IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-10, NO.
6, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1974 761
Field Performance of Steam and
WILLIAM D. WALLACE, ASSOCIATE MEMBER, IEEE, AND LAWRENCE
Abstract-This paper discusses observations on electric steam
and hot-water boilers. The increased popularity of both steam and
hot water generation by electricity is readily apparent. The ad-
vantages of this type of heat generation lend themselves to many
current applications in the heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
field. Sizes of boilers have been increasing through the years, with
no apparent end in sight due to the accelerated development of the
electrode boiler, which will be covered in detail in the second part
of the paper. As compared to the resistance type of boiler, this latter
design permits economical projection into much larger boiler sizes.
Electric boiler installation is relatively simple since there is no
concern with chimneys or fuel storage. Often the boiler room can
be eliminated and the mechanical equipment room serve as the
required space. Electric boiler operation can be automated to the
point where an operator is virtually unnecessary with the many
control options available today. Integration of the boiler into heat
recovery and solar energy systems has also accelerated the growth
of this product. As might be expected, due to the simplicity of boiler
construction and accessories, electric boiler maintenance is at a
minimum. However, certain areas of additional control must be
exercised since unique problems can develop with electric steam
and hot water generation. The paper is illustrated with pictures of
actual installations and case histories covering the gamut of speci-
fication, installation, and successful operation. The future of the
electric boiler and its application to contemporary ideas of high-
voltage ac is covered together with the misapplications and possible
drawbacks of electric steam and hot water generation.
PART I-RESISTANCE BOILER
Introduction
STEAM and hot water, since the earliest times, have
been the prime sources of heat for the comfort of man.
With the advent of electric heat, however, the emphasis
on a convected local heat source tended to discredit the
use of steam and hot water as inefficient and hard to
control as means of heating. Central station heating
systems were branded as old fashioned and wasteful, and
modern "on-the-spot" heat was considered the best ap-
proach to comfort conditioning.
In contemporary thinking, however, proper credence is
being given to the importance and effectiveness of hydronic
heating, and proponents of electric heat are realizing that
there is a definite place for boilers and circulating liquid
heaters, especially if the energy source is electricity.
The electric steam boiler had its humble beginnings in
the world of the neighborhood tailor. The craftsman who
Paper TOD-74-86, approved by the Electric Space Heating and
Air Conditioning Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications
Society for presentation at the Industrial and Commercial Power
Systems and Electric Space Heating and Air Conditioning Joint
Technical Conference, Detroit, Mich., May 3-6, 1971. Manuscript
released for publication May 30, 1974.
W. D. Wallace is with the Edwin L. Wiegand Division of the
Emerson Electric Company, Pittsburgh, Pa. 15208.
L. G. Spielvogel is with L. G. Spielvogel, Inc., Consulting Engi-
neers, Wyncote, Pa. 19095.
Hot WX/ater Electric Boilers
G. SPIELVOGEL
accepted the electric sewing machine and iron was an
early user of the electric steam boiler. And why not?
Did it not allow him to provide steam only when his
pressing operation needed it-and was he not saved from
the expense of a chimney and perhaps a fuel storage
area? Further, the close quarters of his small shop were
much more comfortable with the miniaturized boiler that
contributed neither excessive heat nor excessive sound to
his working quarters.
Construction
The electric boiler is a vessel containing water and an
electrically energized heat source. The early boilers were
divided into two types-the electrode boiler (to be de-
scribed later) and the resistance boiler, which we shall
explore in depth (see Fig. 1).
The resistance boiler gets its name from the type of
heating element that it utilizes. Its heat source is a copper
tube, bent into a hairpin shape and filled with a nickel
chromium wire surrounded by electrical insulation. Passage
of current through this carefully sized wire produces heat.
The copper tube is immersed in the boiler water and the
heat eventually finds its way into the water itself.
The shell of the boiler usually is built to American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) standards as
a protection from explosion, and the outside is usually
factory insulated to prevent excessive ambient heat loss.
Boiler trim consisting of safety valve, low water cutout,
feed pump, and blowdown valve are usually provided to
fill out the concept of a packaged boiler.
Since this is an electric heat source, some means must
be provided for control, just as any fuel is controlled.
The simplest type of control is ON-OFF type through an
electrical contactor. This can be provided by a pressure
switch in the case of a steam boiler or a thermostat in
the case of a hot water boiler (see Fig. 2). On larger
boilers, a multiple of contactors is used, and a stepping
switch such as that shown in Fig. 3 increases or decreases
the energy input to the boiler as steam or hot water
requirements demand. Standard safety devices such as
the low water cutout or overpressure safety switch can be
circuited into the stepping switch to disconnect all power
should an unsafe condition occur. Solid-state types of
energy control have been proposed for boilers but to date
have not been utilized on the more common boiler sizes.
Operation
Operation of resistance-type electric boilers is quite
simple. As with all boilers, care must be taken to be sure
there is sufficient water in the vessel before the device is
"fired up." Firing up in this case means starting the
762
LOW-WATER HOT WATER
CUTOFF OUTLET
PRESSURE
TEMP. GA GE %~RE IEF VALVE
MAKE-UP
WATER-
INLET
SIGHT
GLASS
BOILER
SHELL
LEGS
I-,
FIBROU'S GLASS
INSULA1rION
ENAMELED C OLD
STEEL JACKET v WATER
Ii INLET
F~ig. 1.
stepping switch through its travel (large-size boiler). It
might be mentioned here that consideration can be given
to demand limiting on electric boilers by locking out
certain of the contactors by thermostatic limiting devices
that are controlled by outside temperatures. Obviously
the installation of a device of this kind can result in
operating economy. Other refinements of ON-OFF control
encompass the use of temperature resetting of the boiler
water or pressure by the use of an outdoor thermostat.
Further operational activity is unnecessary, as the boiler
will modulate its own power input to the steam or hot
water requirements without additional care. Obviously no
consideration need be given to turn-down ratios, as
combusion mixtures or stack temperatures are not a
factor.
As might be expected, due to the simplicity of boiler
construction, maintenance operations are at the minimum.
Accessories such as flame monitors, stack temperature
indicators, and pressure regulators are absent, so these
can be dismissed immediately from the maintenance
routine. Low water controls are mandatory on any steam
boiler, and the electric resistance boiler is no exception
(see Fig. 4). Electric boilers utilize conventional controls
of this type, entailing standard maintenance procedures.
As far as the boiler heat source is concerned, let us
review this area. In the resistance boiler, a nickel chromium
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1974
HI GH TEMP.
CLITOUT
MOTOR
DRIVEN
SEQUENCER
ACCESS DOOR /(OPTIONAL)
CONTACTORS
VNJ I LA
LOUVERS
RESISTANCE DRAIN
HEATING VALVE
ELEMENTS
Hot water boiler.
wire is energized beneath the surrounding jacket of insulat-
ing powder and a metal sheath. Heat thus generated
flows outward and into the water. It is well to remember
that elements of this type are constant energy sources
that lower their operating temperature by the prompt
removal of generated heat. If a thermal barrier of any type
exists, the wire temperature rises and two things occur:
(1) element life is appreciably shortened, and (2) an
approach is made toward the wire fusion temperature.
To prevent such occurrences, it is necessary to eliminate
any possibility of foreign material forming on the metal
sheath of the heating element. Good water-conditioning
procedures must be followed so that all minerals that
might adhere to the element are removed from the boiler
water or rendered incapable of plating out on the hot
element sheath (see Fig. 5). This type of treatment,
together with frequent blowdowns, is necessary to prevent
element failure. Good maintenance of any piece of equip-
ment will always result in more satisfactory service.
As the acceptance of the electric boiler advanced, more
installations naturally resulted. One of the earlier ones
in institutional heating was an installation of two 1 433 000
Btuh hot water boilers at Ohio University in St. Clairsville,
Ohio. This job was originally designed for gas heating, but
a change was made late in the design work to two electric
boilers. Boiler room size stayed the same, which gave
WALLACE AND SPIELVOGEL: STEAM AND HOT WATER BOILERS 763

ftGOAT
AND RlOB .-

StD ASNOt
Fig. 4.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 5. Flange-type immersion element.

Fig. 3. Stepping switch.

surplus space because of the smaller size of the electric

hot water boilers.
The electric boilers fit in very nicely with the previously
designed heat exchange system. No major changes were
necessary to accommodate the electric boilers. The only
real consideration necessary was service entrance capacity.
However, since accommodations were already made for
a centrifugal chiller and possibilities were that both the
chiller and the boiler would not be operating at the same
time, service entrance accommodations were considered
adequate. Fig. 6.
Ed Fulton, the custodian of Ohio University, who has
to be considered the expert on electric hot water boiler keep the school warm down to 30°F! It's the best. Our
operations, made the following statement regarding the fuel rates are well witihin the limits we set for ourselves.
operation of these boilers (see Fig. 6). "Sure we had prob- Maintenance has been low and indeed there is no worry
lems-maybe our biggest was the contactor problem that about combustion controls. Everything is at a minimum.
we experienced with the boilers. Proper precautions had On the plus side, boiler capacity is entirely adequate and
not been taken to keep the control cabinet cool, and with we are getting a good heating job!"
a total of 840-kW-that's a lot of energy to be transmitting Recently, there have been many jobs built with electric
without excellent heat removal-we had problems." boilers. As mentioned before, the use of chilled water has
"All in all, however, I would have to say that we are intensified the need for hot water heat, and it is only
more than pleased with the electric boiler installation. We natural to go the electric route since in most cases the
treat the water, but since there is a limited make-up that's chilling is done electrically. Also, humidification is becom-
not a big deal. Economy-I would say that it is the best. ing more of a concern for the high-voltage ac (HVAC)
We use a lot of electricity for lights. In fact our lights will designer, increasing the need for the brother to the hot
764 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1974

water boiler-the steam boiler. The electric steam boiler is

a natural for humidification.
Conclusions
There can be nothing but increased popularity in store
for the electric boiler. Enough manufacturers are in the
field now to provide a good choice, and specifiers are
becoming more and more enthused about this develop-
ment. The utilities-always a factor-now realize that
certain jobs are going hydronic, and they want a share
of this market. All in all, the forces are working in the
favor of electric steam and hot water boilers to increase
their popularity. Service and performance records indicate Fig. 7.
they are capable pieces of equipment and will be with us
for a long time!
A word of warning might be in order here. All applica-
tions for electric boilers have not been without fault. Here
are some drawbacks to be considered.
1) Due to the presence of demand charges on some
utility systems, serious consideration must be given to the
demand limiter described earlier. This was a consideration
not given on early jobs. This oversight, teamed with the
traditional oversizing that has been done on the early
electric -boilers, can result on a completely unfavorable
energy cost picture. Recently an effort has been made by
the electric utilities to take a fresh look at sizing policies
for hot water generation so as to reduce the possibility of
overbearing energy charges.
2) Unfortunately, certain electric boiler humidification Fig. 8.
installations have been undersized due to the capability
of the humidification boiler operating at full capacity
with no restriction on its output. At times over 100 percent larger and larger, the resistance-type boiler fast becomes
of boiler capacity will be called for. too small. The next step is the electrode boiler.
Due to the limited vessel size and lack of reserve capacity In a way we can liken the electrode boiler to the centrifu-
for the standard electric steam boiler, this can cause a gal chiller. Fig. 7 shows a logarithmic plot of chiller
surging situation that is detrimental to boiler operation. capacities. Reciprocating chillers are available up to
Obviously the specifier must bear in mind that overload several hundred tons capacity but are rarely used above
can occur on humidification applications and size the 100 tons. Screw-type chillers are available up to about
boiler accordingly. 600 tons, and absorption chillers are available up to about
All in all, if the preceding warnings are heeded, it is my 1200 tons. Centrifugal chillers are now available up to
belief that the electric boiler will be found a capable piece 7000 tons, with even larger units in sight.
of equipment for modern day high-voltage ac installations. Until 10 or 15 years ago, reciprocating chillers dominated
the air conditioning market. Today, in sizes over 100 tons,
PART II-ELECTRODE BOILERS probably 99 percent of all electric drive systems use
centrifugal machines. Some of the reasons are that there
Introduction are too many parts, and maintenance and first cost for
We are all aware of the growing problems of higher fuel reciprocating chillers are just too high, thus creating a
and energy cost and the limitations that are being placed market for the centrifugal chiller.
on their supply. This is forcing us to design systems that Similarly, if we are going to have electric boiler capacities
will optimize energy utilization. in excess of several hundred kilowatts, something new
The 1960's saw the heat reclamation system come into and better is needed. This something new is the electrode
wide acceptance. The 1970's will see even more new boiler. By new, I mean new to us in this country. Electrode
concepts used in order to obtain even greater comfort and boilers have been in use in Europe for more than 30 years.
economy for building owners. Types of Electrode Boilers
One of the key factors in obtaining economy of utiliza-
tion will be central heating systems and the means for Electrode boilers are made in steam and hot water ver-
providing the heat for them. As central systems grow sions for both high- and low-wattage applications. One of
WALLACE AND SPIELVOGEL: STEAM AND HOT WATER BOILERS 765
the largest costs in electric heating today is the cost of
transforming power to the utilization voltage. What this
means in dollars is that the electric boiler costs $10 to
$20 per kilowatt, while the transformers and switchgear
add another $20 to $25 per kilowatt, for a total of $30 to
$45 per kilowatt. Contrast that with high-voltage electrode
boilers that use primary voltage, require no transformation,
and cost $4 to $8 per kilowatt.
Fig. 8 shows a logarithmic plot of electric boiler capaci-
ties. Low-voltage resistance and electrode boilers are
available in capacities up to about 2000 kW. In the high-
voltage category, electrode boilers are available at up to
16 200 V in capacities up to 20 000 kW for hot water
and up to 40 000 kW for steam. A 40 000-kW steam boiler
will provide 132 000 lb of steam per hour, or 4 000 boiler
horsepower. How many buildings require much more
Fig. 9. than that?

Methods of Operation
1. Control Motor
2. Control Sleeve Drive Shaft Electrode boilers use the principle of having the water
3. Boiler Shell provide the resistance necessary to create heat, by passing
4. Jet Column
5. Jets an electric current through the water from a positive to
6. Control Linkage a negative electrode.
7. Control Sleeve Fig. 9 shows a summary of the means for controlling the
8. Water Level operation of electrode boilers. The water level control for
9. Circulating Pump steam boilers is shown in Fig. 10. The electrodes are fixed.
10. Insulator
11. Electrode A steam pressure controller modulates the boiler feedwater
valve to provide water at the same rate it is evaporating.
The evaporating capacity of the boiler is proportional to
the amount of submergence of the electrodes in the water.
The more they are submerged, the greater the output.
The automatic valve in the discharge of the circulating
pump is used to control pressure.
Jet spray capacity control is most often used in the
high-voltage steam boilers. Here, water is pumped to
a spray manifold so the water flows through the jets and
strikes the electrode, thus creating a path for the electric
current. Control is accomplished by moving a shield over
the jets to divert the water flow from the electrodes.
Fig. 11 shows the workings of a low-voltage hot water
boiler with movable electrode shields. Since the workings
are immersed in water at all times and the electrodes are
energized, the shields are moved up and down to expose
more or less of the electrodes to permit more or less current
to flow.
Fig. 12 shows the workings of a high-voltage hot water
boiler. A circulating pump is required to provide good
water flow over the high-voltage electrodes.
Fig. 13 shows three electrodes that were removed from
Fig. 10. an 11 000-V boiler of several thousand kilowatt capacity.
The electrodes are cast iron, and the movable shield is
porcelain with an overall diameter of about 8 in.
Fig. 14 shows the interior of an electrode boiler that has
electrode spacing control. In this type of boiler the
electrodes are graphite and radial from the center core.
A hydraulic valve positions the positive electrodes with
766 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1974

Fig. 13.

Fig. 11.

ffX~~I
. IK0EW ,i.
0'0
I S ^ ^0~~~~~~*
er
:-0~ t ~ k AVthl 001 fff

Figj. 12.~ Fig. 14.

 WALLACE AND SPIELVOGEL: STEAM AND HOT WATER BOILERS 767

respect to the negative electrodes in response to signals

from the temperature controller, thereby varying current
flow.
Electrode boilers can be fully modulated down to about -=~~~~~I 1:
10 to 20 percent of capacity. For outputs of less than this,
it is necessary to switch the power on and off. For low-
voltage boilers this is not a problem with the use of
breakers or contactors.
For the high-voltage boilers, it is impractical to subject
high-voltage breakers to repeated operation, although
this is done, with the consequence that the breakers must
be rebuilt frequently. By using high-voltage contactors,
such as those found in electric furnaces, this problem is
eliminated. If close control of capacity and output is
required during periods of light load, a small boiler may Fig. 15. Hot water central heating and cooling plant at western
Ilnited States university. Two 3000-kW at 4160 V.
be used in conjunction with a large one, so arranged as to
switch control from one to the other, depending on the
load. In cases where the larger boiler is hot water and
a smaller boiler is provided for kitchen or humidification
use, a heat exchanger can be installed in the hot water
system, using steam from the small boiler when the load
is too small for the large hot water boiler. Some types of
electrode hot water boilers can be equipped to handle
other fluids or water at high pressure and temperature,
thereby enabling a fluid or water to water heat exchanger
to be used for the genieration of steam, where it is necessary
to have steam.
Electrode boilers require three-phase four-wire electric
service, with grounded neutral and the boiler shell
grounded. Some codes require the neutral be the full size
of the conductors. On high-voltage boilers, the use of
station-type lightning arresters should be considered.
Controls and Safety Devices
In electrode boilers, the three phases are not always
exactly balanced, so it is a good idea to provide a full
complement of electrical safety devices, including a ground
fault relay. Feeder sizes should be calculated at 137
percent of rated kilowattage, since it is possible to obtain
110 percent capacity from these boilers.
Besides the electrical safety devices, electrode boilers
are usually equipped with a time delay relay between
starts, flow switches, high and low temperature,
pressure, and water level alarms, and shield position Fig. 16. Installation of boilers at eastern U'nited States utility
indicators. Other desirable features that may be easily company office build(ing. TIwo 2000 kWN' at 12 46(0 V. L,ow pl)rsSr'e
steam.
added include conductivity control and recording, electric
demand and energy consumption recording, and flow,
temperature, and pressure recording. principle that water conducts electricity, it is imperative
Older boilers used mechanically driven capacity control to maintain the proper conductivity. It is also necessary
systems, while most of the manufacturers use hydraulic to insure that the entire water system is clean.
drives today. Demand control systems that limit the The engineer should specify clearly that the enmtir(e
capacity of the boiler are easily adapted to the boiler system should be flushed thorokughly and stripped by
controls, and some are even standard equipment. a competent water treatment contractor. Water softeners
Installationt, Maintenance, and Operation should be provided for make-up water in both hot water
and steam systems. Automatic chemical feeders in coII-
The most critical requirement with electrode boilers is junction with conductivity controllers will nmainta.in the
proper water treatment. Since the boilers operate on the preset conductivity level bv the use of salt solutionis suclh
768 IEEE TRANSACTIONS O N IND(YSTRY APPLICATIONS, NOVEMBERl/DECEMBER 1974

lii 191 ()ffice )uildling in Londoo. Two 12010 kW at 11 00(1 V.

Medium temperatuire hot -water withioff-peak storage.

Fig. 17. leserclIh labin Elngland. '1le\ 1-411)

I k\Vt
N 11 111(1 V. flot
water with off-peak storage.

Fig. Uniiite(i States marnifacturitig plant Onie 1 133( I ig 21) ('adian ntility company generating station T 0) ./0(H0
18. Eastern
kW at 48) V. Low pressure steam for process use. kW a4t V High presstue steamr
WALLACE AND SPIELVOGLE: STEAM AND HOT WATER BOILERS
Fig. 21. Canadian municipal office building. Two 18 000 kW at
13 600 V. High pressure steam with steam storage.
as sodium carbonate, sodium sulfate, or sodium sulfite.
Control of pH is required to maintain a slightly basic
solution. Corrosion control for the piping system is
recommended.
Water samples should be tested as frequently as several
times per month. Conductivity testing equipment is a
must, while conductivity recording equipment is desirable.
The possibility of scaling is minimized in the electrode
boiler because the maximum temperature in the boiler is
that of the water. In electric resistance and fossil fuel
boilers metal surfaces must be heated to temperatures
higher than that of the water in order to effect heat
transfer. Since scaling is a function of surface temperatures,
it stands to reason that electrode boilers will tend to scale
less than other types of boilers.
The electrodes cannot burn out since there will be no
flow of electricity when there is no water surrounding
them, nor is there any reason why they should wear out.
Electrode boilers are usually arranged for unattended
operation. It is recommended that at least one visit be
made per day in order to observe the operation and check
the charts and gauges, with a weekly check on the water
treatment. Other required maintenance includes the annual
boiler inspection, at which time the workings of the boiler
should be checked for clearances and buildups of foreign
materials. Pickling of the porcelain insulators or shields
769)
may be necessary. The porcelains must be hanldled
carefully, since they are fragile. A spare set of porcelains
would be handy to have, since they are custom built. The
various mechanical and electrical safety devices should be
checked for proper operation. A chain hoist shotuld be
provided over the boiler to facilitate removal of electrodes
and drives.
Advantages
In brief review, the advantages of electrode boilers
include
1) availability of large capacities
2) low cost per kilowatt
3) high voltage, no transformer
4) minimum number of components
5) minimum maintenance
6) small size
7) unattended operation
8) almost silent operation
9) minimum feeder size
10) rapid heat-up
11) close to 100 percent efficiency
12) imposibility of burning out.
Typical Installations
Fig. 15-21 show some typical installations.
22-g William D. Wallace (A'62) received the B.S.
degree in engineering from Carnegie- Mellon
University, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Since 1959 he has been associated with the
Edwin L. Wiegand Division of the Emtierson
. llElectric Company, Pittsburgh, Pa., working
in both the electric process heating and
comfort conditioning fields. He is currently
Senior Product Specialist. lIe has appeared
before the public many times on behalf of
electric heat and has written numerous
articles on the electric boiler concept.
Mr. Wallace is a member of the American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers and a former member
of its Technical Committee for Electric Heating.
Lawrence G. Spielvogel received the B.S.
_7 l degree in mechanical engineering from Drexel
University, Philadelphia, Pa.
He is President of L. G. Spielvogel, Inc., a
consulting engineering firm in Wyncote, Pa.
He is also a faculty member at Drexel Uni-
versity, Temple University, and the Graduate
School of Architecture at the University of
Pennsylvania, all three in Philadelphia.
Mr. Spielvogel is a member of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, the Ameri-
can Society of Plumbing Engineers, the Consulting Engineers
Council of the United States, the Consulting Engineers Council of
Pennsylvania, the National Society of Professional Engineers, the
Society of Military Engineers, the American Society of Hleating,
Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers, the American In-
stitute of Architects, and the Institute of Heating and Ventilating
Engineers (England). He is a Registered Professional Engineer in
24 states.