Perspectives of Global Environmental Issues

A series of major problems seems to threaten the world s rapidly expanding populat
ion: the consequences of global warming, the hole in the ozone layer, pollution
of the Earth s oceans, fresh waters, soil and atmosphere, the declining biodiversi
ty, the degradation of land and soil quality. Concerns appear to be justified as
long as the world s main development goals continue to be the economic levels of
its wealthiest nations and their high consumption and waste production patterns.
Our planet was formed 4.5 billion years ago. It took about one billion y
ears before the first bacterial organisms appeared and about 2.5 billion years b
efore the atmosphere contained enough oxygen to eventually permit the formation
of the first modern cells (eukaryotic-multicellular cells). Nevertheless their d
evelopment required another 1 billion years. The development of life over the fo
llowing 1.5 billion years progressively brought the environment of our planet to
the state it was known to the first Homo Sapiens of about 100,000 years ago. In
practice, it took the entire age of the Earth, namely about 4.5 billion years t
o develop a natural environment that stayed practically unaffected by anthropoge
nic effects until about 10,000 years ago.
The Cosmic Clock. Time of major events which characterized the evolution of the
Earth can be represented on what has been called the cosmic clock. This clock ha
s a dial compressing the entire history of the planet into a 24-hour day. The bi
rth of the planet is set at 00:00 hours and the present is set at 24:00 hours. O
n this scale the appearance of Homo Sapiens has occurred only about 2 seconds be
fore the present. And about 0.2 seconds before the present when human communitie
s started to become controllers of the global ecosystem rather than an integral
part of it.
Climate change and Global warming
Global Warming:
Global warming has reached a level such that we can ascribe with a high degree o
f confidence a cause and effect relationship between the greenhouse effect and t
he observed warming. Global warming is the increase in the average temperature o
f Earth's near-surface air and oceans since the mid-20th century and its project
ed continuation.
Causes of Global Warming:
CO2 from Car exhausts ? CO2 from Aeroplanes
CO2 from Buildings ? Methane
NO2 ? Water vapour in the atmosphere
Tropospheric ozone ? Chlorofluorocarbon
Carbon in Atmosphere and Oceans
Effects of Global Warming:
1. Polar ice caps melting: The ice caps melting are a four-pronged danger.
First, it will raise sea levels. There are 5,773,000 cubic miles of water in ice
caps, glaciers, and permanent snow. According to the National Snow and Ice Data
Center, if all glaciers melted today the seas would rise about 230 feet. Luckil
y, that s not going to happen all in one go! But sea levels will rise.
Second, melting ice caps will throw the global ecosystem out of balance. The ice
caps are fresh water, and when they melt they will desalinate the ocean, or in
plain English - make it less salty. The desalinization of the gulf current will
"screw up" ocean currents, which regulate temperatures. The stream shutdown or i
rregularity would cool the area around north-east America and Western Europe. Lu
ckily, that will slow some of the other effects of global warming in that area!
Third, temperature rises and changing landscapes in the Arctic Circle will endan
ger several species of animals. Only the most adaptable will survive.
Fourth, global warming could snowball with the ice caps gone. Ice caps are white
, and reflect sunlight, much of which is relected back into space, further cooli
ng Earth. If the ice caps melt, the only reflector is the ocean. Darker colors a
bsorb sunlight, further warming the Earth.
2. Economic consequences Most of the effects of anthropogenic global warming won t
 be good. And these effects spell one thing for the countries of the world: econ
omic consequences. Hurricanes cause do billions of dollars in damage, diseases c
ost money to treat and control and conflicts exacerbate all of these.
3. Increased probability and intensity of droughts and heat waves: Although some
areas of Earth will become wetter due to global warming, other areas will suffe
r serious droughts and heat waves. Global warming will exacerbate the conditions
and could lead to conflicts and war.
4. Warmer waters and more hurricanes: As the temperature of oceans rises, so wil
l the probability of more frequent and stronger hurricanes.
5. Spread of disease: As northern countries warm, disease carrying insects migra
te north, bringing plague and disease with them. Indeed some scientists believe
that in some countries thanks to global warming, malaria has not been fully erad
icated.
El Nino
Definition: A warm current from the Tropics that intrudes each winter along the
west coast of northern South America. Compare with La Nina.
La Nina
Definition: A global climate condition characterized by strong winds and cool oc
ean currents flowing westward from the coast of South America into the tropical
Pacific Ocean.
Green House Effect
Sources of Carbon emissions
CO2 is produced mainly from six processes:
From combustion of fossil fuels and wood.
As a by product from hydrogen plants, where methane is converted to CO2.
As a by product of fermentation of sugar in the brewing of beer, whiskey and oth
er alcoholic beverages.
From thermal decomposition of limestone, CaCo3, in the manufacture of lime, CaO.
As a by product of sodium phosphate manufacture.
Directly from natural CO2 springs, where it is produced by the action of acidifi
ed water on limestone or dolomite.
Carbon Sequestration: Process through which plant life removes CO2 from the atmo
sphere and stores its biomass.
Acid Rain
Unpolluted rain water is slightly acidic owing to the presence of carbon dioxide
in the air, pH could be upto 5.7.
CO2(g)+H2O(l) H+(aq)+HCO3-(aq)
2SO2 + O 2SO3
SO3 + H2O H2SO4
[SO2(g) + H2O(l) H+(aq) + HSO3-(aq)]
The forming of sulphur trioxide from sulphur dioxide is influenced by the prevai
ling atmospheric conditions such as the following:
Sunlight Temperature
Humidity Presence of hydrocarbons
Nitrogen oxides particulates
Besides formation of sulphuric acid sulphurous acid is also formed.
SO2 + H2O H2SO3
Another cause of acid rain is the oxides of nitrogen which are released from veh
icles and power plants.
2NO + O2 2NO2
4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 4HNO3
[2NO2(g) + H2O(l) HNO2(aq) + HNO3(aq)]
Effects of Acid Rain:
Vegetation: Acid rain can wash away essential plant nutrients from the soil. Mak
es the soil acidic and aids the release of aluminium and copper ions which are h
armful to plants.
Aquatic Life: When pH is less than 4.5, calcium metabolism in fresh water fish w
ill be affected, leading to poor health, thus resulting in their depletion.
Building materials: Cause damage to common building materials such as limestone
and marble, in addition to damaging statues and monuments. Many metals become ox
idized. Iron corrodes with presence of acid rain to form rust.
Chlorofluorocarbons
Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs (also known as Freon) are non-toxic, non-flammable a
nd non-carcinogenic. They contain fluorine atoms, carbon atoms and chlorine atom
s. The 5 main CFCs include
CFC-11 (trichlorofluoromethane - CFCl3),
CFC-12 (dichloro-difluoromethane - CF2Cl2),
CFC-113 (trichloro-trifluoroethane - C2F3Cl3),
CFC-114 (dichloro-tetrfluoroethane - C2F4Cl2), and
CFC-115 (chloropentafluoroethane - C2F5Cl).
CFCs are widely used as coolants in refrigeration and air conditioners, as solve
nts in cleaners, particularly for electronic circuit boards, as a blowing agents
in the production of foam (for example fire extinguishers), and as propellants
in aerosols. Indeed, much of the modern lifestyle of the second half of the 20th
century had been made possible by the use of CFCs.
Man-made CFCs however, are the main cause of stratospheric ozone depletion. CFCs
have a lifetime in the atmosphere of about 20 to 100 years, and consequently on
e free chlorine atom from a CFC molecule can do a lot of damage, destroying ozon
e molecules for a long time. Although emissions of CFCs around the developed wor
ld have largely ceased due to international control agreements, the damage to th
e stratospheric ozone layer will continue well into the 21st century.
Before the Montreal Protocol, CFCs were used in a variety of industrial and comm
ercial appliances.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Halons
CFCs and halons belong to the haloalkanes.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are compounds containing only carbon, chlorine and fl
uorine (no hydrogen). Halons are compounds containing only carbon, bromine and o
ther halogens (no hydrogen).
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are sold under the trade name of Freons.
CFCs are used as working fluids in refrigerators and air conditioners because th
ey are gases at room temperature which can be easily liquefied by compression an
d because they are stable and non-toxic
CFCs are used as foaming agents in the production of polystyrene and polyurethan
e foam plastics used for insulation and packing materials
CFCs are used as a propellant in spray cans for paint, insect repellents, deodor
ants
Halons are used in fire extinguishers because they are dense, non-flammable liqu
ids.
Bromochlorodifluoromethane, CF2ClBr, is commonly used in halon fire extinguisher
s.
CFC Name Formula Code Uses
trichlorofluoromethane
freon-11 CCl3F CFC-11 refigeration,
aerosols,
foams
________________________________________
dichlorofluoromethane
freon-12 CCl2F2 CFC-12 refigeration,
aerosols,
foams,
air conditioning
________________________________________
1,1,2-trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane
freon-13 CCl2FCClF2 CFC-13 electronics,
dry cleaning,
fire extinguishers
________________________________________
1,2-dichloro-1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethane
freon-14 CClF2CClF2 CFC-14 aerosols
________________________________________
1,2,2-trichloro-1,1,2-trifluoroethane
freon-113 CClF2CCl2F CFC-113 degreasing and
cleaning printed
circuit boards
Chemistry of Ozone Depletion by CFCs
CFCs destroy the ozone in the stratosphere (15 - 20 km above the earth's surface
)
(Ozone concentrations are measure in Dobsen units, 1 Dobsen unit represents 1 mo
lecule of O3 for every 1 billion air molecules)
Ozone loss is greatest over Antarctica where the ozone depletion has been record
ed and is commonly referred to as the "ozone hole".
Ozone (O3), an allotrope of oxygen, is poisonous to humans if breathed in, but i
s important to life in that it filters out or absorbs short wavelength ultraviol
et radiation (u.v) in the 280 - 320nm range which can cause serious sunburn, ski
n cancer and eye disorders.
The inertness and lack of water solubility of CFCs mean they are not destroyed n
or are they dissolved in rain water so they stay in the atmosphere for a very lo
ng time and diffuse up to the stratosphere
In the stratosphere, CFCs come into contact with short wavelength ultraviolet ra
diation which is able to split off chlorine atoms from the CFC molecules
CCl3F(g) u.v radiation
---------------> CCl2F(g) + Cl(g)
These chlorine atoms destroy the ozone layer
Cl(g) + O3(g) -------------> ClO(g) + O2(g)
There are significant numbers of oxygen atoms in the stratosphere (since ozone u
ndergoes a natural photochemical decomposition producing oxygen atoms and molecu
les) which leads to the regeneration of chlorine atoms in the stratosphere.
So, 1 CFC molecule can destroy many ozone molecules.
ClO(g) + O(g) -------------> O2(g) + Cl(g)
Substitutes for CFCs
The only long term solution to solve the problem of depletion of 0the ozone laye
r is to phase out the use of CFCs
(Montreal Protocol of 1987 and subsequent modifications)
Some CFCs can be replaced by HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons), compounds contain
ing at least 1 H atom.
The C-H bond makes these compounds more reactive in the atmosphere so they are d
estroyed more quickly and so are less able to diffuse into the stratosphere
Name Formula Code Uses
chlorodifluoromethane CHClF2 HCFC-22 air conditioning,
refrigeration,
foams
________________________________________
1-chloro-1,1-difluoroethane CClF2CH3 HCFC-142b aerosols
________________________________________
1,1-difluoroethane CHF2CH3 HCFC-152a aerosols,
refrigeration
CFC and green house gases
Major green house gases are:
Water vapour ? Carbon dioxide
 Methane ? Nitrous Oxide
Tropospheric ozone ? CFC
Stratosphere: The zone in the atmosphere extending from the tropopause to about
50km (30 miles) above the earth s surface; temperatures are stable or rise slightl
y with altitude; has very little water vapour but is rich in ozone.
Ozone depletion
The ozone layer filters out incoming radiation in the "cell-damaging" ultraviole
t (UV) part of the spectrum. Without ozone, life on Earth would not have evolved
the way it has. The discovery of a large ozone hole over Antarctica and is asso
ciation with man-made CFCs led the world to take action to protect the ozone lay
er.
Ozone in the Atmosphere
Ozone in the Lower Atmosphere (troposphere)
About 10% of all ozone (O3) in the atmosphere is found in the troposphere (up to
16km above the earth's surface).
Ozone in the troposphere has harmful effects on many living things because it is
toxic.
In humans, ozone causes eye irritation, compromised lung functions, aggravation
of respiratory conditions like asthma, and increases the susceptibility to infec
tion.
Ozone pollution in the troposphere is often linked to photochemical smog.
Ozone in the lower atmosphere is formed during electrical discharge from high vo
ltage appliances as shown in the equations below:
O2(g) -----> 2O(g)
O2(g) + O(g) -----> O3(g)
Ozone in the Upper Atmosphere (stratosphere)
About 90% of all ozone (O3) in the atmosphere is found in the stratosphere (16 t
o 32 km above the earth's surface).
In the stratosphere ozone acts as the primary UV radiation shield, short wavelen
gth UV radiation from the sun (<240nm) provides the energy to split oxygen molec
ules into oxygen atoms:
O2(g) UV radiation
------------> 2O(g)
Oxygen atoms then react with oxygen molecules to form ozone:
O(g) + O2(g) -------> O3(g)
Ozone can absorb harmful UV-B and UV-C radiation, preventing it from reaching th
e earth's surface:
O3(g) UV radiation
------------> O2(g) + O(g)
The constant formation and destruction of ozone maintains a balance over time.
Human activities, such as the release of chlorofluorocarbons in to the atmospher
e, have disturbed this balance.
Introduction to Ozone Depletion
Ozone is both beneficial and harmful to us. Near the ground, ozone forming as a
result of chemical reactions involving traffic pollution and sunlight may cause
a number of respiratory problems, particularly for young children. However, high
up in the atmosphere in a region known as the stratosphere, ozone filters out i
ncoming radiation from the Sun in the cell-damaging ultraviolet (UV) part of the
spectrum. Without this ozone layer, life on earth would not have evolved in the
way it has.
Concentrations of ozone in the stratosphere fluctuate naturally in response to v
ariations in weather conditions and amounts of energy being released from the Su
n, and to major volcanic eruptions. Nevertheless, during the 1970s it was realis
ed that man-made emissions of CFCs and other chemicals used in refrigeration, ae
rosols and cleansing agents may cause a significant destruction of ozone in the
stratosphere, thereby letting through more of the harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Then in 1985 evidence of a large "ozone hole" was discovered above the continen
t of Antarctica during the springtime. This has reappeared annually, generally g
rowing larger and deeper each year. More recently, fears have emerged about sign
ificant ozone depletion over the Arctic, closer to the more populous regions of
the Northern Hemisphere.
In response to this and additional fears about more widespread global ozone depl
etion, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was impl
emented in 1987. This legally binding international treaty called for participat
ing developed nations to reduce the use of CFCs and other ozone depleting substa
nces. In 1990 and again in 1992, subsequent Amendments to the Protocol brought f
orward the phase out date for CFCs for developed countries to 1995.
Protecting the ozone layer is essential. Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun can
cause a variety of health problems in humans, including skin cancers, eye catara
cts and a reduction in the body's immunity to disease. Furthermore, ultraviolet
radiation can be damaging to microscopic life in the surface oceans which forms
the basis of the world s marine food chain, certain varieties of crops including r
ice and soya, and polymers used in paints and clothing. A loss of ozone in the s
tratosphere may even affect the global climate.
International agreements and other legislation have gone a long way to safeguard
ing this life-supporting shield. Nevertheless, for there to be real and long-las
ting success, everyone must become part of the solution. Individual efforts take
n together can be powerful forces for environmental change. There are a number o
f things that we, as individuals, can do to both protect the ozone layer. These
include proper disposal of old refrigerators, the use of halon-free fire extingu
ishers and the recycling of foam and other non-disposable packaging. Finally, we
should all be aware that whilst emissions of ozone depleters are now being cont
rolled, the ozone layer is not likely to fully repair itself for several decades
. Consequently, we should take precautions when exposing ourselves to the Sun.
Ozone destruction:
Impacts of ozone depletion (Antarctic ozone hole)
In the past 60 years or so human activity has contributed to the deterioration o
f the ozone layer. Only 10 or less of every million molecules of air are ozone.
The majority of these ozone molecules reside in a layer between 10 and 40 kilome
ters (6 and 25 miles) above the Earth's surface in the stratosphere.
Each spring in the stratosphere over Antarctica (Spring in the southern hemisph
ere is from September through November.), atmospheric ozone is rapidly destroyed
by chemical processes.
As winter arrives, a vortex of winds develops around the pole and isolates the p
olar stratosphere. When temperatures drop below -78°C (-109°F), thin clouds form of
ice, nitric acid, and sulphuric acid mixtures. Chemical reactions on the surface
s of ice crystals in the clouds release active forms of CFCs. Ozone depletion be
gins, and the ozone hole appears.
Over the course of two to three months, approximately 50% of the total column am
ount of ozone in the atmosphere disappears. At some levels, the losses approach
90%. This has come to be called the Antarctic ozone hole.
In spring, temperatures begin to rise, the ice evaporates, and the ozone layer s
tarts to recover.
The Antarctic ozone hole was discovered in 1985 by British scientists Joesph Far
man, Brian Gardiner, and Jonathan Shanklin of the British Antarctic Survey.
The ozone "hole" is really a reduction in concentrations of ozone high above the
earth in the stratosphere. The ozone hole is defined geographically as the area
wherein the total ozone amount is less than 220 Dobson Units. The ozone hole ha
s steadily grown in size (up to 27 million sq. km.) and length of existence (fro
m August through early December) over the past two decades.

Credit:Center for Global Environmental Research, National Institute for Environm

ental Studies Japan
Through the 1990s, total column ozone in September and October have continued to
 be 40 50% lower than pre-ozone-hole values. In the Arctic the amount lost is more
variable year-to-year than in the Antarctic. The greatest declines, up to 30%,
are in the winter and spring, when the stratosphere is colder.
Reactions that take place on polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) play an important
role in enhancing ozone depletion. PSCs form more readily in the extreme cold o
f Antarctic stratosphere. This is why ozone holes first formed, and are deeper,
over Antarctica.
The role of sunlight in ozone depletion is the reason why the Antarctic ozone de
pletion is greatest during spring. During winter, even though PSCs are at their
most abundant, there is no light over the pole to drive the chemical reactions.
During the spring, however, the sun comes out, providing energy to drive photoch
emical reactions, and melt the polar stratospheric clouds, releasing the trapped
compounds. Warming temperatures near the end of spring break up the vortex arou
nd mid-December. As warm, ozone-rich air flows in from lower latitudes, the PSCs
are destroyed, the ozone depletion process shuts down, and the ozone hole close
s.
Winters in Antarctica 5-6 months temperature -90o C
Winters in Arctic 1-2 months temperature -80o C

Prototype carbon fund:

Recognizing that global warming will have the greatest impact on its borrowing c
lient countries, on 20 July 1999, the Executive Directors of the World Bank appr
oved the establishment of the Prototype Carbon Fund.
The Prototype Carbon Fund (PCF), with the operational objective of mitigating cl
imate change, aspires to promote the Bank's tenet of sustainable development, to
demonstrate the possibilities of public-private partnerships, and to offer a "l
earning-by-doing" opportunity to its stakeholders.
Deutsche Bank has invested $5 million in the Prototype Carbon Fund, a fund set u
p by the World Bank. With a volume of $180 million, the fund supports projects c
ontributing to the reduction of greenhouse gases in Asia, Eastern Europe, Latin
America, and Africa. The emission rights arising from these projects are availab
le to investors.
The fund was developed in association with the so-called Kyoto Protocol , in which
156 industrialized countries (as of September 2005) agreed to reduce their emiss
ions of greenhouse gases between the years 2008 and 2012. The protocol's goal is
to reduce emissions in developed countries by an average of 5.2%.
To maintain competitiveness, the countries were allowed to use so-called flexibi
lity mechanisms (joint implementation, clean development mechanism, emission tra
ding). These flexibility mechanisms facilitate the attainment of the individual
goals via the financing of projects in other countries or through the purchase o
f emissions certificates. Emission rights are created in conjunction with these
projects and their value depends on the volume of reduced emissions. It will be
possible to trade these emission rights on a securities exchange beginning in th
e year 2008.
In July 2003, the Prototype Carbon Fund promoted for the first time a project in
a developing country that put into effect the regulations of the Clean Developm
ent Mechanism agreed upon in Kyoto. The hydropower project in Chacabuquito, Chil
e, used the Aconcagua River as a local energy source instead of electricity gene
rated by fossil-fuel-fired power plants. One year later, 100,000 tons of CO2 emi
ssions have been eliminated. The Prototype Carbon Fund supported the conversion
of the hydropower plant, which can now run at a capacity of 160 GWh per year.
Conference of the Parties (COP)
The Conference of the Parties (COP) is the "supreme body" of the Convention, tha
t is, its highest decision-making authority. It is an association of all the cou
ntries that are Parties to the Convention.
The COP is responsible for keeping international efforts to address climate chan
ge on track. It reviews the implementation of the Convention and examines the co
mmitments of Parties in light of the Convention s objective, new scientific findin
gs and experience gained in implementing climate change policies. A key task for
the COP is to review the national communications and emission inventories submi
tted by Parties. Based on this information, the COP assesses the effects of the
measures taken by Parties and the progress made in achieving the ultimate object
ive of the Convention.
The COP meets every year, unless the Parties decide otherwise. The COP meets in
Bonn, the seat of the secretariat, unless a Party offers to host the session. Ju
st as the COP Presidency rotates among the five recognized UN regions - that is,
Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, Central and Eastern Europe and W
estern Europe and Others there is a tendency for the venue of the COP to also sh
ift among these groups.
Kyoto Protocol:
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Fr
amework Convention on Climate Change. The major feature of the Kyoto Protocol is
that it sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European c
ommunity for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions .These amount to an average
of five per cent against 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008-2012. The K
yoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into
force on 16 February 2005.
The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985), which outlin
es states' responsibilities for protecting human health and the environment agai
nst the adverse effects of ozone depletion, established the framework under whic
h the Montreal Protocol was negotiated.
The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer is a landmark i
nternational agreement designed to protect the stratospheric ozone layer. The tr
eaty was originally signed in 1987 and substantially amended in 1990 and 1992. T
he Montreal Protocol stipulates that the production and consumption of compounds
that deplete ozone in the stratosphere--chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, car
bon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform--are to be phased out by 2000 (2005 for
methyl chloroform).
The Great Barrier Reef:
The Great Barrier Reef is an ocean ecosystem that can be seen from space. Estima
ted to have existed for 250 million years, the Great Barrier Reef and its multit
ude of marine life are immersed in a challenge that has the entire system on the
brink of extinction. Coral reefs are living organism that supports other life f
orms. Corals are animals, tiny polyps with individual genetic identity.
Corals defend, and kill and eat plankton. Corals secrete calcified deposits that
are the basis of more coral reefs. The process takes enormous periods of time.
A coral ecosystem can host over 4000 life forms. The reef's shallow coastal wate
rs are the the tropical home to biodiversity rivaling the world's tropical rainf
orests. But the world's reefs, like the world's rainforests, are declining. The
Great Barrier Reef is not the only coral ecosystem endangered. All of the world'
s coral reefs are struggling to survive.
Corals expel algae when under stress. This expulsion leads to coral bleaching, a
phenomenon currently occurring in all of the planet's coral ecosystems. Bleachi
ng occurs when ocean temperatures become abnormally high, are exposed to unhealt
hy levels of ultraviolet light, and experience changes in salt content (salinity
).
Regions near reefs exist largely from some form of reliance upon coral reefs. Ec
onomic and food shortages could create "ecological refugees." Coral reefs protec
t shorelines and coastal regions from erosion, the effects of hurricanes and oth
er tropical weather systems. Coastal lands may become compromised if coral reefs
die.
Carbon Footprint
A carbon footprint is "the total set of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by
an organization, event, product or person". Greenhouse gases can be emitted thr
ough transport, land clearance, and the production and consumption of food, fuel
s, manufactured goods, materials, wood, roads, buildings, and services. For simp
licity of reporting, it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon diox
ide, or its equivalent of other GHGs, emitted.
The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint di
scussion. The carbon footprint is a subset of the ecological footprint and of th
e more comprehensive Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).
An individual's, nation's, or organization's carbon footprint can be measured by
undertaking a GHG emissions assessment. Once the size of a carbon footprint is
known, a strategy can be devised to reduce it, e.g. by technological development
s, better process and product management, changed Green Public or Private Procur
ement (GPP), carbon capture, consumption strategies, and others.
The mitigation of carbon footprints through the development of alternative proje
cts, such as solar or wind energy or reforestation, represents one way of reduci
ng a carbon footprint and is often known as Carbon offsetting.
The main influences on carbon footprints include population, economic output, an
d energy and carbon intensity of the economy. These factors are the main target
s of individuals and businesses in order to decrease carbon footprints. Scholars
suggest the most effective way to decrease a carbon footprint is to either decr
ease the amount of energy needed for production or to decrease the dependence on
carbon emitting fuels.