planning. Each
new network technology requires its own set of experts. In the early 1980s,
the staffing requirements alone for managing large, heterogeneous networks

24
created a crisis for many organizations. An urgent need arose for automated
network management (including what is typically called network capacity
planning) integrated across diverse environments.
6-2
Network Management Architecture
Most network management architectures use the same basic structure and set
of relationships. End stations (managed devices), such as computer systems
and other network devices, run software that enables them to send alerts
when they recognize problems (for example, when one or more user-
determined thresholds are exceeded). Upon receiving these alerts,
management entities are programmed to react by executing one, several, or a
group of actions, including operator notification, event logging, system
shutdown, and automatic attempts at system repair.
Management entities also can poll end stations to check the values of certain
variables. Polling can be automatic or user-initiated, but agents in the
managed devices respond to all polls. Agents are software modules that first
compile information about the managed devices in which they reside, then
store this information in a management database, and finally provide it
(proactively or reactively) to management entities within network
management systems (NMSs) via a network management protocol. Well-
known network management protocols include the Simple Network
Management Protocol (SNMP) and Common Management Information
Protocol (CMIP). Management proxies are entities that provide management
information on behalf of other entities. Figure 6-1 depicts a typical network
management architecture.

Figure 6-1 A Typical Network Management Architecture Maintains Many

Relationships

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 Network management system

ISO Network Management Model

The ISO has contributed a great deal to network standardization. Its network
management model is the primary means for understanding the major
functions of network management systems. This model consists of five
conceptual areas, as discussed in the next sections.
6-3
Performance Management
The goal of performance management is to measure and make available
various aspects of network performance so that internetwork performance
can be maintained at an acceptable level. Examples of performance variables
that might be provided include network throughput, user response times, and
line utilization.
Performance management involves three main steps. First, performance data
is gathered on variables of interest to network administrators. Second, the
data is analyzed to determine normal (baseline) levels.
Finally, appropriate performance thresholds are determined for each
important variable so that exceeding these thresholds indicates a network
problem worthy of attention.

26
Management entities continually monitor performance variables. When a
performance threshold is exceeded, an alert is generated and sent to the
network management system.
Each of the steps just described is part of the process to set up a reactive
system. When performance becomes unacceptable because of an exceeded
user-defined threshold, the system reacts by sending a message. Performance
management also permits proactive methods: For example, network
simulation can be used to project how network growth will affect
performance metrics. Such simulation can alert administrators to impending
problems so that counteractive measures can be taken.
Configuration Management
The goal of configuration management is to monitor network and system
configuration information so that the effects on network operation of various
versions of hardware and software elements can be tracked and managed.
Each network device has a variety of version information associated with it.
An engineering workstation, for example, may be configured as follows:
• Operating system, Version 3.2
• Ethernet interface, Version 5.4
• TCP/IP software, Version 2.0
• NetWare software, Version 4.1
• NFS software, Version 5.1
• Serial communications controller, Version 1.1
• X.25 software, Version 1.0
• SNMP software, Version 3.1
Configuration management subsystems store this information in a database
for easy access. When a problem occurs, this database can be searched for
clues that may help solve the problem.
Accounting Management
The goal of accounting management is to measure network utilization
parameters so that individual or group uses on the network can be regulated
appropriately. Such regulation minimizes network problems (because
network resources can be apportioned based on resource capacities) and
maximizes the fairness of network access across all users.
As with performance management, the first step toward appropriate
accounting management is to measure utilization of all important network
resources. Analysis of the results provides insight into
current usage patterns, and usage quotas can be set at this point. Some
correction, of course, will be required to reach optimal access practices.
From this point, ongoing measurement of resource use can

27
yield billing information as well as information used to assess continued fair
and optimal resource utilization.

Fault Management
The goal of fault management is to detect, log, notify users of, and (to the
extent possible) automatically fix network problems to keep the network
running effectively. Because faults can cause downtime or unacceptable
network degradation, fault management is perhaps the most widely
implemented of the ISO network management elements.
Fault management involves first determining symptoms and isolating the
problem. Then the problem is fixed and the solution is tested on all-
important subsystems. Finally, the detection and resolution of the problem is
recorded.
Security Management
The goal of security management is to control access to network resources
according to local guidelines so that the network cannot be sabotaged
(intentionally or unintentionally) and sensitive information cannot be
accessed by those without appropriate authorization. A security management
subsystem, for example, can monitor users logging on to a network resource
and can refuse access to those who enter inappropriate access codes.
Security management subsystems work by partitioning network resources
into authorized and unauthorized areas. For some users, access to any
network resource is inappropriate, mostly because such users are usually
company outsiders. For other (internal) network users, access to information
originating from a particular department is inappropriate. Access to Human
Resource files, for example, is inappropriate for most users outside the
Human Resources department. Security management subsystems perform
several functions. They identify sensitive network resources (including
systems, files, and other entities) and determine mappings between sensitive
network resources and user sets. They also monitor access points to sensitive
network resources and log inappropriate access to sensitive network
resources.

Conclusion

28
Modern fiber cables can contain up to a thousand fibers in a single cable, so
the performance of optical networks easily accommodates even today's
demands for bandwidth on a point-to-point basis. However, unused point-to-
point potential bandwidth does not translate to operating profits, and it is
estimated that no more than 1% of the optical fiber buried in recent years is
actually 'lit'.

Modern cables come in a wide variety of sheathings and armor, designed for
applications such as direct burial in trenches, dual use as power lines [3],
installation in conduit, lashing to aerial telephone poles, submarine
installation, or insertion in paved streets. In recent years the cost of small
fiber-count pole-mounted cables has greatly decreased due to the high
Japanese and South Korean demand for fiber to the home (FTTH)
installations.

Telecommunications companies developing FTTH technology plan to

support 100+ Mbps bandwidth per home. They view fiber optic cabling as
the best technology for high-speed, high-quality residential area networking,
eventually replacing both telephone and cable TV lines. Costs to get FTTH
services off the ground are high, but fiber to the home installations are
steadily increasing around the world.

Referencecs

Textbooks
Davie, B., P. Doolan, and Y. Rekhter, Switching in IP Networks: IP Switching, Tag Switching, and
Related Technologies, Morgan Kaufmann, 1998, ISBN 1-55860-505-3.
Metz, Christopher, IP Switching: Protocols and Architectures, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1999,
ISBN 0-07-041953-1.

URLs

1. Alberto Bononi, Optical Networking (Springer, 1999).

2. B Thomas, RFC 3037: LDP Applicability, http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3037.txt.
3. http://www.tpub.com/neets/book24/index.htm

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