Natural Hazards 16: 81–95, 1997.

81
c 1997 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

Geotechnical Hazards Associated with Desert

Environment

W. M. SHEHATA and A. A. AMIN

King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Earth Sciences, P.O. Box 1744, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia 21411

(Received: 19 November 1996; in final form: 14 April 1997)

Abstract. The aridity of the Arabian Peninsula’s deserts ranges between arid to hyperarid with hot dry
climate, scarce precipitation and sparse vegetation. These harsh environmental conditions enhance
some geomorphologic processes more than others, cause specific geotechnical problems, and increase
desertification.
From west to east, the general physiography of Saudi Arabia shows the Red Sea coastal plains
and the escarpment foothills called Tihama followed by the Arabian Shield mountains, the Arabian
Shelf plateau and finally the Arabian Gulf coastal plains. Sand moves by wind either as drifting
sand or migrating dunes in four major sand seas, over the Arabian Shelf, and in the inter-mountain
valleys, in the Arabian Shield causing problems of erosion and deposition. Human activities in the
deserts may cause more instability to the sand bodies, enlarging the magnitude of the problem. Fine
silty soil particles also move by wind, depositing loess mainly in selected areas downwind in the
Tihama. These loess deposits subside and may form earth fissures by the process of hydrocompaction
upon wetting. The addition of water can be either natural through storms or man-made through
human agricultural or civil activities. Extensive sabkhas exist along the coastal plains of both the
Red Sea and Arabian Gulf. The sabkha soil may also heave by salt re-crystallization or collapse by
wetting. The shallow groundwater brines present in sabkhas also attack and corrode civil structures.
Urbanization and excessive groundwater pumping may also deplete the fresh groundwater resources
and may cause subsidence, ground fissuring and surface faulting as observed in some locations in the
Arabian Shield. Although the average annual precipitation is very low, rain usually falls in the form
of torrential storms, collected by dry valley basins and causing floods to unprotected downstream
areas on the coastal plains of the Red Sea.
The desert environment, being a fragile echo system, needs to be treated with care. Intercommu-
nications between different national and international agencies and education of the layman should
help to keep the system balanced and reduce the resulting environmental hazards. In addition, any
suggested remedial measures should be planned with nature and engineered with natural materials.
Key words: Geotechnical hazards, Saudi Arabia, physiography, desert, arid, erosion, deposition, dune
movement, hydrocompaction, hydroconsolidation, loess, sabkha, floods, subsidence, groundwater
withdrawal.

1. Introduction
Although deserts are known to be simply barren areas, they are scientifically defined
in terms of water shortage or aridity, soil type, topography and vegetation. UNESCO
(1979) presented a map showing the distribution of deserts in the world. According
to this map, most of the Middle Eastern countries lie within the semi-arid, arid and
hyper-arid desert zones, with aridity index (ratio between annual precipitation and
mean annual potential evapotranspiration) ranging between >0.03 and <0.20.
82 W. M. SHEHATA AND A. A. AMIN

Figure 1. General physiography of Saudi Arabia (modified after Anon, 1972).

Most of the geotechnical hazards associated with desert environments as cited

by the Saudi Arabian environment are principally related to the aridity conditions
and the land forms inherited by these conditions. The physiography of Saudi
Arabia is generalized in Figure 1 as interpreted from the topographic map of the
Saudi Arabian peninsula at scale 1 : 4,000,000 (Anon, 1972). From west to east the
geomorphology of Saudi Arabia (Figure 1) starts with the eastern coastal plains of
the Red Sea and the foot-hills known as Tihamah. Sabkha areas exist as longitudinal
stretches parallel to the shore-line. The coastal plains are bounded eastward by the
escarpment of the Arabian Shield mountains which locally rise over 3,000 m above
sea level. The mountains are followed eastward by the central plateau of the Arabian
Shelf which is bounded westward by the Tuwayq escarpment and largely covered
by sand seas. The Arabian Gulf coastal region, along the west coast of the Arabian
Gulf, is partially covered either by extensive sabkha areas or by the Jafurah sand
sea. Several steep dry valleys flow from the Arabian Shield escarpment westward
toward the Red Sea, while other gentler slopping valleys flow eastward. Loess
and loess-like material could be observed in scattered locations along some of the
westerly flowing valley courses.
Under desert environments, the following conditions are inevitable:
GEOTECHNICAL HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH DESERT ENVIRONMENT 83

1. Eolian conditions prevail and are dominated by erosional and depositional

activities of the wind.
2. Wind deposited sediments such as sand and loess are loosely packed with
relatively low relative densities.
3. Continuous decline in fresh groundwater levels exists in several locations due
to the shortage of groundwater resources.
4. Precipitation is scarce and happens mostly after dust storms in the form of
torrential rain that may cause flash flooding.
5. Evaporation, to a great extent, exceeds precipitation that may lead to the for-
mation of coastal as well as continental sabkhas or salt flats.

Accordingly, the potential geotechnical hazards that may occur under desert
conditions may include erosion and deposition associated with sand drifting and
dune movement; hydrocompaction of loessal soil; collapse, heave and corrosion
caused by sabkha environment; land subsidence due to excessive groundwater
withdrawal; and flash floods. Desertification is a natural hazard enhanced under
these conditions.

2. Geotechnical Hazards
2.1. WIND EROSION AND DUNE MOVEMENT
Erosion in desert environment is caused mainly by wind action and the blasting
effect of its sand load. The rate of sand drifting is a function of the sand grain size,
the wind speed, and the geomorphic conditions. Bagnold (1941) indicated that the
threshold velocity of the drifting sand increases with the increase in grain sizes for
sand greater than 0.1 mm in diameter. It also increases for the smaller grain sizes
due to the cohesive action present between the grains. Naturally the rate of sand
drifting also increases with the wind speed. The sand drifting is therefore dependent
on grain size, seasonal climatic changes and also on geomorphological setting. The
eolian sand existing in four sand seas, namely the Great Nufud, Al-Jafurah, Ad-
Dahna and Elrub-Elkhali, covers approximately one third of the Arabian Peninsula.
Within these sand seas, the wind speed is generally 4.0 m s 1 or higher during the
months May through September (Anon, 1986) as reported by the meteorological
stations present at Dhahran, Quasumah and Al-Jawf.
Fryberger et al. (1983) studied the rate of sand drifting in different geomor-
phological units in Dhahran area and confirmed the fact that the highest drift rates
occur during the months of March through July. They indicated that the highest
rate of sand drifting occur in the dune areas with an average annual drift rate of
29.2 m3 /m. The rate of drifting in the interdune area is 12.8 m3 /m, in the sand sheet
area is 2.3 m3 /m and in the sabkha area 6.5 m3 /m. Irtem et al. (1989) showed that
the amount of drifting sand depends also on the dune type. A maximum of 144
t/m drifts off the crest of barchan dunes, 46 t/m in parabolic dunes and 0.1 t/m in
84 W. M. SHEHATA AND A. A. AMIN

a sand sheets. Bader (1989, personal communication) reported a rate of 49 t/m in

dome dunes.
Dune movement occurs as a result of localized sand drifting. For example,
barchan dunes move by sand eroded from the wind-ward face and deposited on
the slip face. Figure 2 shows the magnitude of erosion and deposition within a
barchan dune in the Jafurah sand sea during its movement in a period of 18 months
(Shehata et al., 1992). The measurements were performed by surveying the dune
with respect to a stationary landmark in the summer of 1987, then re-surveying it at
the end of 1988. The produced contour maps were subtracted to produce Figure 2.
The rate of dune movement depends mainly on its height, wind speed and presence
of vegetation. The higher the dune, the larger the amount of sand involved in its
movement and consequently the slower it moves. While a 60 m high barchan dune,
in the Great Nufud sand sea, moves at a rate of less than 2 m/y, a 11 m high
dune in the Jafurah sand sea moved at a rate of more than 12 m/y (Figure 3). For
equally high dunes the narrower they are the faster. The rate of dune movement
is also dependent on dune type. Barchan dunes move faster than dome dunes and
those are still faster than the parabolic dunes (Shehata et al., 1990b). The rates of
movement of both the parabolic dunes and dome dunes were measured by staking
the dunes along the centerline and a few other parallel lines and calculating their
movement from the rate of erosion or deposition along these stakes. Since the
barchan dune sand is very loose and could not be staked, its rate of movement
is measured by fixing a rod in front of the dune and periodically measuring the
radiating distance between the rod and the slip face.
The problems associated with sand drifting and dune movement are either
erosional where building foundations may get exposed or depositional where the
dune may completely cover entire buildings (Photos 1(a) and (b)). Photo 1(a)
shows a house that was completely covered by a barchan dune and was gradually
exposed. It took about two years to completely expose the house. Photo 1(b) shows
a roadside coffee shop which was abandoned and left unmaintained for few years.
These problems are enhanced by human activities. Overgrazing demolishes the
vegetation that controls the sand drifting and human activities may destroy the
desert pavement which protects the underneath loose sand. It was noticed that
human activities during the Kuwait war in 1991 increased the sand activities in the
downwind areas in Saudi Arabia. As remedial measures, dunes were stabilized by
vegetation, by fences, by chemical spraying or by other mechanical means. Watson
(1985) reviewed the different methods of sand control with special reference to
Saudi Arabia. The use of vegetation and/or naturally occurring stabilizers usually
shows better performance than man-made chemicals or fences. The design of a
remedial measure is usually based on quantitive estimates of the magnitude of the
affected area, the amount of drifting sand or dune movement rate, the prevailing
wind direction, and the types and rate of growth of the selected vegetations.
GEOTECHNICAL HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH DESERT ENVIRONMENT 85

Figure 2. A barchan dune survey map showing the areas and magnitudes of erosion and
deposition in addition to the location of the slip face during two monitoring periods, Jafurah
sand sea.

2.2. HYDROCOMPACTION OF LOESS

Loess is unconsolidated silt of eolian origin, buff in color and characterized by
lack of stratification. It is porous, has low bulk density and is generally calcareous.
The carbonate content depends either on the composition of the parent material
or on post-depositional solutions carrying weathering and alteration products. The
main loess mineralogical constituents are quartz, clay minerals, feldspars, micas,
hornblende and pyroxene (Smalley and Vita-Finzi, 1968)
The literature of loess recognizes two major sources of loess material formed
under conditions of dry climate: glacial or periglacial areas and hot desert. In desert
areas the wind-blown silt is trapped in these areas either adjacent to steppe lands
or on wet soil or rock surfaces. Smalley and Krinsley (1978) showed that some
desert loess is formed near mountain areas due to weathering of igneous rocks
while typical deserts such as Sahara lack loess deposits. Loess grain size ranges
between 20  and 100  with the bulk varying between about 30  and 80 . For
such grain sizes, the capillary forces are relatively high and consequently prevent
86 W. M. SHEHATA AND A. A. AMIN

Figure 3. Rates of movement of three barchan dunes in the Jafurah sand sea.

Photo 1. (a) A house that was completely covered by a barchan dune and was exposed after
the dune moved; (b) Deposition of drifting sand in an abandoned roadside coffee shop, Al Lith.
GEOTECHNICAL HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH DESERT ENVIRONMENT 87

the accumulated material from further transportation (Cegla, 1969). The concept
of capillary forces as cause for loess accumulation explains the presence of loess
in isolated patches of ‘loess islands’.
Loess structure undergoes dynamic changes upon changing its moisture content.
Handy (1973) has shown that when the loess moisture content exceeds its liquid
limit, its structure instantaneously collapses under the load and the soil subsides.
This process was described as hydrocompaction by Lofgren (1969) and was termed
hydroconsolidation and thoroughly investigated by Bally (1988), Feda (1988),
Sajgalik (1991) and Rogers et al. (1994). Therefore when an area covered with loess
is subject to flooding it will appreciably subside and the soil will become closely
packed with increasing density. The magnitude of subsidence is dependent on the
degree of saturation and the thickness of the loess layer. Any variations in these
will cause differential settlement and failure of any overlying man-made structure.
In addition to hydroconsolidation, loess may fail by liquefaction, fluidization or by
progressive failure (Derbyshire et al., 1994) depending on the geomorphological
setting of the material.
In Saudi Arabia, very little geologic literature mentions the presence of loess
(Smalley and Krinsley, 1978), although it is apt to form around desert highlands.
The soil atlas of Saudi Arabia (Anon, 1984) does not include the term loess in
its classification and only includes loam as one of the soil units present around
the desert areas. Several loess occurrences are, however, recognized in the areas
to the east and southeast of the Mediterranean sea (Smalley and Krinsley, 1978;
Dan, 1990; Goring-Morris and Goldberg, 1990; Yair, 1992; Pye, 1994). Foder and
Kleb (1994) mapped loess as a soil unit mixed with loamy soil in Hungary. It is
therefore suggested that loess could be mistakenly mapped, in some locations, as
fine loam as presented in the soil atlas. Field observations suggest the presence
of loess or loess-like soils in the downstream sections of the main valleys in
Tihama and in the southwestern part of Saudi Arabia. Geotechnical literature, on
the other hand, reports the presence of collapsible soil similar in behavior to loess in
scattered locations in the Eastern Province. Figure 4 shows hydroconsolidation and
collapse in a sample from Al-Yutamah area occurring under a normal pressure of
0.3 MN/m2 (Bankher, 1996). Loess occurrence and distribution in Saudi Arabia, and
its engineering properties are the authors’ interest and investigations are underway.

2.3. COLLAPSE, HEAVE AND CORROSION OF SABKHA ENVIRONMENT

Two main types of sabkha are known in the desert environments: coastal sabkha and
continental sabkha. The two types exist under arid conditions where evaporation
exceeds precipitation. The coastal sabkha is formed as broad coastal flats that get
restricted from the sea by offshore islands (Evans et al., 1969 and Bush, 1973)
or by coral reef barrier. These tend to form a lagoon with very small tidal range
and consisting of sandy, silty or clayey soil depending on the pre-existing geologic
setting. The continental sabkha, on the other hand, is formed in a closed depression
88 W. M. SHEHATA AND A. A. AMIN

Figure 4. A consolidation test result shows the collapse of a loess soil sample upon saturation
(modified after Bankhar, 1996).

in which fine soils are accumulated by washing off the surrounding formations.
In Saudi Arabia, extensive coastal sabkhas exist along the Arabian Gulf and the
Red Sea coasts. Continental sabkhas are also present in different locations in
the Eastern Province, in the Riyadh area and in the Northern Province. The arid
conditions with evaporation exceeding precipitation in both sabkha environments
increase the salinization of the soil with a possible formation of salt crust. Both
types of sabkha are also characterized by highly saline and shallow groundwater
conditions.
The geotechnical properties of the coastal sabkha soils in Saudi Arabia and
their potential geological hazards were investigated by Rein-Ruhr (1973), Ali et al.
(1985), Ali and Hossain (1987), Dhowian et al. (1987), Hossain and Ali (1988),
Abou Al-Heija and Shehata (1986, 1989) and Shehata et al. (1990a, 1990b). One
continental sabkha close to Ar-Riyadh was investigated by Stipho (1985). Several
other continental sabkhas are present near Hail and require thorough investigation.
The sabkha soil is not homogeneous but generally loose or soft with Standard
Penetration Test (SPT) values ranging from zero close to the groundwater level
to >30 at depth. The low SPT values and the presence of water soluble salts
such as halite may cause collapse conditions to the soil upon wetting. Figure 5
shows the collapse behavior of a sample from Al-Lith sabkha which is similar
in behavior to the loess soil, but different in occurrence, origin and composition.
The presence of anhydrite and its possible transformation to gypsum may, on the
other hand, cause heave. Lutenegger et al. (1979) measured the heave pressure
GEOTECHNICAL HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH DESERT ENVIRONMENT 89

Figure 5. A consolidation test result shows the collapse of a sabkha soil sample upon saturation
(after Abou Al-Heija and Shehata, 1986).

caused by induced gypsum growth in shale samples in the laboratory which ranged
between 70 and 2,100 KN/m2 . The high salt content of the soil, especially the
chlorides and sulfates, also severely attacks any submerged structures such as
concrete foundations, reinforced bars, and steel pipes, corroding them and causing
reduction in their strength properties. During the rainy season, the sabkha soil
becomes weak and impassable because of the dissolution of the cementing salts.
These problems are increased by the fact that the groundwater level is shallow and
its salinity is high (Ali and Hossain, 1987; Shehata et al., 1990a). Sabkha is also
susceptible to flooding because of its flat surface and the relatively low permeability
of its soil.
The structure built in on sabkha soil should be carefully designed in order to
avoid these problems and any other future problems that could be created after
construction. It was noticed that a problem of groundwater rise may occur upon
the urbanization of a sabkha location. The groundwater rise may occur because of
several reasons, including interception by the urbanization structures to the natural
evaporation process of the shallow groundwater, the infiltration of fresh water from
irrigation, drainage or leakage in pipelines, and the reduced permeability of the
sabkha soil.

2.4. LAND SUBSIDENCE DUE TO EXCESSIVE GROUNDWATER WITHDRAWAL

Under arid desert conditions, the shortage of groundwater resources and excessive
pumping may cause continuous decline in the fresh groundwater levels. Accord-
ingly, the soil salinity may increase, soil fertility may decrease and consequently
90 W. M. SHEHATA AND A. A. AMIN

desertification may increase. When the aquifer is formed of unconsolidated sedi-

ments of high porosity and is interbedded with clay aquitards of low permeability
and high compressibility, the rapid lowering of the groundwater level may also
cause subsidence and possible ground failure. Poland (1981) reported subsidence
ranging between a few tens of centimeters to few meters in Georgia, Louisiana,
Texas, Nevada and California. The maximum subsidence was reported west of
Fresno, California which amounted to 8.8 m until 1972. Holzer (1984) reported
ground failures ranging from long tension cracks or fissures to surface faults asso-
ciated with land subsidence in more than 14 areas in United States. Fissures may
reach a few kilometers in length but only a few centimeters in width. However, the
fissures are usually eroded by rain water into gullies 1 to 2 m wide and 2 to 3 m
deep. Surface faults commonly attain scarp height of less than 1 m but increase
with time by creep.
Both land subsidence and ground fissures were reported in several places in
Saudi Arabia. Roobol et al. (1985) related the ground fractures and building dam-
ages, in Tabah and An’Nai villages which are built within old volcanic craters, to
excessive groundwater withdrawal. Amin (1988) investigated the problem of Tabah
in detail and proved that land subsidence, ground fissures and also surface faults
(Photo 2) are due to excessive pumping within the old crater. Amin and Shehata
(1991) presented a model (Figure 6) showing how these features were progressive-
ly developed. Amin and Bankher (1995) reviewed the land subsidence in Saudi
Arabia and stressed the potential hazards of excessive groundwater withdrawal.
Bankher (1997) also investigated the land subsidence in western Saudi Arabia and
related it to both excessive groundwater withdrawal and hydroconsolidation.
groundwater management and the pumping of water within a safe yield become
very essential, especially in the areas that may undergo subsidence due to ground-
water withdrawal. The management of groundwater production at the villages of
Tabah and An’Nai reduced the hazard of subsidence to a great extent.

2.5. FLASH FLOODS

The average precipitation along the coasts and in the desert areas of Saudi Arabia
does not exceed 100 mm/y, although the precipitation in the semi-arid zones along
the higher terrain of the Arabian Shield exceeds this value. This rain in the highlands
is collected by major dry valley basins and drained both in the east and the west
directions towards the Stable Shelf and the Tihama respectively. The valleys flowing
to the west are steep and less mature, and flood water may reach the Red Sea coastal
area as sheet flood. Photos 3(a) and (b) are examples of the hazards caused by a
flood that was triggered by a 80 mm rain storm in February 1996 in Al-Lith area.
It should be noted that the extent of flooding in any drainage basin is related to the
area, the existing types of sediment or rocks and the geomorphological parameters
of the basin including its topographic characteristics. For example, if the flood water
inundates sabkha environment, the water remains stagnant for days due to the flat
GEOTECHNICAL HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH DESERT ENVIRONMENT 91

Photo 2. Surface faulting associated with subsidence due to groundwater withdrawal in Tabah.

topography and the low permeability of the sabkha soil. Under more favorable
conditions, the flood water may infiltrate or will be discharged into the sea.
The flood damage is sometimes extensive both in lives and properties, depending
on its magnitude. The assessment of the magnitude of floods caused by rain storms
on the Arabian Shield requires the installation of flood gages and meteorological
stations in some key valleys and monitoring them for a long period of time. Until
then the estimates of flood potential are speculative and no quantitative measures
can be obtained and consequently no remedial measures can be suggested.
92 W. M. SHEHATA AND A. A. AMIN

Figure 6. A model showing the progressive formation of surface faults due to groundwater
withdrawal in Tabah (after Amin and Shehata, 1991).

3. Conclusions

The desert environment is very fragile and is highly affected by human activities.
Disturbances in the balanced echo system are apt to take place, causing serious
problems to man’s environment and consequently initiating geotechnical hazards.
Urbanization, climatic conditions, and geomorphic and geologic setting are usually
controlling factors influencing the type of these hazards. The potential geotechnical
hazards that may occur under desert conditions may include sand drifting and dune
movement; hydrocompaction of loessal soil; collapse, heave or corrosion of sabkha
GEOTECHNICAL HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH DESERT ENVIRONMENT 93

Photo 3. (a) Sheet flood along a stretch of Jeddah-Al Lith coastal highway after a 88 mm rain
storm in February 1996; (b) Undercutting of road pavement caused by flood water erosion, Al
Lith coastal highway.

environment; land subsidence due to excessive groundwater withdrawal; and flash

floods.
When dunes move or sand drifts, both erosion and deposition hazards may occur
endangering any structures downwind. Engineering solutions preferably utilizing
natural material will then be necessary. Subsidence may occur in sabkha soil, loess,
and loose soil aquifers subjected to excessive groundwater pumping. Heave and
corrosion may also occur in sabkha terrain. Engineering solutions or groundwater
production management will be required. Flood prediction in dry valleys requires
extensive investigation before any engineering solution is recommended.
Other hazards, either natural or man-made, including seismicity, volcanism, and
slope instability may occur, but they are not restricted to the desert environments.

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