South Africa, 2009

Eurocode 3

Recent developments in
Background

Design rules

steel structures:
Elliptical
tubes

Introduction
Introduction to Eurocode 3
Cross-section & Elliptical hollow sections
Member

Dr Leroy Gardner
L. Gardner Imperial College London

Eurocode 3

Background

Design rules

Elliptical
Introduction to
Eurocode 3
tubes

Introduction

Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner

1
 Overview
Eurocode 3

Background Outline:
Design rules
• Introduction

Elliptical
• Load combinations
tubes
• Frame stability
Introduction
• Key design rules
Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner

Scope of Eurocodes
Eurocode 3

Background Scope of structural Eurocodes:

Design rules
• A total of 10 codes (comprising 58
documents)
Elliptical
tubes
The first 2 codes are material independent:
Introduction

Cross-section
• EN 1990 – Basis of structural design
Member
• EN 1991 – Actions of structures

L. Gardner

2
 Scope of Eurocodes
Eurocode 3 Remaining 8 codes focus on materials:
Background
• EN 1992 – Design of concrete structures
Design rules

• EN 1993 – Design of steel structures

Elliptical • EN 1994 – Design of composite structures
tubes

Introduction
• EN 1995 – Design of timber structures

Cross-section • EN 1996 – Design of masonry structures

Member • EN 1997 – Geotechnical design
• EN 1998 – Design of structures for earthquakes
L. Gardner
• EN 1999 – Design of aluminium structures
5

Eurocodes
Eurocode 3
• Codes are published by CEN in 3 languages:
Background
• English
Design rules
• French
• German
Elliptical
tubes
• All codes originally developed in English, and
Introduction
then ‘exactly’ translated
Cross-section

Member
• Other participating counties will translate
through National standards bodies

L. Gardner

3
 National Annexes
Eurocode 3

Background
National Annexes:
Design rules

• Every Eurocode will contain a National Annex

Elliptical
tubes • National choice
Introduction • Non-Contradictory Complementary Information
Cross-section • Majority of UK NAs now published
Member

L. Gardner

Present situation
Eurocode 3

Background
Present situation of Eurocodes:
Design rules

Elliptical
• All codes are published – 58 documents
tubes
• 48 have a UK National Annex
Introduction
• Conflicting steel design standards (e.g.
Cross-section BS 5950) to be withdrawn in 2010
Member

L. Gardner

4
 Efficiency of EC3 vs BS 5950
Eurocode 3
Comparing the results of design to Eurocode
Background
3 and BS 5950:
Design rules

• The common design rules are similar and

Elliptical
tubes thus lead to similar results
Introduction
• Where vertical loading governs, it has been
Cross-section
estimated that structures designed to EC3
Member will be 6-8% lighter.

L. Gardner

Computer aided analysis and design

Eurocode 3
Computer aided analysis and design:
Background

Design rules
• Greater codification of structural analysis
• FE may be implemented through e.g. ‘the
Elliptical
tubes general method’
Introduction
• Semi-rigid joints in structural analysis
Cross-section
• Beam-column formulations need to be
automated
Member

L. Gardner

10

5
 Buildings and bridges
Eurocode 3

Background • Philosophy in structural Eurocodes not to

repeat material
Design rules

Elliptical
• BS 5950 vs BS 5400
tubes

Introduction • Owing to commonality of rules, it will be

easier to make the transition between the two
Cross-section
disciplines using Eurocode.
Member

L. Gardner

11

Eurocode 3

Background

Design rules

Elliptical
Loading and load
combinations
tubes

Introduction

Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner

12

6
 EN 1990 and EN 1991
Eurocode 3

Background EN 1990 and EN 1991:

Design rules

• EN 1990 – Basis of design

Elliptical
tubes • Includes load combinations
Introduction

Cross-section • EN 1991 – Actions on structures

Member • Dead loads, imposed loads, wind loads etc

L. Gardner

13

Load combinations
Eurocode 3 1.5 x combination factor x
Equation 6.10: Other variable actions
Background

Design rules ‘to be combined

with’ Actions due to
prestressing
Elliptical
tubes

Introduction ∑γ
j ≥1
G, j G k , j "+" γ PP "+" γ Q ,1Q k ,1 "+" ∑γ
i >1
Q ,i ψ 0 ,i Q k , i
Cross-section

1.35 x Permanent
Member
actions 1.5 x Leading
variable action
L. Gardner

14

7
 Load combinations – Eq. 6.10
Eurocode 3
Load combinations for a typical structure from
Background Equation 6.10:
Design rules

Combination Dead Imposed Wind EHF

Elliptical
tubes Dead + Imposed 1.35 1.5 1.0

Introduction
Dead + Wind (uplift) 1.0 1.5 1.0
Cross-section
D+I+W
1.35 1.5 0.75 1.0
Member (imposed leading)

D+I+W
1.35 1.05 1.5 1.0
L. Gardner
(wind leading)

For Eq. 6.10b, Dead load factor reduces to 1.25. 15

Remarks on load combinations

Eurocode 3
Remarks on loading and load combinations:
Background

Design rules • Presentation of load combinations unfamiliar

Elliptical • Idea of leading variable actions and

tubes combination factors etc is new
Introduction
• Other than format and notation, loading
Cross-section
codes are similar to existing BS
Member
• Four basic load combinations arise
L. Gardner

16

8
Eurocode 3

Background

Design rules

Elliptical
Overview of
tubes

Introduction Eurocode 3
Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner

17

EN 1993: Eurocode 3
Eurocode 3

Background
Eurocode 3 contains six parts:
Design rules
• EN 1993-1 Generic rules
• EN 1993-2 Bridges
Elliptical
tubes
• EN 1993-3 Towers, masts & chimneys
Introduction
• EN 1993-4 Silos, tanks & pipelines
Cross-section
• EN 1993-5 Piling
Member
• EN 1993-6 Crane supporting structures
L. Gardner

18

9
 EN 1993-1
Eurocode 3

Background Eurocode 3: Part 1 has 12 sub-parts:

Design rules
• EN 1993-1-1 General rules
Elliptical • EN 1993-1-2 Fire
tubes
• EN 1993-1-3 Cold-formed thin gauge
Introduction
• EN 1993-1-4 Stainless steel
Cross-section

Member
• EN 1993-1-5 Plated elements
• EN 1993-1-6 Shells
L. Gardner

19

EN 1993-1
Eurocode 3

Background

Design rules • EN 1993-1-7 Plates transversely loaded

• EN 1993-1-8 Joints
Elliptical
tubes • EN 1993-1-9 Fatigue
Introduction • EN 1993-1-10 Fracture toughness
Cross-section
• EN 1993-1-11 Cables
Member
• EN 1993-1-12 High strength steels

L. Gardner

20

10
 Axes convention
Eurocode 3

Background Different axes convention:

Design rules

BS 5950 Eurocode 3
Elliptical
tubes
Along the
member X
Introduction

Cross-section Major axis X Y

Member
Minor axis Y Z
L. Gardner

21

Labelling convention
Eurocode 3
Labelling convention:
Background
b
Design rules
z
z
Elliptical
tubes r
tw t
Introduction h y y
y y
h d
Cross-section

Member
r z
tf b
L. Gardner z

22

11
 Subscripts
Eurocode 3 Extensive use of sub-scripts – generally helpful:
Background
• ‘Ed’ means design effect (i.e. factored member
Design rules force or moment)
• ‘Rd’ means design resistance
Elliptical
tubes So,
Introduction • NEd is an axial force
Cross-section
• NRd is the resistance to axial force
Member

Sometimes tedious e.g. Ac,eff,loc

L. Gardner

23

Eurocode 3

Background

Structural
Design rules

Elliptical
tubes

Introduction
analysis
Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner

24

12
 Analysis types
Eurocode 3

Background Analysis types:

Design rules

• First order elastic

Elliptical
tubes • Second order elastic
Introduction • First order plastic
Cross-section • Second order plastic
Member

L. Gardner

25

Second order effects

Eurocode 3

Background EN 1993-1-1 Clause 5.2.1(2) states that

Design rules
deformed geometry (second order
effects) shall be considered:
Elliptical
tubes • if they increase the action effects
Introduction significantly
Cross-section • or modify significantly the structural
behaviour
Member

L. Gardner

26

13
 Limits for ignoring deformed geometry

Eurocode 3
Fcr
For elastic analysis: α cr = ≥ 10
FEd
Background

Design rules
where
Elliptical αcr is the factor by which the design loading
tubes
would have to be increased to cause elastic
Introduction instability in a global mode (λcr in BS 5950-1)
Cross-section FEd is the design loading on the structure
Member
Fcr is the elastic critical buckling load for
global instability based on initial elastic
L. Gardner stiffness.
27

Simple estimate for αcr

Eurocode 3 Simple estimate for αcr may be applied to:
Background
• Portals with shallow roof slopes
Design rules
• Beam and column frames (each storey)

Elliptical ⎛ H ⎞⎛ h ⎞
tubes α cr = ⎜⎜ Ed ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝ VEd ⎠⎝ δ H,Ed ⎠
Introduction
where
Cross-section
HEd horizontal reaction at bottom of the storey
Member VEd total vertical load at bottom of the storey
δH,Ed storey sway when loaded with horizontal loads
L. Gardner (eg wind, equivalent horizontal forces)
h storey height 28

14
 Frame stability
Limits for treatment of second Fcr
Eurocode 3 α cr =
Background
order effects depend on αcr: FEd
Design rules
Limits on αcr Action Achievement

Elliptical αcr>10 First order analysis First order only

tubes

Second order
Introduction First order analysis
effects by
10>αcr>3 plus amplification or
Cross-section approximate
effective length method
means
Member
Second order
αcr<3 Second order analysis effects more
L. Gardner accurately
29

Global imperfections for frames

Eurocode 3
Global initial sway imperfections:

φ = φ 0 αhα m
Background

Design rules

where φ0 is the basic value = 1/ 200

Elliptical
tubes αh and α m are reduction factors
Introduction

Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner

30

15
 Global imperfections and checks
Eurocode 3
Global imperfections:
Background

Design rules
•Much easier to apply as equivalent
horizontal forces φNEd, where NEd is the
design compressive force in the column
Elliptical
tubes

Introduction
Checks:
Cross-section

Member
• Check cross-sections, members and joints
based on maximum forces and moments
from analyses
L. Gardner

31

Eurocode 3

Background

Design rules

Elliptical
Cross-section
classification
tubes

Introduction

Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner

32

16
 Cross-section classification
Eurocode 3

Background
• Cross-sectional resistance and rotation capacity
are limited by the effects of local buckling.
Design rules

• Eurocode 3 (and BS 5950) account for the effects

Elliptical of local buckling through cross-section
tubes classification.
Introduction
• The classifications from BS 5950 of plastic,
Cross-section compact, semi-compact and slender are replaced
Member in Eurocode 3 with Class 1, Class 2, Class 3 and
Class 4, respectively.
L. Gardner

33

Cross-section classification
Eurocode 3
Eurocode 3 defines four classes of cross-section:
Background

Design rules Moment

Class 1
Mpl
Elliptical
tubes Mel Class 2

Introduction
Class 3
Cross-section

Member Class 4

Deformation
L. Gardner

34

17
 Compressed widths c
Eurocode 3 Definition of compressed widths – flat widths:
Background c

Design rules Rolled c Rolled

Elliptical
tubes c

Welded c
Introduction Welded

Cross-section

(a) Outstand flanges (b) Internal compression

Member parts

L. Gardner Limits on slenderness e.g. c/t ≤ 9ε

ε = 235 / fy 35

Class 4 cross-sections
Eurocode 3
Class 4 cross-sections:
Background
• Contain slender plate elements
Design rules
• Local buckling in elastic range
Elliptical • Effective width concept
tubes

Introduction

Cross-section

Member

Channel in pure
L. Gardner compression

36

18
Eurocode 3

Background

Design rules

Elliptical
Compression
members
tubes

Introduction

Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner

37

Elastic buckling theory

Eurocode 3 Two bounds for perfect columns:
Background
Yielding and buckling

Design rules
Load Material yielding NEd
(squashing)
Elliptical Afy
tubes
Lcr
Introduction
Euler (critical)
Cross-section buckling Ncr
Member NEd

L. Gardner
Non-dimensional slenderness
38

19
 Imperfections
Eurocode 3

Background

Design rules

Elliptical
tubes

Introduction

Cross-section

Member
Residual stresses

L. Gardner Geometric imperfections

39

Residual stresses
Eurocode 3

Background

Design rules

Elliptical
tubes

Introduction

Cross-section
Welding
Member

Hot-rolling
L. Gardner

40

20
 Buckling curves
Eurocode 3
1.2
Background
Reduction factor χ
1.0 Curve aa0
0
Design rules Curve a
0.8 Curve b
Curve c
Elliptical 0.6 Curve d
tubes
0.4
Introduction

0.2
Cross-section

Member 0.0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

L. Gardner
Non-dimensional slenderness λ

41

Cross-section resistance
Eurocode 3
• Cross-section resistance in compression
Background Nc,Rd depends on cross-section classification:
Design rules

Afy
Nc ,Rd = for Class 1, 2 or 3 sections
Elliptical γ M0
tubes

Introduction A eff fy
Nc ,Rd = for Class 4 sections
Cross-section γ M0
Member

γM0 is specified as 1.0 in EN 1993

L. Gardner
This value will also be adopted in the UK
42

21
 Column buckling
Eurocode 3
Compression buckling resistance Nb,Rd:
Background

Design rules
χ A fy
Nb,Rd = for Class 1, 2 and 3
Elliptical
tubes
γ M1
Reduction
Introduction
factor

χ A eff fy
Cross-section

Member Nb,Rd = for (symmetric) Class 4

γ M1
L. Gardner

43

Member buckling
Eurocode 3
Calculate non-dimensional slenderness λ
Background

Design rules
A fy
λ= for Class 1, 2 and 3
Elliptical Ncr
tubes

Introduction
A eff fy
λ= for Class 4
Cross-section
Ncr
Member

Ncr is the elastic critical buckling load for

L. Gardner
the relevant buckling mode based on the
gross properties of the cross-section
44

22
 Non-dimensional slenderness

Eurocode 3 The non-dimensional slenderness used in EC3

is derived from the geometric slenderness (l/r),
Background
normalised by λ1.
Design rules

λ l/r
Elliptical
λ = =
tubes
λ1 E
Introduction π
fy
Cross-section

Member
λ1 is the slenderness at which the elastic
buckling stress is equal to the yield stress
L. Gardner

45

Buckling reduction factor -

Graphical approach
Eurocode 3
1.2
Background
1.0 Curve a
a0
Reduction factor χ

Curve 0

Design rules ≈0.88 Curve a

0.8 Curve b
Curve c

Elliptical 0.6 Curve d

tubes
0.4
Introduction

0.2
Cross-section

Member 0.0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
0.63
L. Gardner
Non-dimensional slenderness λ
46

23
 Column buckling
Eurocode 3
• Calculate reduction factor, χ
Background

Design rules
1
χ= ≤ 1
Elliptical
tubes
ϕ + ( ϕ 2 − λ 2 ) 0 .5
Introduction

Cross-section ϕ = 0.5 (1 + α(λ − 0.2) + λ 2 )

Member

Imperfection Plateau length

L. Gardner factor α
47

Imperfection factor α
Eurocode 3
Buckling curves are chosen from a selection
Background
table depending on type of section and axis
Design rules of buckling

Elliptical
tubes
Imperfection factors α for 5 buckling curves:
Introduction

Cross-section
Buckling curve a0 a b c d
Member

Imperfection
0.13 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76
L. Gardner
factor α

48

24
 Column buckling design procedure

Eurocode 3
Design procedure for column buckling:
Background

Design rules 1. Determine design axial load NEd

Elliptical
2. Select section and determine geometry
tubes
3. Classify cross-section (if Class 1-3, no
Introduction
account need be made for local buckling)
Cross-section

Member 4. Determine effective (buckling) length Lcr

5. Calculate Ncr and Afy

L. Gardner

49

Column buckling design procedure

Eurocode 3
A fy
6. Non-dimensional slenderness λ =
Background
Ncr
Design rules
7. Determine imperfection factor α

Elliptical 8. Calculate buckling reduction factor χ

tubes

χ A fy
Introduction
9. Design buckling resistance Nb,Rd =
Cross-section
γ M1
NEd
Member 10. Check ≤ 1.0
Nb,Rd

L. Gardner

50

25
Eurocode 3

Background

Design rules

Elliptical
tubes
Beams
Introduction

Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner

51

Non-dimensional slenderness

Eurocode 3
Beam behaviour analogous to
yielding/buckling of columns.
Background

Design rules M Material yielding

(in-plane bending) MEd MEd
Wyfy
Elliptical
tubes
Lcr
Introduction
Elastic member
buckling Mcr
Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner Non-dimensional slenderness λ LT

Fully laterally restrained beams fail by in-plane bending 52

26
 In-plane bending
Eurocode 3
• Class 1 & 2 cross-sections:
Background

Design rules Wpl fy

Mc ,Rd = Mpl =
Elliptical γ M0
tubes

Introduction

Cross-section
• Class 3 cross-sections:
Member
Wel fy
Mc ,Rd = Mel =
L. Gardner γ M0
53

In-plane bending
Eurocode 3

Background

Design rules • Class 4 cross-sections:

Elliptical
tubes Weff fy
Mc ,Rd =
γ M0
Introduction

Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner

54

27
 Shear resistance Vpl,Rd
Eurocode 3
The usual approach is to use the plastic
Background shear resistance Vpl,Rd
Design rules

The plastic shear resistance is essentially

Elliptical defined as the yield strength in shear
tubes
multiplied by a shear area Av:
Introduction

Cross-section
A v (fy / 3 )
Vpl,Rd =
Member
γ M0

L. Gardner ≈ 0.6 fy
55

Shear buckling
Eurocode 3
The resistance of the web to shear buckling
Background should also be checked, though this is
Design rules
unlikely to affect cross-sections of standard
hot-rolled proportions.
Elliptical
tubes
Shear buckling need not be considered
provided:
Introduction
hw ε
≤ 72 for unstiffened webs
Cross-section
tw η
Member

235
where ε = ; η = 1 .0
L. Gardner fy

56

28
 Lateral torsional buckling
Eurocode 3
Lateral torsional buckling
Background

Design rules Lateral torsional buckling is the member

buckling mode associated with slender beams
Elliptical
loaded about their major axis, without
tubes continuous lateral restraint.
Introduction
If continuous lateral restraint is provided to the
Cross-section
beam, then lateral torsional buckling will be
Member prevented and failure will occur in another
mode, generally in-plane bending (and/or
L. Gardner shear).
57

Lateral torsional buckling

Eurocode 3

Background
Can be discounted when:
Design rules

• Minor axis bending

Elliptical
tubes
• CHS, SHS, circular or square bar
Introduction

Cross-section • Fully laterally restrained beams

Member

• λ LT < 0.2 (or 0.4 in some cases)

L. Gardner

58

29
 Lateral torsional buckling
Eurocode 3
Eurocode 3 design approach for lateral
Background torsional buckling is analogous to the
Design rules
column buckling treatment.

Elliptical
The design buckling resistance Mb,Rd of a
tubes laterally unrestrained beam (or segment of
beam) should be taken as:
Introduction

fy
Cross-section

Member Mb,Rd = χLT Wy

γ M1
L. Gardner
Reduction factor for LTB
59

LTB curves
Eurocode 3 4 buckling curves for LTB (a, b, c and d)
Background
1.2
Design rules
Reduction factor χLT

1.0 Curve a

Curve b
Elliptical 0.8
Curve c
tubes
Curve d
0.6
Introduction
0.4
Cross-section
0.2
Member
0.0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
L. Gardner 0.2 Non-dimensional slenderness λ LT
60

30
 Non-dimensional slenderness
Eurocode 3 • Calculate lateral torsional buckling
Background slenderness:

Wy f y
Design rules

λ LT =
Elliptical
tubes
Mcr
Introduction
• Buckling curves as for compression (except
Cross-section
curve a0)
Member
• Wy depends on section classification
• Mcr is the elastic critical LTB moment
L. Gardner

61

Mcr under uniform moment

Eurocode 3 Under uniform moment the elastic critical lateral
Background
torsional buckling moment Mcr is:
Design rules 0 .5
π 2EIz ⎡ Iw L cr 2GIT ⎤
Mcr ,0 = ⎢ + 2 ⎥
Elliptical
tubes
L cr
2
⎣ I z π EI z ⎦
Introduction
G is the shear modulus
Cross-section
IT is the torsion constant
Member
Iw is the warping constant
Iz is the minor axis second moment of area
L. Gardner
Lcr is the buckling length of the beam
62

31
 Mcr under non-uniform moment

Eurocode 3
Numerical solutions have been calculated for
Background a number of other loading conditions. For
uniform doubly-symmetric cross-sections,
Design rules
loaded through the shear centre at the level
of the centroidal axis, and with the standard
Elliptical
tubes
conditions of restraint described, Mcr may be
calculated by:
Introduction

0 .5
Cross-section
π 2EIz ⎡ Iw L cr 2GIT ⎤
Mcr = C1 ⎢ + 2 ⎥
2
π EIz ⎦
Member
L cr ⎣ Iz
L. Gardner

63

Simplified assessment of λ LT
Eurocode 3 For hot-rolled doubly symmetric I and H
sections without destabilising loads, λ LT may
Background
be conservatively simplified to:
Design rules

1 1 λ
λ LT = 0 .9 λ z = 0 .9 z
Elliptical
tubes C1 C1 λ1
Introduction

E
Cross-section
λ z = L / iz ; λ 1 = π
Member fy

L. Gardner As a further simplification, C1 may also be

conservatively taken = 1.0.
64

32
 Design procedure for LTB
Eurocode 3
Design procedure for LTB:
Background

Design rules 1. Determine BMD and SFD from design loads

Elliptical
2. Select section and determine geometry
tubes

Introduction
3. Classify cross-section (Class 1, 2, 3 or 4)

Cross-section
4. Determine effective (buckling) length Lcr –
Member depends on boundary conditions and load level

5. Calculate Mcr and Wyfy

L. Gardner

65

Design procedure for LTB

Eurocode 3
Wy fy
6. Non-dimensional slenderness λ LT =
Background
Mcr
Design rules 7. Determine imperfection factor αLT

Elliptical 8. Calculate buckling reduction factor χLT

tubes
Wy fy
Introduction
9. Design buckling resistance Mb,Rd = χLT
γ M1
Cross-section
M
Member 10. Check Ed
≤ 1.0 for each unrestrained
portion Mb ,Rd

L. Gardner

66

33
Eurocode 3

Background

Design rules

Elliptical
tubes
Sources of further
Introduction information
Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner

67

Sources of further information

Eurocode 3

Background • http://www.eurocodes.co.uk/
Design rules

• http://www.steel-sci.org/publications/
Elliptical
tubes

Introduction
• http://www.access-steel.com/
Cross-section

Member
• http://www.steel-ncci.co.uk/
L. Gardner

68

34
 Implementation in UK
Eurocode 3
Observations on UK implementation:
Background

Design rules • Existing British Standards withdrawn in 2010

• Public projects must be designed to
Elliptical
tubes Eurocodes from 2010
Introduction • ICE training courses running since 2005
Cross-section • Demand for EC courses growing; demand for
Member
BS courses reducing
• Many participants now engaged in EC designs
L. Gardner
• Design guidance and software
69

Conclusions
Eurocode 3
Conclusions:
Background

Design rules • Advanced design codes

• Greater in scope
Elliptical
tubes
• Biggest change since limit states
Introduction
• Unfamiliar format
Cross-section
• Guidance material and training
Member emerging
• Basis for other National design codes
L. Gardner

70

35
Eurocode 3

Background

Design rules

Elliptical
Elliptical hollow
sections (EHS)
tubes

Introduction

Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner

71

Overview
Eurocode 3

Background Outline contents:

Design rules

• Introduction/ strategy
Elliptical
tubes • Structural investigations
Introduction • Design rules
Cross-section
• Conclusions
Member

L. Gardner

72

36
Eurocode 3

Background

Design rules

Elliptical
tubes Introduction
Introduction

Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner

73

Strategy
Eurocode 3
Stages of developments:
Background

Design rules • Full-scale structural testing

• Non-linear numerical modelling
Elliptical
tubes • Theoretical investigations
Introduction • Development of structural design rules
Cross-section
• Eurocode, BS, AISI
Member

L. Gardner

74

37
 Areas examined
Eurocode 3

Background Structural scenarios addressed:

Design rules

• Local buckling and section classification

Elliptical • Cross-section compression resistance
tubes
• Cross-section bending resistance
Introduction
• Shear resistance
Cross-section
• Combined bending and shear
Member
• Flexural buckling of columns
L. Gardner • Concrete-filled EHS
75

Elliptical hollow sections

Eurocode 3

Background Axial
SHS CHS
Design rules loading

Elliptical
tubes

Introduction
Bending
Cross-section RHS EHS
Axial +
Member
bending

L. Gardner

76

38
 Elliptical hollow sections
Eurocode 3

Background
Elliptical hollow sections (EHS): z
Design rules

• Combine merits of RHS and a

Elliptical CHS
tubes
y
Introduction • Elegant appearance (CHS)
a
Cross-section
• Differing rigidities about
Member
principal axes (RHS)
b b
L. Gardner

77

Applications
Eurocode 3

Background

Design rules

Elliptical
tubes

Introduction

Cross-section

Member

Heathrow Airport, UK Jarrold store, UK

L. Gardner

78

39
 Applications
Eurocode 3

Background

Design rules

Elliptical
tubes

Introduction

Cross-section

Member

Madrid Airport, Spain Society Bridge,

L. Gardner
Scotland
79

Eurocode 3

Background

Design rules

Elliptical
Cross-section
classification
tubes

Introduction

Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner

80

40
 Elastic critical buckling
Eurocode 3
Compression (and minor axis bending):
Background

Design rules
y rmax Et
σcr =
Elliptical rmax 3(1− ν2 )
b
tubes

Introduction b z
Et
σcr =
Cross-section ⎛a2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ 3(1− ν2 )
a a ⎜b ⎟
Member ⎝ ⎠

2 2
⎛y⎞ ⎛z⎞ rmax is the maximum local
L. Gardner ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ = 1
⎝ ⎠
b ⎝a⎠ radius of curvature
81

Elastic critical buckling

Eurocode 3 Major axis bending:
Background
z Compression
Design rules

a
Elliptical rmax
tubes
y Maximum
Introduction compression
a
Cross-section
Buckling
Member
initiates
Tension

b b For a/b < 1.15, buckling

L. Gardner initiates at extreme fibre

82

41
 Testing
Eurocode 3 Material testing and geometric measurements:
Background

Design rules

Elliptical
tubes

Introduction

Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner Tensile coupons Geometric

measurements
83

Testing
Eurocode 3 Compression tests:
Background

Design rules

Elliptical
tubes

Introduction

Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner

84

42
 FE modelling
Eurocode 3

Background
• Nonlinear FE package ABAQUS
Design rules

• Stage 1: Validation against tests

Elliptical
tubes
– Measured material properties
– Measured geometry
Introduction
– Measured geometric imperfection
Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner

85

FE modelling
Eurocode 3

Background
• Stage 1: Validation against tests
– Full loading history and failure models
Design rules
well predicted

Elliptical
tubes • Stage 2: Parametric studies (>800 FE
results in total)
Introduction
– Cross-section slenderness
Cross-section
– Member slenderness
Member
– Aspect ratios (for all tests, a/b = 2)
L. Gardner

86

43
 FE validation
Eurocode 3

Background
1800
Design rules
FE
Test
Load N (kN)

1200
Elliptical
tubes
600
Introduction

Cross-section 0
0 6 12 18 24
Member
End shortening δ (mm)

L. Gardner

87

Compression
Eurocode 3
2.0
Background EHS
CHS
Design rules 1.5 FE
Fu/Fy

1.0
Elliptical
tubes 2a

Introduction
0.5 Class 1-3 Class 4
2b

Cross-section 0.0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270
Member

De/tε2
L. Gardner

De = 2rmax = 2a2/b, ε = (235/fy)0.5 88

44
 Testing
Eurocode 3 Minor axis bending tests:
Background

Design rules

Elliptical
tubes

Introduction

Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner

89

Minor axis bending – M/Mel

Eurocode 3
2.5
Background 2a

2.0 EHS
Design rules 2b
CHS
FE
Mu/Mel

1.5
Elliptical
tubes 1.0

Introduction
0.5 Class 1-3 Class 4
Cross-section
0.0
Member
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
De/tε2
L. Gardner

De = 2rmax = 2a2/b, ε = (235/fy)0.5 90

45
 Minor axis bending – M/Mpl
Eurocode 3
2.0
Background 1.8
1.6 EHS
Design rules CHS
1.4 FE
Mu/Mpl

1.2
Elliptical 1.0
tubes
0.8
2a
Introduction 0.6
0.4 Class 1-2 Class 3-4 2b
Cross-section
0.2
Member 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
De/tε2
L. Gardner

De = 2rmax = 2a2/b, ε = (235/fy)0.5 91

Minor axis bending – Rotation

capacity
Eurocode 3
33
Background
30 Class 1 Class 2-4 EHS
27 CHS
Rotation capacity

Design rules 24 FE
21
2a
18
Elliptical 15
tubes 2b
12
Introduction 9
6
Cross-section 3
0
Member
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260

De/tε2
L. Gardner

De = 2rmax = 2a2/b, ε = (235/fy)0.5 92

46
 Major axis bending
Eurocode 3 Radii of curvature:
Background 0.125a2/b
0.22a
Design rules 0.4a2/b 0.42a
0.65a2/b
Elliptical
tubes 2a
a2/b
Introduction

Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner
2b
93

Slenderness parameters
Summary of proposed measures of slenderness:
Eurocode 3

Background Corresponding point on

Loading Equivalent diameter
cross-section
Design rules
2a
Axial
De = 2a2/b
compression 2b
Elliptical
tubes
2a
Introduction Minor axis
De = 2a2/b
bending (z-z) 2b
Cross-section

Member
Major axis De = 0.8a2/b a/b > 1.36 2a 2a
bending (y-y)
De = 2b2/a a/b ≤ 1.36
L. Gardner 2b 2b

94

47
 Slenderness limits
Eurocode 3
Summary of proposed slenderness limits:
Background

Design rules Proposed slenderness limits

Type of
Diameter
compression
ratio
Elliptical loading Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
tubes

Introduction Axial
De/t Not applicable 90ε2
compression
Cross-section Minor axis
De/t
bending (z-y)
Member 50ε2 70ε2 140ε2
Major axis
De/t
bending (y-y)
L. Gardner

95

Eurocode 3

Background

Design rules

Elliptical
tubes Shear resistance
Introduction

Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner

96

48
 Shear tests
Eurocode 3
• A total of 24 three-point bending tests
Background
performed. Constant aspect ratio = 2.0.
Design rules

• 12 minor axis tests, 12 major axis tests

Elliptical
tubes
• Three variations in cross-section
Introduction
slenderness (thickness)
Cross-section

Member • Four variations in span length (to

investigate moment-shear interaction)
L. Gardner

97

Shear tests
Eurocode 3 • A total of 24 three-point bending tests
Background
performed

Design rules F

Elliptical
tubes

Introduction L/2 L/2

Cross-section
Moment gradient
Member

Uniform shear
L. Gardner Uniform shear

98

49
 Plastic shear resistance
Eurocode 3
• Design plastic shear resistance Vpl,Rd
Background

Design rules
A v fy / 3
Vpl,Rd =
Elliptical
tubes γ M0
Introduction

Cross-section
where Av= Shear area
Member
fy = Material yield strength
γM0= 1.0
L. Gardner

99

Plastic shear resistance

Eurocode 3
Shear area for circular hollow sections: Av=2A/π
Background

Design rules
π
z
Elliptical
∫
V = 2 × (r × dθ × t ) × (τ 0 × sin θ)
0
tubes
θ V = 4 × r × t × τ0
Introduction
2 Aτ 0
y V=
Cross-section
r π
Member V 2A
∴ Av = =
τ0 π
L. Gardner

100

50
 Plastic shear resistance
Eurocode 3
For shear along y-y For shear along z-z
Background z
Design rules y
a
b
Elliptical
tubes
b z y
a
Introduction

Cross-section a a
Member b b

Av = (4b-2t)t Av = (4a-2t)t
L. Gardner

101

Design guidance
Eurocode 3

Background 1.5
Shear along y-y
Shear along z-z
Mu/Mpl,Rd or Mu/Mel,Rd

Design rules

1.0
Elliptical
tubes

Introduction 0.5

Proposed shear-moment
Cross-section
interaction
Member 0.0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25

Vu/Vpl,Rd
L. Gardner

102

51
 Design guidance
Eurocode 3
• For VEd < 50% Vpl,Rd
Background

Design rules – Full bending resistance (Mel,Rd or Mpl,Rd)

Elliptical • For VEd > 50% Vpl,Rd

tubes

Introduction – Reduced bending resistance

Cross-section
fyr = (1-ρ)fy
Member

L. Gardner
where ρ = (2VEd/Vpl,Rd – 1)1/2

103

Eurocode 3

Background

Design rules

Elliptical
tubes Column buckling
Introduction

Cross-section

Member

L. Gardner

104

52
 Column Tests
Eurocode 3
• A total of 24 column tests performed,
Background
constant aspect ratio = 2.0
Design rules

• 12 minor axis tests, 12 major axis tests

Elliptical
tubes

Introduction • Three variations in cross-section

Cross-section
slenderness (thickness)

Member
• Four variations in column length
L. Gardner

105

Testing
Eurocode 3
Load cell
Background
Knife edge
Design rules

Elliptical
tubes CL

Introduction Strain gauge

Cross-section
LVDT
Member

Hydraulic jack
L. Gardner

106

53
 Load-deflection response
Eurocode 3
1000
Background Plastic yielding
800
Design rules
2nd order rigid plastic
Load N (kN)

600

Elliptical
tubes 400 Elastic buckling

Introduction 200

Cross-section 2nd order elastic

0
Member 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Lateral deflection at mid-height ω (mm)

L. Gardner

107

FE validation
Eurocode 3

Background
750
Design rules
FE
Load N (kN)

500
Elliptical
Test
tubes
250
Introduction

Cross-section 0
0 15 30 45 60
Member
Lateral deflection at mid-height ω (mm)

L. Gardner

108

54
 Column buckling curve
Eurocode 3
1.5
Background
Buckling about z-z
Nu/Ny or Nu/Neff
Design rules
Buckling about y-y
1.0
y
Elliptical
tubes z
0.5
Introduction
EC3 – curve ‘a’
Cross-section
0.0
Member 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8

Member slenderness λ
L. Gardner

109

Conclusions
Eurocode 3
Conclusions:
Background

Design rules
• New and rare addition to hot-rolled range

Elliptical
• Significant testing and FE modelling
tubes programmes
Introduction • Design rules developed for primary
Cross-section
structural configurations

Member • Development of comprehensive design rules

ongoing
L. Gardner

110

55
 South Africa, 2009

Eurocode 3

Recent developments in
Background

Design rules

steel structures:
Elliptical
tubes

Introduction
Introduction to Eurocode 3
Cross-section & Elliptical hollow sections
Member

Dr Leroy Gardner
L. Gardner Imperial College London

111

References
Eurocode 3 References:

Background
Gardner, L. & Nethercot, D. A. (2005). Designers’
Design rules
Guide to EN 1993-1-1: Eurocode 3: Design of Steel
Structures. Thomas Telford Publishing.
Elliptical
tubes
Trahair, N. S., Bradford, M. A., Nethercot, D. A. &
Introduction Gardner, L. (2008). The behaviour and design of
steel structures to EC3. Fourth Edition. Taylor &
Cross-section Francis.

Member
Gardner, L. and Chan, T. M. (2007). Cross-section
classification of elliptical hollow sections. Steel
L. Gardner and Composite Structures. 7(3), 185-200.

112

56