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1.1 Introduction
Bitumen and tar are two things that generally used in Civil Engineering
in combination with stone or mineral aggregates. It is commonly used for
road construction. But, they are also being used in building in roofs and
floors and also for corrosion coatings for steel pipes and heavy cables but in
a tiny of quantities.
1.2 Definition
Bitumen is a mixture of organic liquids that are highly viscous, black,
sticky, entirely soluble in carbon disulfide, and composed primarily of highly
condensed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
And all tar used today comes from coal although it can be
manufactured from wood.
1.3 Characterization
Bitumen characterized by consistency. The penetration, softening point
and viscosity are three properties that commonly used.
Penetration are characterized for road bitumen in this country. A
needle penetrates into a sample of bitumen under gravity at standard
condition of temperature, load and time.
Test: The amount of penetration of the needle is measured in tenths of
a millimeter and this figure is called “penetration” of the bitumen. The
normal test conditions are 25˚C, a load of 100 g and a time of 5 seconds. The
harder the bitumen, the difficult for needle penetrate.
Bitumen do not have any melting point and they will become softer
when being heated. The softening point is the temperature at which the
bitumen attains an arbitrarily defined degree of softness.
Test: Two samples of bitumen are contained in metal rings and small
steel ball is placed on top of each. The samples are immersed in a liquid bath
whose temperature is raised 5˚C per minute. As the bitumen soften, they
flow under the weight of the steel balls and each ultimately touches the
lower the lower bar of a steel frame. The softening point is taken as the
average of the temperatures at which is the samples touches the bar.
Viscosity is the property of a liquid that retard flow. It is measured by
viscometers.
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Test: the liquid is brought to the test temperature and the time in
seconds for 50ml to flow through a 10mm diameter orifice is measured. The
viscosity is expressed as seconds at the test temperature.
Tar
There two different types of tar made in United Kingdom. Type S is for
surface dressing. It has higher volatility so it will harden in short time after
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being sprayed on the road. Type C is for coating mineral aggregates. It has
lower volatility so it will not harden until the stone is fully coated.
Tar were basically characterized by their STV viscosity. But, the
range of temperature was needed to cover the viscosity used and there will
has a problem as the test temperature not always quoted. The Equiviscous
Temperature (EVT) was developed for tars in which the EVT is the
temperature at which 50ml of tars flows out of the ST Viscometerin seconds.
Chapter2: RUBBER
2.1 Introduction
Natural rubber, also called India rubber or caoutchouc, is
an elastic hydrocarbon polymer that was originally derived from latex, a
milky colloid produced by some plants. The plants would be ‘tapped’, that is
an incision made into the bark of the tree and the latex sap collected and
refined into a usable rubber. The purified form of natural rubber is the
chemical polyisoprene, which can also be produced synthetically. Natural
rubber is used extensively in many applications and products, as is synthetic
rubber.
Varieties
The commercial source of natural rubber latex is the para rubber tree(Hevea
brasiliensis), a member of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae. This is largely
because it responds to wounding by producing more latex, also this means
that the tree is able to photosynthesise more.
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2.3 Properties
Rubber exhibits unique physical and chemical properties. Rubber's stress-
strain behavior exhibits the Mullins effect, thePayne effect, and is often
modeled as hyperelastic. Rubberstrain crystallizes. Owing to the presence of
adouble bond in each repeat unit, natural rubber is sensitive toozone
cracking.
• Solvents
There are two main solvents for rubber: turpentine and naphtha(petroleum).
The former has been in use since 1764 when François Fresnau made the
discovery. Giovanni Fabronni is credited with the discovery of naphtha as a
rubber solvent in 1779. Because rubber does not dissolve easily, the material
is finely divided by shredding prior to its immersion. An ammonia solution
can be used to prevent the coagulation of raw latex while it is being
transported from its collection site.
• Chemical make up
In most elastic materials, such as metals used in springs, the elastic behavior
is caused by bond distortions. When force is applied, bond lengths deviate
from the (minimum energy) equilibrium and strain energy is
stored electrostatically. Rubber is often assumed to behave in the same way,
but it turns out this is a poor description. Rubber is a curious material
because, unlike metals, strain energy is stored thermally.
In its relaxed state, rubber consists of long, coiled-up polymer chains that
are interlinked at a few points. Between a pair of links, each monomer can
rotate freely about its neighbour, thus giving each section of chain leeway to
assume a large number of geometries, like a very loose rope attached to a
pair of fixed points. At room temperature, rubber stores enough kinetic
energy so that each section of chain oscillates chaotically, like the above
piece of rope being shaken violently. The entropy model of rubber was
developed in 1934 by Werner Kuhn.
When rubber is stretched, the "loose pieces of rope" are taut and thus no
longer able to oscillate. Their kinetic energy is given off as excess heat.
Therefore, the entropy decreases when going from the relaxed to the
stretched state, and it increases during relaxation. This change in entropy
can also be explained by the fact that a tight section of chain can fold in
fewer ways (W) than a loose section of chain, at a given temperature (nb.
entropy is defined as S=k*ln(W)). Relaxation of a stretched rubber band is
thus driven by an increase in entropy, and the force experienced is not
electrostatic, rather it is a result of the thermal energy of the material being
converted to kinetic energy. Rubber relaxation is endothermic, and for this
reason the force exerted by a stretched piece of rubber increases with
temperature. (Metals, for example, become softer as temperature increases).
The material undergoes adiabatic cooling during contraction. This property of
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rubber can easily be verified by holding a stretched rubber band to your lips
and relaxing it. Stretching of a rubber band is in some ways equivalent to
thecompression of an ideal gas, and relaxation is equivalent to its expansion.
Note that a compressed gas also exhibits "elastic" properties, for instance
inside an inflated car tire. The fact that stretching is equivalent to
compression may seem somewhat counterintuitive, but it makes sense if
rubber is viewed as a one-dimensional gas. Stretching reduces the "space"
available to each section of chain.
Vulcanization of rubber creates more disulfide bonds between chains, so it
shortens each free section of chain. The result is that the chains tighten
more quickly for a given length of strain, thereby increasing the elastic force
constant and making rubber harder and less extensible.
When cooled below the glass transition temperature, the quasi-fluid chain
segments "freeze" into fixed geometries and the rubber abruptly loses its
elastic properties, although the process is reversible. This is a property it
shares with most elastomers. At very low temperatures, rubber is rather
brittle; it will break into shards when struck or stretched. This critical
temperature is the reason winter tires use a softer version of rubber than
normal tires. The failing rubber o-ring seals that contributed to the cause of
the Challenger disaster were thought to have cooled below their critical
temperature. The disaster happened on an unusually cold day.
• Cultivation
Rubber latex is extracted from rubber trees. The economic life period of
rubber trees in plantations is around 32 years – up to 7 years of immature
phase and about 25 years of productive phase.
The soil requirement of the plant is generally well-drained weathered soil
consisting of laterite, lateritic types, sedimentary types, nonlateritic red or
alluvial soils.
The climatic conditions for optimum growth of rubber trees consist of (a)
rainfall of around 250 cm evenly distributed without any marked dry season
and with at least 100 rainy days per year (b) temperature range of about
20°C to 34°C with a monthly mean of 25°C to 28°C (c) high atmospheric
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humidity of around 80% (d) bright sunshine amounting to about 2000 hours
per year at the rate of 6 hours per day throughout the year and (e) absence
of strong winds.
Many high-yielding clones have been developed for commercial planting.
These clones yield more than 2,000 kilograms of dry rubber per hectare per
year, when grown under ideal conditions.
• Collection
In places like Kerala, where coconuts are in abundance, the half shell of
coconut is used as the collection container for the latex but glazed pottery or
aluminium or plastic cups are more common elsewhere. The cups are
supported by a wire that encircles the tree. This wire incorporates a spring so
it can stretch as the tree grows. The latex is led into the cup by a galvanised
"spout" knocked into the bark. Tapping normally takes place early in the
morning, when the internal pressure of the tree is highest. A good tapper can
tap a tree every 20 seconds on a standard half-spiral system, and a common
daily "task" size is between 450 and 650 trees. Trees are usually tapped
alternate or third daily, although there are many variations in timing, length
and number of cuts. The latex, which contains 25–40% dry rubber, is in the
bark, so the tapper must avoid cutting right through to the wood or the
growing cambial layer will be damaged and the renewing bark will be badly
deformed, making later tapping difficult. It is usual to tap a pannel at least
twice, sometimes three times, during the trees' life. The economic life of the
tree depends on how well the tapping is carried out, as the critical factor is
bark consumption. A standard in Malaysia for alternate daily tapping is 25 cm
(vertical) bark consumption per year. The latex tubes in the bark ascend in a
spiral to the right. For this reason, tapping cuts usually ascend to the left to
cut more tubes.
The trees will drip latex for about four hours, stopping as latex coagulates
naturally on the tapping cut, thus blocking the latex tubes in the bark.
Tappers usually rest and have a meal after finishing their tapping work, then
start collecting the latex at about midday. Some trees will continue to drip
after the collection and this leads to a small amount of cup lump which is
collected at the next tapping. The latex that coagulates on the cut is also
collected as tree lace. Tree lace and cup lump together account for 10–20%
of the dry rubber produced.
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The latex will coagulate in cup if kept for long. The latex has to be collected
before coagulation. The collected latex is transferred in to coagulation tanks
for the preparation of dry rubber or transferred into air-tight containers with
sieving for ammoniation. Ammoniation is necessary to preserve the latex in
colloidal state for long.
Latex is generally processed into either latex concentrate for manufacture of
dipped goods or it can be coagulated under controlled, clean conditions
using formic acid. The coagulated latex can then be processed into the
higher grade technically specified block rubbers such as TSR3L or TSRCV or
used to produce Ribbed Smoke Sheet grades.
Naturally coagulated rubber (cup lump) is used in the manufacture of TSR10
and TSR20 grade rubbers. The processing of the rubber for these grades is
basically a size reduction and cleaning process to remove contamination and
prepare the material for the final stage drying. The dried material is then
baled and palletized for shipment.
2.5 Manufacturing
Other significant uses of rubber are door and window profiles, hoses, belts,
matting, flooring and dampeners (antivibration mounts) for
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• Textile applications
• Liquid Rubber
troweling.
Liquid Rubber can be used in conjunction with Supaseal heat reflective and
trafficable topcoats and will provide and wide range of colours and years or
maintenance free performance.
Fumes associated with hot kettles and propane torches are not involved in
application, hence, Liquid Rubber is extremely user-friendly on site and
during application. It serves as cold, liquid-applied, polymer-enhanced
asphalt that produces a waterproof elastomeric membrane.
Liquid Rubber products are extremely suitable for the highly corrosive
environment and strict water and fire requirements within most mining
facilities. The anti-corrosion, waterproofing, fire and chemical resistant
characteristics make Liquid Rubber products perfect for applications ranging
from metal protection to tank liners to floor coatings.
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• Bridge decks
properties such as low tensile strength, low energy absorption and ductility
and critically associated with shrinkage and cracking. According to literature
produce by many of active researches, the significant main properties
resulted from the investigation showed the application of waste tyre rubber
might enhance these weak characteristics of concrete.
In recent research, it is proven that by replacing in a certain percentage of
original aggregate in concrete mix with waste tyre rubber commonly reduced
drying shrinkage, brittleness and elastic modulus thus lead to improvement
of durability and serviceability of the mix.
Furthermore, rubber material in concrete lightweight panel is favourable as
sound barrier and function as insulation that tend to assist with static
charged reduction in walls cause by electrical appliances. In addition, it is
suitable to be used as roof due to the lightweight mix and help control noise
plus a good deal cooler. These include shock-absorbing structural elements
in high security structures to resist impact and spalling, in buildings as an
earthquake shock-wave absorber and in railway stations as ballast mats for
high-speed trains. In hydraulic structures the precast rubber concrete is
suitable to resist cavitations and in liquid-retaining structures.
Tyre rubbers are commonly used as a partial aggregate in asphalt. Shredded
tires are non-biodegradable either above or below the water line under
normal conditions. This provides for a stable road base for a longer time
period than some other lightweight fill materials Other than that it also used
as partial replacement for bitumen. In cold climate, tyre chips are being used
to reduce frost penetration beneath roads that can cause frost heave
resulting cracking to pavement and uneven road surface for their resistance
and thaw. Additionally, waste rubbers are used as crack sealant and repair
membranes that utilises the flexibility of rubber to provide improved road
maintenance.
In EXPO 2005 Aichi, Japan an experimental project was reveal to the public
on the effective use of waste tyre as road bed material in a new pavement
called "porous elastic road surface (PERS)". The pavement in which rubber
chips are used instead of crushed stones. The pavement developed distinct
features including drainage, noise reduction, and shock-absorbency and
freeze prevention. The PERS manage to decrease the noise level by 6 - 10 dB
compared with conventional asphalt pavement. The reduction is equivalent
to the decreased of one-fourth and one-tenth of current traffic volume.
Whole and shredded tyres have high hydraulic conductivity that makes them
appropriate for drainage applications or where free-draining is required. In
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United States, some of its states allow tire shred to be used in construction of
drain fields for septic system. Other than that, tyre derive product are also
used to construct leachate drainage channels, explosives and explosives
stemming, and service channel to collect organic and oil trapped material.
In the last part of this series, I will touch on the applications of waste tyre in
civil engineering applications as lightweight material, flooring material, fuel,
and coastal applications.
Chapter3: PLASTIC
Plastics are typically polymers of high molecular mass, and may contain
other substances to improve performance and or reduce production costs.
Monomers of plastic are either natural or synthetic organic compounds.
Plastics also known as synthetic polymers which can easily be deformed.
They are formed by the addition or condensation polymerization. Plastics are
not affected by the action of acids or bases. They have great tendency to
deform.
They are various plastic processing method available in industrial process, from the
method of processing plastic we can divided into two big methods they are :
1. Molding Method
this method usually use mold to melt the plastic, deformed with applied pressure and
the product shape will same as the mold shape.
Various molding type method can be divided as
3. Injection Mold
Injection molding involves taking plastic in the form of pellets or granules and heating
this material until a melt is obtained. Molten plastic is injected at high pressure into a
mold, which is the inverse of the product's shape then it is allowed to cooling into the
desired shape. The mold is then opened and the part is ejected, at which time the cycle
is repeated. you should learn about various injection molds type at mold construction
post
injection mold method have various kind of techniques like Thermoplastic Foam
Injection Molding, Multi injection mold (sandwich mold, bi injection mold) gas assist
injection molds and other, basic injection machine for injection mold you can see at
picture below
5. Compression Molds
Compression molding is a method of molding in which the plastic, generally preheated,
is first placed in an open, heated mold cavity, they are four step in compression molds
they are loaded charge, charge compressed, cured the charge and ejecting process of
product. the main construction is Punch (cavity side), core molds and ejection system.
.
The advantages of RIM are Strong, flexible, lightweight parts which can easily be
painted. Quick cycle times compared to typical vacuum cast materials, the
disadvantage is slow cycle time because must mixed before formed by mold.
7. Transfer Mold
Transfer Mold or Resin Transfer Mold (RTM)- like compression molding, is a process
where the amount of molding material (usually a thermoset plastic) is measured and
inserted before the molding takes place. The molding material is preheated and loaded
into a chamber known as the pot. A plunger is then used to force the material from the
pot through channels known as a sprue and runner system into the mold cavities. The
mold remains closed as the material is inserted and is opened to release the part from
the sprue and runner. The mold walls are heated to a temperature above the melting
point of the mold material; this allows a faster flow of material through the cavities.
8. Thermoforming
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Is a manufacturing process for thermoplastic sheet or film by Heating a thermoplastic
sheet and using a vacuum to pull the sheet over perforated mold. the product of this
method is Fast food containers, advertising signs, panels for shower stalls
9. Pultrusion
Pultrusion is a continuous process of manufacturing of composite materials with
constant cross-section whereby reinforcing fibers are pulled through a resin, possibly
followed by a separate preforming system, and into a heated die, where the resin
undergoes polymerization. Many resin types may be used in pultrusion including
polyester, polyurethane, vinylester and epoxy.
1)Thermoplastic
Plastics that become soft on heating and melt on heating and can be moulded again
and again are known as thermoplastics. Repetitive heating of thermoplastics does not
cause permanent change in properties or composition. They are addition polymers.
2) Thermosetting plastic
These are the plastics that can be softened on heating but they become permanently
hard on cooling. They can not be remoulded again. They are insoluble in any solvent
whether organic or inorganic. They are condensation polymers.
The raw materials needed to make most plastics come from petroleum and natural gas
but some another material which is:
Plasticizers : They improve the softening, decrease brittleness and
workability of
plastics. They are organic substances.
Stabilizers : They prevent chemical degradation of plastics. By nature
they are
antioxidants.
Fillers : They increase the tensile strength of plastics. They are
wood flour and glass wool.
Reinforcing agents: They increase its mechanical strength. Example is glass fibre.
Pigments : They are used to impart a particular color to the plastic.
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Roofing
• Roofing systems made with spray polyurethane foam (SPF) offer durability,
energy savings and moisture control. This foam can be used to cover an existing
roof, helping to reduce the amount of building materials sent to landfills.
Walls
• In walls, the use of structural insulated panels (SIPs) made with expanded
polystyrene (EPS) can help homeowners save hundreds of dollars annually on
heating and cooling bills. Savings vary by material and products. EPS starts out
as a plastic pellet and ends up as nearly 95 percent air, a very effective insulator.
• Vinyl is increasingly found in durable, easy-to-clean vinyl wall coverings and
requires only half as much energy to manufacture as the same amount of paper
wall coverings.
Windows
• Plastics also rival traditional materials for windows and frames. For example,
polycarbonate—a material also used in eyeglasses—is used in windows. These
lightweight, shatter-resistant plastic products have low thermal conductivity,
which can help to reduce heating and cooling costs.
• Vinyl window frames save the U.S. nearly 2 trillion thermal units of energy per
year, helping reduce the greenhouse gas emissions associated with energy
generation—all the while cutting maintenance time, materials and costs.
Piping
• Polyolefin, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
pipes and fittings, offer excellent fusion integrity for continuous pipeline systems,
helping to eliminate potential leak points where water could be wasted.
• In residential use, cross-linked polyethylene piping (PEX) is effective in manifold
systems—due to its flexibility, lightness, and ease of installation—allowing
multiple feed lines throughout a house, which allows hot water to arrive more
quickly to a sink or shower. This can significantly save water.
Decks, Fences and Railings
• Lumber made from recycled plastics or plastic-wood composites can outlast
traditional materials, often require less maintenance, and are resistant to peeling,
cracking, splintering or fading.
Plastic House Wrap
• The advent of plastic house wrap technology has reduced the infiltration of
outside air into the average home by 10-50%, helping to drastically reduce
the energy required to heat or cool the home. These plastic films have helped
reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. by as much as 120 to 600
million tons of CO2 since 1980 (assuming that all homes built since 1980
have some form of plastic barrier).
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• For homeowners, this means that the energy saved by the use of house wrap
can surpass the energy used to make the plastic product in less than two
months after installation. The greenhouse gas emissions avoided due to
reduced energy use can surpass the emissions released in the manufacture
of house wrap in three weeks or less.
• For each of the above examples, energy savings can vary. Find out why in the
seller’s fact sheet for these plastic building products, which include house
wraps, foam insulation, sheathing insulation and sealants. Check to see if
your local retailer offers fact sheets on individual building products.
The manufacturing of plastics often creates large quantities of chemical pollutants. For
example, the process to heat the material to molten state. This process release the
carbon dioxide to atmosphere and cause the global warming. Plastics also are durable
and degrade very slowly; the molecular bonds that make plastic so durable make it
equally resistant to natural processes of degradation. To save our earth from global
warming we can use:
3) Oxo-biodegradable
lyolefin plastic to which has been added very small (catalytic) amounts of
metal salts. As long as the plastic has access to oxygen (as in a littered
state), these additives catalyze the natural degradation process to speed
it
up so that the OBD plastic will degrade when subject to environmental
conditions.
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Chapter4: POLYMER
4.1 Introduction
• Etymology
The word polymer is derived from the Greek words πολύ- - poly- meaning
"many"; and μέρος - meros meaning "part". The term was coined in 1833 by
Jöns Jacob Berzelius, although his definition of a polymer was quite different
from the modern definition.
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a.Polymer architecture
An important microstructural feature determining polymer properties is the
polymer architecture. The simplest polymer architecture is a linear chain: a
single backbone with no branches. A related unbranching architecture is a
ring polymer. A branched polymer molecule is composed of a main chain
with one or more substituent side chains or branches. Special types of
branched polymers include star polymers, comb polymers, brush polymers,
dendronized polymers, ladders, and dendrimers.
Polymer characterization
The characterization of a polymer requires several parameters which need to
be specified. This is because a polymer actually consists of a statistical
distribution of chains of varying lengths, and each chain consists of monomer
residues which affect its properties.
A variety of lab techniques are used to determine the properties of polymers.
Techniques such as wide angle X-ray scattering, small angle X-ray scattering,
and small angle neutron scattering are used to determine the crystalline
structure of polymers. Gel permeation chromatography is used to determine
the number average molecular weight, weight average molecular weight,
and polydispersity. FTIR, Raman and NMR can be used to determine
composition. Thermal properties such as the glass transition temperature
and melting point can be determined by differential scanning calorimetry
and dynamic mechanical analysis. Pyrolysis followed by analysis of the
fragments is one more technique for determining the possible structure of
the polymer. Thermogravimetry is a useful technique to evaluate the thermal
stability of the polymer. Detailed analyses of TG curves also allow us to know
a bit of the phase segregation in polymers. Rheological properties are also
commonly used to help determine molecular architecture (molecular weight,
molecular weight distribution and branching)as well as to understand how
the polymer will process, through measurements of the polymer in the melt
phase. Another polymer characterization technique is Automatic Continuous
Online Monitoring of Polymerization Reactions (ACOMP) which provides real-
time characterization of polymerization reactions. It can be used as an
analytical method in R&D, as a tool for reaction optimization at the bench
and pilot plant level and, eventually, for feedback control of full-scale
reactors. ACOMP measures in a model-independent fashion the evolution of
average molar mass and intrinsic viscosity, monomer conversion kinetics
and, in the case of copolymers, also the average composition drift and
distribution. It is applicable in the areas of free radical and controlled radical
homo- and copolymerization, polyelectrolyte synthesis, heterogeneous phase
reactions, including emulsion polymerization, adaptation to batch and
continuous reactors, and modifications of polymers.
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Chapter 6: Glass
1
6.1 Introduction
The Art of glassmaking was very old, and today mostly industry uses
basically the same type of material as did with the ancient glass maker.
However, the method of manufacture had changed and improved, resulting
in higher production rates, superior glass, and sheet sizes far greater than
anything possible under older methods. Term glass is usually defined in a
much wider sense The terms “glass” refer to an material which is largely
amorphous (non-crystalline) in its solid state and that exhibits a glass
transition when heated towards the liquid state.. Effectively, glasses
resemble liquids in that they have no ordered molecular structure. Particular
properties play significant role on the product. High strengths are at least
theoretically obtainable because absence weakness associated with the
grain (crystal) boundaries found in compound which crystallize.
Perhaps glass is more important still for the most widespread use of glasses
building/glazing, it tend to transparent again because there are mo crystal
boundaries to intercept or reflect light. Each sheet of glass could be regarded
as a single very large molecule.
Glass, as a substance, plays an essential role in science and industry. Their
chemical, physical, and in particular optical properties make them suitable
for applications such as flat glass, container glass, optics and optoelectronics
material, laboratory equipment, thermal insulator (glass wool), reinforcement
materials (glass-reinforced plastic, glass fiber reinforced concrete), and glass
art (art glass, studio glass).
Therefore Glass is one of the mass-produced materials use nowadays,
probably none has a more exciting background or adds more to move
forward modern living than glass. There is hardly a moment in our daily lives
that glasses in some form is not performing a service for us.
Glass in its uses in modern building is dealt with in:
• BS 6262 CP for glazing of building is concerned with general glazing.
• Bs5516 Code of Practice for Patent Glazing, Publications of Pilkington
Glass Ltd, St Helen’s, Lancashire, and glass merchants
• Glass colour
The choice of minors at this point determines the colour of the final product.
Colour results from two factors: the oxidation state of the glass, and the
specific colourant additives used. Glass oxidation is promoted by the addition
of carbon, and the degree of oxidation is measured on an arbitrary scale
known as the carbon number. Clear glass has a carbon number of zero, dark
green glass is -28 and amber is -52. Other variations of colour are achieved
through the action of coloured materials that act as dyes. For example, the
iron (II) ions naturally present in sand results in the green tinge seen in clear
glass, and this can be masked by the addition of selenium. Moreover, the
amber and green colours of glass bottles are caused not only by the degree
of oxidation, but also by the addition of iron chromite and an ironsand /
saltcake mix respectively. As glass is fed continuously into the furnaces,
each furnace has to be dedicated to producing glass of a particular recipe,
and it takes 12-48 hours and a number of steps to alter the mix to change to
producing a different type of glass of an acceptable standard.
3. The flos of air pushes the flue gasses across the furnace, over
the glass and the glass down the opposite regenerator, heating
up its packing.
4. After half an hour, the opposite regenerator is used and the cycle
reverses
• Shaping plate glass
The cooled, molten glass from the furnace flowed into an extension of the
tank known as the drawing canal, where it cooled to 1000 C before being
drawn up into a tower, the drawing tower, by dipping an iron grille into the
glass, onto which the glass stuck. The 2.5 metre wide sheet of glass was
drawn up into the tower by asbestos rollers, cooling as it rose. Plate glass
can be made as thin as 2mm, with this thickness determined by the speed of
its progress up the drawing tower - 2mm thick glass moves up at
approximately 170 metres an hour, while the average is about 40 metres per
hour.
By the time the glass reaches the top of the tower it is ten metres above the
molten glass, and only 280 C. On the top floor of the factory the glass is
monitored to ensure its constant thickness, and then scored and snapped off
by the break-off machine. The individual sheets weigh 22kg, and are lifted
by rubber suction pads and placed on a conveyor belt where they are cooled
and have their rough edges snapped off, before being transported to the
warehouse for storage.
To increase the efficiency of glass component in a building, diff innovative concept had
been developed in recent year.
a. Insulating glass
It consists of two or more lites of glass, separated by an air space, joined at
the edges to produce a hermetically sealed unit. Function as increase the
thermal efficiency of the glass, reduce the amount of surface condensation,
hence provides sound insulation without greatly affecting the entry of natural.
b. Transparent Mirror glass
This kind of glass just only can transparent from either sides only, depending
on the relative intensity of light on either sides.
c. Tinted Glass
It’s specially tinted. Function as reduce solar heat and cut down glare, to
provide a more restful atmosphere.
d. Laminated Glass
This comprises two or more layers of plain glass bonded by sheets of a clear
plastics/polyisobutyrate. It’s absorbs energy during impact so that toughness
of material is greatly increased. Failure does not lead to disintegration and
visibility, weatherproofing and security are normally retained.
e. Toughness Glass
Surface of glass subjected to cool air jets while in the hot state, it cool
relatively quickly while inner is still soft. Inner layers subsequently contract
impart a compressive stress to cool outer surface. This force balanced by
small tensile stress though the bulk of the glass.
It have 5 time greater impact strength than plain glass. Thickness required
for particular application can reduced.
f. Glass Blocks
Glass blocks are comparable to masonry unit but have addition feature of
transmitting light. This improved the illumination of building interior. They
made in two separate halve which are heat-sealed together to form hollow
unit with reasonably high thermal efficiency and sound insulation.
Its chosen based on its ability contribute to an overall design plan instead to
control daylight.
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g. Heat absorbing glass
This product is pale bluish green or gray by adding ingredients to mix used in
making regular glass. Its absorb significant percentage of sun’s radiation
energy thus reduce build-up heat within the building.
• Chemical Resistance
Glass will resist most acids with the exception of hydrofluoric, and
at high temperatures phosphoric acid. Alkalis will attack the
surface of unprotected glass. General water-born materials from
surrounding surfaces and the atmosphere may leave deposits on
glass, these should be removed for longevity and optimal
performance.
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• Weight
• Strength
• Conductivity
• Light Transmission
• Temperature Performance
The only substances discharged into the environment as a result of this process are the
CO2 and SO3 released during the batch melting process, and these gases are simply
released through a tall plant stack.
However, the glass industry is also working to support the environment by recycling its
product. This lowers costs (as cullet is cheaper and easier to melt than silica) and
prevents wastage. Foreign country , Europe country have been involved with recycling
to a small extent since they were established, and began using the yellow recycling bins
throughout the country. More recently KERB-side collections have been instituted
throughout the country to increase the level of glass recycling. The cullet thus collected
is then used as a raw material in glass production making up anywhere between 10%
(for clear glass) and 80% (for amber or green glass) of the final product. For this reason
glass recycling is practised to a much greater extent by manufacturers of glass bottles
than manufacturers of plate glass, as they produce a much greater volume of coloured
glass.
Consideration Assessment
Chapter7: ALLOY
7.1 DEFINITON
is a partial or complete solid solution of one or more elements in a metallic
matrix. Complete solid solution alloys give single solid phase microstructure,
while partial solutions give two or more phases that may be homogeneous in
distribution depending on thermal (heat treatment) history. Alloys usually
have different properties from those of the component elements.
THEORY
Alloying a metal is done with one or more other metals or non-metals often
enhances its properties. For example, steel is stronger than iron, its primary
element. The physical properties, such as density, reactivity, Young's
modulus, and electrical and thermal conductivity, of an alloy may not differ
greatly from those of its elements, but engineering properties such as tensile
strength and shear strength may be substantially different from those of the
constituent materials. This is sometimes due to the sizes of the atoms in the
alloy, since larger atoms exert a compressive force on neighboring atoms,
and smaller atoms exert a tensile force on their neighbors, helping the alloy
resist deformation. Sometimes alloys may exhibit marked differences in
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behavior even when small amounts of one element occur. For example,
impurities in semi-conducting ferromagnetic alloys lead to different
properties, as first predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian Abrie and
Nakamura. Some alloys are made by melting and mixing two or more metals.
Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was the first alloy discovered, during the
prehistoric period now known as the bronze age; it was harder than pure
copper and originally used to make tools and weapons, but was later
superseded by metals and alloys with better properties. In later times bronze
has been used for ornaments, bells, statues, and bearings. Brass is an alloy
made from copper and zinc.
Unlike pure metals, most alloys do not have a single melting point, but a
melting range in which the material is a mixture of solid and liquid phases.
The temperature at which melting begins is called the solidus, and the
temperature when melting is just complete is called the liquidus. However,
for most alloys there is a particular proportion of constituents (in rare cases
two)—the eutectic mixture—which gives the alloy a unique melting point.
• Mild Steel
• Carbon Steel/Cast Steel
• Stainless Steel
i) Stainless Steel
This type must contain over 10.5% chromium, <1% carbon. The chromium
alloying creates as Cr2O3 surface layer that resists oxidation and makes the
material "passive" or corrosion resistant (i.e. "stainless").
Three MAIN Branches:
• Ferritic → Cr Only, BCC (e.g. 430)
• Austenitic → Ni Added, FCC (e.g. 304)
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(for
best corrosion
resistance)
USES Automotive -Kitchen sinks Knife
exhaust and fuel -Architectural blades,surgical
lines,architectura applications instruments,faste
l trim,cooking such as roofs ners
utensils,bank and gutters,
vaults doors and
windows, tubular
frames
-Food processing
equipment
-Chemical
Vessels
-Oven / Furnaces
-Heat
exchangers
-Workshop
machine
i) CAST IRON
carbon and silicon, minor (<0.01%), and often alloying (>0.01%) elements.
It has higher carbon and silicon contents than steel. Because of the higher
carbon content, the structure of cast iron, as opposed to that of steel,exhibits
a rich carbon phase. This properties such as brittle, snaps before it will bend
and strong in compression.
Methods of Identification
Appearance:
➢ Grey with a granular surface
➢ Dropping:
➢ gives out a dull note
➢ Grinding:
➢ Gives off a few dull sparks
➢ Effect of Heating:
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➢ No change
➢ The uses of cast iron is Vices, cylinder blocks for car engines,
frames for most machines.
NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
i) Brass
• Combination of 65% Copper and 35% Zinc.
• Characteristics
i- Very corrosive
ii- yellow in colour
iii- tarnishes very easily
iv- It is harder than copper and its good electrical conductor.
• Uses - Deep drawn containers, tanks, heat exchangers, architectural
panels, coins.
Scrap metal is loaded into a “charge bucket” and brought into the melt shop
where it will go through two step melting process.
• Step 2
The first melting step begins when the scrap is unloaded from the charge
bucket into our 108 ton Electric Arc Furnace (EAF).As known as First Step
Melting.
• Step 3
The EAF uses electric power to heat the scrap to over 3,000 degrees
Fahrenheit and melt it into liquid form. In the process, slag forms and floats
to the top of the molten steel with oxidized impurities and discarded.
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• Step 4
• Step 5
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As the billets move through the continuous caster, they are cut by torches
into desired lengths.
• Step 6
The completed billets are used as the feedstock for our rolling mill or sold on
the world market for use by other mills.
• Step 7
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The hot rolling process begins by reheating the previously created billets in
our reheat furnace until they turn into a “plastic” state. In this photo, the
billets are entering the reheat furnace. This step called ‘Second Step
Melting’.
• Step 8
The reheated billets exit the reheat furnace and proceed to one of our two
rolling mills. Each rolling mill consists of a series of “stands”, each containing
a set of rollers that compress and lengthen the billets and then finish them
into the desired shape (i.e., reinforcing bar, wire rod, one of the merchant
shapes, etc). Water is used to keep the equipment from overheating.
• Step 9
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MATERIALS ISSUES
Steel - Steel production uses a lot of
energy, but less than most metals.
- Steel is easily recycled - as it is
usually magnetic it is easily sorted
from mixed waste.
Cast iron - Iron production uses a lot of
energy, but less than most metals.
- Cast iron is easily recycled - as it is
magnetic it is easily sorted from
mixed waste.
Stainless Steel - Steel production uses a lot of
energy, but less than most metals.
- Steel is easily recycled - though
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REFERENCE:
Chapter 2 plastic
• http://www.citycollegiate.com/plastics_XII.html
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic
• http://mould-technology.blogspot.com/2008/01/plastic-processing-
methode.html
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_recycling
Chapter 3 Rubber
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_rubber
• http://ezinearticles.com/?Waste-Tyre-Utilization-in-Civil-Engineering-
Applications---Part-2-of-3&id=4873404
• http://www.liquidrubbereurope.com/applications-civil-engineering.html
• http://www.ehow.com/facts_7542890_use-rubber-tires-highway-
construction.html
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• http://www.liquidrubber.ca/
• http://www.liquidrubbereurope.com/index.html
Chapter 6 Glass
Thank You