In This Issue I

DMG SEISMIC INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION MAPS 218

1989 CALIFORNIA MINING REVIEW 219
LIQUEFACTION AT SODA LAKE 225
CALIFORNIA GEOLOGY WELCOMES NEW EDITOR 232
BOOK REVIEWS 233
Al"UIklCATlON Of TtlII!
DENRTIIElIfT Of COfQERVATlON TRANSPORTING MINING EQUIPMENT BY TRUCK 234
0M!IICltt Of _ S AND GEOI..OGY
MINERAL TRIVIA 236
MAIL ORDER FORM 239
..... CoOOonoo GEORGE DEUKMEJIAN
CALIFORNIA GEOLOGY SUBSCRIPTION FORM 240
"'-- CALL FOR PAPERS _ 240
n.~~ GOROONK VANVlECK
Sectel¥y lot' Resoc.wees
~oICoi_._, RANDALl M WARD
","",w Cover: Oblique aerial View of the Grelco Incorporated large diatorrute quarry
near lompoc. santa Barbara County. OIaIOOllte is a soh. light colored Siliceous
JAMES F DAVIS sedtmentary rock used lor a variety of commercial products. Its name IS derived
Stir. Gedog<st from the diatom SkeIe10ns t1 IS composed 01 The diatomrte bearing zone In this
manne deposil exceeds 1.000 leet in thickness and ranges In age from 28 mil-
CAliFORNIA GEOlOGV slaff lion years to 12 rYMIIion years o6d DIalomlle IS used as filters, insulabon maten-
also fillers. line abrasive powders. adsorbents. catalysts, and in manulaetunng
Ted\nlcIIl EdllOf Don Cup..,
elploslVes
MsIstatlI Eddor Lena Tabibo

.-...... "-""'"
Graphoes and Des.gn Lou.,. Huck4aby Diatoms are ooe-celled microscope water plants thai are found throughout
..leU Tambert the WOOd There are n'lOfe than 10.000 speaes 01 diatoms lI'lciuding both sat!
water and fresh water vanebes. They play a Vital role in the food chain; WIthout
diatoms most 01 the fISh ,n the wend would dl8. The ceM walls of diatoms are
composed 01 SIlica Because Silica does not readily dissolve in waler. millions
of bny Silica skeletons from dead diatoms accumulate al the bottoms of seas
0I0f-.Hudqu&f~ t.'~NinlhS~. Room 13061. and lakes. Over geologIC bme lhlCll. deposits 01 these skeletal remains amassed
Sacr_, CA esal4 10 lorm commerCIally Importanl depoStts. Some crude Gil deposits were formed
(T~ 018-<145-18251
from lhe stored Oils of diatoms, Mosl 01 the large commercial depoSitS in Ca6for·
~ _ InIOrmaUOn Qffi(:. rua occur pnmarily Within the central Coasl RaOQEls. An article about mineral
&60 Ilefc:..l Ofrve S I c f _ . CA i58' 4-0' 31 m,mng In CalIfornIa starts on page 219. Photo courtesy of Craig Srmth. Grefco I........
Pubk InIofmation 018-.45-5718
Incorporated. I I
lOl ........ OOo;e l07South~ RoomI06S,
lOIlI.ngeId. CA lIOOI2-4402
(Telelll'>one 213'820-35f101
PIN...... ~ Ol!o;e 3eOC,1fIC'; Or.....
P1H....... HIlI. CA 0<1523·1921
$w,. lOll.
DMG Seismic Intensity Distribution Maps
(Telephone .15-848·59201

CAUFQANIA GEOI.OOY (ISSN 002tl4SSSI" publi&/le(I
monthly by t~ o.p•• ,mtnt or CoM_.tlon. Division 01
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p.id .1 S.c,.",."to. CA POltm•• le, S."d .dd'e..
chaOO-11O CALIFORNIA GEOLOGY (USPS 350 8401.
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Repottl conce",,"Il 0 .....10" Of M, end GIOlo9~
I'fO!I'CII .00 .fldeI end news ~ I.ted to 1tIe "f1h
IdI<IcH It! car,Iof",....e iI'lC:lucMcl III l~ IflaQIl..... Con·
lllbuledll'iC.... pholog'fIPhs. _ _, .nd;eolOgiC1l
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ARTICLES ARE SOlELY THOSE Of mE AUTHORS
AND ARE NOT NECESSARILY ENOORSEO 8'1' THE
OEPARTMENT Of CONSERVATION
eo"upoflClence S/IOuJd oe add'e..ed '0 Ed"o',
CAliFORNIA GEOI..OGY 6llO 8Itclll Or..... SIcf_.
CA~4-0131
SullaQ-lpI...... "0001*"'" SIngl<teopou S' 25
- . SIncI l"bI<;ropllOn
~ _ d>angI' 01 ..."...
onlDrfl\llllClf'l tillCAl.IFORHtA GEOI.OOY. PO 80lt 2980,
Sacr_. CA ~2_2980
It has been a year since the magni-
tude 7.1 Loma Prieta earthquake. Due
to the overwhelming demand for geo-
logic and seismic safely information af-
ter the quake. the Division of Mines and
Geology (DMG) has for sale black-Hne
prints of the seismic intensity distribu·
tion maps taken from four DMG earth-
quake plannin9 scenarios: (1) Special
Publication 60 (SP60). Earthquake plan-
ning scenario for a magnitude 8.3 earth-
quake on the San Andreas fault in
southern California; (2) Special Publica-
tion 61 (SP6l), Earthquake planning
scenario lor a magnitude 8.3 earth-
quake on the San Andreas fault in the
San Francisco Bay area; (3) Special Pub-
lication 78 (SP78). Earthquake planning
scenario for a magnitude 7.5 earth-
quake on the Hayward fault in the San
Francisco Bay area: and (4) Special Pub-
lication 99 (SP99). Earthquake planning
scenario for a ma}or earthquake on the
Newport-Inglewood fault zone.
The seismic intensity distribution
maps show the expected distribution
and intensity of seismic shaking and
the areas with a potential for liquefac-
tlon. The maps from SP60 and SP99
cover the 9reater Los Angeles area,
the maps from SP61 and SP78 cover
the San Francisco Bay area. Please
specify the Special Publication num-
ber for each seismic intensity distribu-
tion map you order. The maps are
$ 2.00 each (price includes sales tax
and shipping). Payment must accom-
pany your order. Make your check or
money order payable to: Division of
Mines and Geology. Address orders
to: Dale Stickney, Division of Mines
and Geology. Geologic Information
and Publications. 660 Bercut Drive.
Sacramento, CA 95814-0131.
Please allow two to three weeks for
delivery. ~

CAlIFORNIA GEOLOGV ocroeEA 1990

 1989
Photo 1. Blasting gold ore at the open pit Mesquite mine. This large mine is located on the western
edge of the ChoCOlate Mountains near Glamis, Imperial County, Photos by author except as noted.
The October Issue of CALIFORNIA GE·
OLOGY traditionally includes articles about
mining actl....ities In California, At the time
this issue went to press. mineral production
data in California for 1989 were not yet
compiled. These statistics will be Included
in a luIure Issue. Every Californian is de·
pendent upon mineral resources-they are
the building blocks 01 our society. Most of
the mll'l9ral resources mined in California
are consumed here. A lew minerals mined
here, such as rare earths and borate miner-
als. are used throughout the world. More
than hall 01 the oil consumed in California
is produced here: in 1989, 337 million bar·
rels 01 oil were produced in this state while
nearly 706 mdUon barrels were consumed
here. Although Impressive amounts of !he
lT10fe ·glamorous· miMfals. such as gold.
oil, and silver, are produced in CaUforma.
SIgnificant amounts 01 industrial minerals
such as limestone. gypsum, diatomite. zeo-
~es. borates. and aggre;ate are also pro-
duced K'I thiS state. PortlOOS of this ar!ICle
were ooglnalty wntten by the author and
published in the May. 1990 issue 01 MJning
Engmeeflf'lg...editor.
California Mining Review
JOHN L BURNETI. GeologIst
Mineral Resource Analysis Project
Division 01 Mines and Geology
INTRODUCTION
or the first time in many years Cali-
F fornia slipped to second place in the
production of non-fuel minerals during
1989. according 10 U.s. Bureau of
Mines preliminary statistics. After being
the leading slate for several years, Cali-
fornia dropped behind Arizona due to
an escalation in copper production in
that slale which was spurred by sub-
stantial increases in the price of copper.
The value of mineral commodities
produced in California increased 5 per-
cent 10 $2.8 billion. California contin-
ued to lead all other states in the pro-
duction of boron minerals. portland ce-
ment. gypsum. diatomite. sand and
gravel. rare earth concentrates. and
tungsten. California was second nation-
w;de in the production of gokt (behind
Nevada). cakium chloride. feldspar.
magnesium comlXlUf'lds from brine. and
sodium compounds.
CAliFORNIA GEOlOOY OCTOBeR 1990
GOLD AND SILVER
Gold production in California con-
tinued to increase and reached
890.575 troy ounces in 1989. com-
pared with 729.272 troy ounces in
1988. Silver production moved upward
from 16.5 tons to 19.8 Ions. The two
largest producers of gold and silver. the
Mesquite mine in Imperial County and
the Mclaughlin mine in Napa County.
led this increase (Photo 1). Most
smaller gold and silver operations
showed similar gains.
Open pit mining operations began at
the Royal/Mountain King mine near
Copperopolis. Calaveras County. Pro-
duction at this mine is anticipated to
reach 60.000 troy ounces of gokl per
year in the near future (Photos 2-5).
TIle JamestO\All1 mine in Tuolumne
County increased production to more
than 100.000 troy ounces of gold in
1989 (Photos 6-8).
".

!
-,-
I square miles of eastern San Bernardino
o ounces of gold per ton of minable ore
Figure 1. Mine location map.
Production continued al the Padre/
Madre mine in the Cargo Muchacho
Mountains of Imperial County and min-
ing began at the adjacent Canyon Gold
project (Rgure 1), The combined un-
derground and open pit operations from
these two concerns is expected to proc-
ess 8 million Ions of gold ore over a 10-
year period with an annual production
of 60,000 troy ounces of gold. The
first gold from the nearby American Girl
Canyon open pit mine was poured in
September 1989; the owner company
also acquired the Oro Cruz property
about a mile from the American Girl
Canyon pit.
New Gold Discovery
A new discovery was announced by
Glamis Gold which operates the large
Picacho gold mine in Imperial County.
220
MINE LOCALITIES ~
1 Grey Eagle mIne
2, $Iskon mme
J, Hayden H'II mine
4 McLal.l9hhn mine
5 B'll Canyon, Vandalia mone
6, Pacific Pearl mille
7, RoyaVMounlam l<Jng mine
a. Jamestown mine
9 LOI\{l Valley mine
10.Crater m,ne
11 United Ready MIJ quarry
12. Fori Cady I11IIle
13. Caslle Mountains mine
14 Masqulle mine
15,Padre/Madre mille
16, locllao Rose ntln9
,
•..-r. -.:;" -"
Photo 2. Distant view of mining operations at the Royal Mountain King gold mine.
CALIFORNIA GEOLOGY OCTOBER 1990
The company disclosed that the Indian
Rose ore deposit and the nearby Ocoti-
llo gold zone are located between the
Picacho mine and the Mesquite gold
mine (Figure 1). A minable rese1V€ of
5.1 million tons of ore averaging 0.023
troy ounces of gold per ton has been
identified in the Indian Rose deposit.
Similar reserves are indicated in the
Ocotillo zone.
Hart District
Gold and silver exploration continued
in 1989 and many prospects ap-
proached the point of beginning pro-
duction. One notable prospect nearing
commencement of mining operations is
the Castle Mountain gold deposit (Fig-
ure 1). The Castle Mountain deposit is
located in the historic Hart Mining Dis-
trict about 20 miles southeast of Moun-
tain Pass. California. This deposit is
composed of 2.000 claims covering 65
County. Exploration drilling on six ore
bodies within this deposit indicates thai
nearly 26 million tons of 0.055 troy
exists. and that 13.5 million tons 01 ore
with 0.046 ounces of gold per ton
exists (Linder. 1989).
,<'
: ........... •

Photo 3. Front end loader IiIling a large dump truck with gold ore altha open
pit Royal Mountain King mine near Copperopolis, Calaveras County.
The combined reserves of 2 million
ounces of gokl in the ground will make
this deposit the third largest gold mine
in the state when full production is
achieved. The deposit lies Vtlilhin a
group of rhyolite domes and plugs which
are cut by hydrothermal breccia lones.
Preliminary results indicate that the min-
eralization occurred 15 million years ago
in mid·Miocene lime (Under, 1989).
Hayden Hill District
The Hayden Hill District in Lassen
County has been drilled by Amax Gold
Incorporated (Figure 1. Photo 9). This
district was first mined in the 18705 and
Ihe long·abandoned mine dumps were
reworked by heap leach methods within
the last len years. The present mining
plan encompasses 6,000 acres and in-
cludes virtually the entire Hayden Hill
Mining District. Current reserves are es-
timated to be 45.3 million tons of ore
averaging 0.032 ounces of gold per ton
and 0.2 ounces 01 silver per ton. An-
nual production is expected to be
145,000 ounces of gold and 445,000
ounces of silver. Amax Gold Inc. is cur-
rently conducting environmental studies
lor the necessary regulatory permitting
process. Initial mine construction is ten-
tatively expected to begin In 1991,
Formation of the ore deposit was pre-
ceded by the formation 01 a barren silica
cap in middle Miocene volcanic rocks.
Episodic fracturing of this cap provided
space for gold and silver to be deposited
In three different configurations; (1)
quartz and potassium feldspar (adularia)
veins, (2) stockworks or three-dimen-
slonal ore deposits formed by networks
of veinlets, and (3) breccia zones com-
posed of angular broken rock fragments
held together by silica cement.
----
- Long Valley
The Long Valley gold prospect near
Mammoth Lakes in Mono County is
-.. ---- .-
- .. _ -;00
~
-
being explored by a drilling and sam-
pling program by Royal Gold, Incorpo-
rated in a joint venture with Standard
Industrial Minerals, Incorporated (Ftgure
I). This prospect is located 2·1/2 miles
north 01 the Mammoth Lakes Airport
and 2 miles southeast of a kaolin pit that
has been operated by Standard Industrial
Minerals for many years. 1lle prospect
Is an epithermal hot spring deposit with
The Hayden Hill deposit is a shallow disseminated free gold on the fractures
epithermal ore body resulting from late In friable quartz veins and stringers.
Miocene hot spring activity that occurred Proven ore reserves are placed at 1.8
during prolonged fault formation and million tons containing an estimated
contemporaneous explosive volcanism. 50,000 troy ounces of recoverable gold.
Photo 4. Close-up view of a drill rig at the Aoyal Mountain King mine.
This rig is used to drill holes fOf placing explosive charges.
CAliFORNIA GEOLOGY OCTOBER 1990
'"
 COPPER
The sustained high price of copper
dUring the last few years has resulted in
refocusing the attention of mining com-
panies on copper mines that may not
contain gold and silver values. Inactive
mines in northwestern California and
the Foothills Copper Belt in the Sierra
Nevada are being examined. Drilling,
chemical sampling, and geochemical
work are being performed on some
copper mineralized areas. Mining
agreements and the necessary environ-
mental negotiations are being consid-
ered on others. Some of these copper
mines can be expected to resume op-
erations. For example, the Western
World Mining Company plans to de-
velop a copper-zinc property about a
mile south of Smartville. Yuba County.

Smartville
Photo 5. Milling plant al the Royal Mountain King mine where the gold ore is processed.
The Western World Company cop-
per-zinc deposit occurs in an area that
has been mined for copper since 1849.
Siskon Mine This deposit occurs near the north end
of a northwest-trending belt of meta-
American Gold Mineral Corporation to develop them. This area was the sub- morphic rocks exposed along the west-
is developing the gold reserves at the ject of a recent U.S. Geological Survey ern margin of the Sierra Nevada. Rock
Siskon mine in western Siskiyou research effort that indicates substantial formations in the metamorphic belt are
County. Recent sampling and drilling low-grade gold ore may exist. composed of thick accumulations of
has extended the strike and depth of
ore zones. Before 1958 this deposit
produced over 100,000 ounces of gold,
over 1 million ounces of silver, as well
as base metals such as copper and lead.
The are averaged 0.17 ounces of gold
and 0.4 ounces of silver per ton.

Grey Eagle Mine

The Grey Eagle mine in Siskiyou
County, which last operated from 1980
to 1983, is being explored by Centu-
rion Gold Ltd. (Figure 1). Closure of
the mine in 1983 was caused by opera-
tional problems centering around
chemicals that leaked from the site.
Significant ore reseJVes remain.

Big Canyon and Vandalia Mines

The Big Canyon and Vandalia mines

in EI Dorado County were purchased by
Mother Lode Gold Mines Consolidated
(Figure 1). These mines were explored
by Consolidated Goldfields in the early Photo 6. Open pit of the Jamestown mine, Tuolumne County.
1980s and nearly $4 million was spent The mineralized ore vein in the center 01 the hill dips steeply to the right.

222 CALIFORNIA GEOLOGY OCToeER 1990

 ways and concrete prOOucts. 1ne largest
aggregate pit in the nation is the United
Ready Mixed Concrete plant at Irwindale
near los Angeles (Figure 1). This single
plant produces 4.5 million Ions of sand
and gravel per year. Nine of the ten
largest aggregate pits in 1988 were in
the Los Angeles basin, Alameda
County. and Sacramenlo County of Cali·
fornia (Michard. 1989). Not only does
California prcxluce more sand and gravel
aggregate than any other state. it is also
the largest consumer of aggregate.

SULFUR

The Crater mine in the Last Chance

Range of [nyo County is being explored
by the American Sulfur Prcxlucts Com-
pany 10 develop sulfur and gypsum de-
posits (Figure 1). The mine was first de-
veloped in 1917 and operated intermit-
Photo 7. Distant view of the wof1ling face. Jamestown gold mine. tently until 1943.

1ne ore bo:ty is a fault controUed 001

spring deposit with tabular beds of sulfur
interlaced with gypsum, rhyolite (a silica
Paleozoic and/or Mesozoic marine sedi- CONSTRUCTION AGGREGATE rich volcanic rock). and limestone. The
mentary and voIcank: rocks that have first ob;ectiw of the developer is to pr0-
been deformed, intruded by plutonic California led the nalion in the pro- duce agricultural sulfur and gypsum. A
rocks. and metamorphosed. Rock tex- duction of sand and gravel. Sand and ~on&ryru~moo~isw~~~
lures throughout the metamorphic belt. gravel is used extenstvely by the con- for epithermal disseminated gold.
such as bedding planes and foliation. struction industry for aggregate in high-
normally trend northwest and dip
steeply 10 the east. The Westem World
Mining Company's copper-zinc deposit
occurs within a sequence of mafic vol-
canic rocks, sheeted mafic dikes. and
lesser amounts of ultramafic rocks that
are probably Jurassic age (140 to 195
million years old). Mafic rocks are com-
monly dark colored and contain signifi·
cant amounts of iron and magnesium.
Ultramafic rocks are composed chiefly
of iron and magnesium minerals.

1ne copper-zinc deposit occurs as

abundant sulfide minerals. A voIcank:
extrusive lava complex overlies it. 1ne
deposit consists of two closely related
lenses that have been separated by a
fault. The southern-most lens consists
of aOOut 900,000 tons 01 ore and the
nonhem lens consists of about
600.000 tons of ore. Exploratory drill-
ing indicates that the ore from both
lenses averages about 2.81 percent
copper and about 0.95 percent zinc Photo 8 Jamestown mine milling operation. II is Ihe largest gold flolation mitl
[raylor. 1990). in the United Slates.

CALIFORNIA GEOLOGY OCTOBER 1990


Photo 9. Oblique aerial view of the Hayden Hill Mining District, lassen County. Old
mine roads and abandoned shafts are common. Modern ore milling facilities are at the
middle foreground. Photo taken in July 1989. Courtesy of Amax Gold, Incorporated.
The most important market for both
sulfur and gypsum (hydrous calcium sul-
fatel is in neutralizing the alkalinity in
desert soils_ When sulfur or gypsum is
spread on soils, a sulfate molecule
(50 4 ) is created in the soil by irrigation
and oxidation. The sulfate dissolves the
calcium, sodium, and potassium depos-
its and increases the availabllity of phos-
phate and other nutrients to plants.
The utilization of sulfur and its com-
pounds enables thousands of square
miles of othelWise barren lands on the
west side of the San Joaquin Valley to
be used for valuable crops such as let-
tuce, broccoli, and parsley.
'"
SEA SHELLS
Oyster shell deposits on the floor of
the San Francisco Bay continue to be
collected by suction dredging methods.
The largest deposits of native oysters (a
species named OSfreo lurida Carpen-
ter) occur offshore of Hayward and San
Leandro, Alameda County in the south
San Francisco Bay (Figure 1). The
youngest shells collected are several
thousand years old and are buried in
one to five feet of bay mud. The oys-
ters originally grew over the entire floor
of the bay but prevailing winds toward
the east transported the bottom sedi~
ments toward the eastern shore through
wave action,
CALIFORNIA GEOlOGY OCTOBER 1990
The shells are gathered by a self
propelled. wooden hulled barge with
two trailing eight-inch suction pipes,
The shells are washed and screened to
remove mud and loaded onto a sepa"
rate hopper barge.
The products. sold as Pacific Pearl
Brand Oyster Shell, include ground shell
for poultry and livestock feed, agricul-
tural lime to neutralize acidic soils, and
bam lime 10 neutralize livestock waste.
This shell dredging operation is unique
because it is the only one on the Pacific
Rim that supplies markets throughout
this large region. Crushed shells are
used as decorative stone and oyster
shell lablets are widely used as a food
supplement by humans.
BORATE
An in situ solution mining operation
is being planned by Fori Cady Minerals
Corporation for a borate deposit south
of the Cady Mountains, San Bernardino
County (Figure 1). An estimated 147
million tons of borate ore averaging 6.4
percent boron oxide (B20 3l have been
located 1.350 feet below the desert
floor. A dilute hydrochloric acid solu-
tion will be injected from the surface
and, after reaction with the borate ore.
the dissolved ore will be returned to the
surface as a boric acid solution. Crystal-
line boric acid (H 3BO) will then be pro-
duced by evaporation in ponds. The
deposit averages 118 feet in thickness
and extends over 384 acres.
REFERENCES
Linder, H" 1989, Hart Mining District, San
Bernardino County, California: CALI·
FORNIA GEOLOGY, v. 42, no. 6,
p. 134-140.
Michard, Don, 1989, Top ten sand and
gravel plants: Rock Products, May,
p. 44-46.
Taylor, Gary C., 1990, Mineral land c1assifi·
cation of the Western World Mining
Company copper·zinc deposit near
Smartville, Yuba County. California:
Division of Mines and Geology Open-
File Report90-1,12p. ~
 Liquefaction at Soda Lake:
Effects of the Chittenden earthquake swarm of April 18, 1990
Santa Cruz County, California

By

C.J. WILLS and MW. MANSON, Geologists

Division 01 Mines and Geology

INTRODUCTION

n the morning of Wednesday.

O April 18. 1990. the anniversary of
the great 1906 San Francisco earth-
quake. a series of aftershocks of the Oc-
tober 17. 1989 Lorna Prieta earthquake
occurred near Chittenden ,md were felt
throughout the San Francisco Bay area.
The largest of these earthquakes was a
magnitude 5.4 event thai occurred at
6:53 a.m. Pacific Daylight Time.

...
Photo 1. View northeast over Soda Lake shoWing many sand bolls
tormed by Chinanden earthquakes of Apri118, 1990. Photos by the
authors except as noted.

.. Photo 2. Sand bolls from the Lorna Prieta earthquake 01 OCtober

17,1989 and the Chlnar'lden earthquakes of Apnl 18, 1990 along a
Imear fissure near the edge of Soda Lake (view is 'rom center of
Photo I toward top lell).

Landslides triggered by these earthquakes. which we infor-

mally call the MChiltenden~ earthquakes. were reponed by the
news media on Highway 152 (Hecker Pass Road) and High-
way 129 in the southern Santa Cruz Mountains (Hgure 1),
Because earth scientists anticipated that significant after-
shocks of the Lorna Prieta eanhquake could cause surface
rupture on the San Andreas fault. panicularly if the after~
shocks were shallow. and because of the reported landslides.
we made a brief field reconnaissance to assess the amount of
landslide damage and search for surface fault rupture. At
Soda Lake. nonh of Chittenden. the Chinenden eanilquakes
caused liquefaction of deposits that had also liquefied during
the Lorna Prieta eanhquake (Photos I and 2).

CALIFORNIA GEOLOGY OCT08ER 1990 225

 ~
-N-
".

\ I
0 '0 20
Miles
..

SAH JOSE
C)-
.-• .-
.:a

<_ •
... Prlet.
II.v,1I57m

Eplcenler 01
April 18. 1990
Earlhquake
fl,l. */
CAl.IFORNIA
...ox. :~~NVIUE 0 Soda
Lake
.(A CHITTENDEN

A
F.gure 1. Map of the San Franasco Bay
lIfea showtng faults thai make up the San
Andreas lauh system and epcenters 01 the
lorna PrIeta and Chittenden earthquakes
Modified from Wagner, 1990
GEOLOGY AND LANDSLIDES
The Chinenden earthquakes oc-
curred along the San Andreas fault at
the southeast end of the Santa Cruz
Mountains in the central Coast Ranges
geomorphic province (Flgures I and 2).
The San Andreas fault is the major
component of the San Andreas fault
system and is the boundary bet\l.leen the
North American plate and the Pacific
plate. Crustal mowmenl along the San
Andreas fault in the Santa Cruz Moun-
tains has a long-term average of about
0.52 inches (13 mm) per year (Minster
and Jordan, 1987; Perkins and others,
1989).

CAliFORNIA GEOlOGY OCTOBER 1990

'"
 both, and locally have been cut off and
displaced by fault movement (Allen,
1946; Dibblee and Brabb, 1978; Wag-
ner, 1990).

Landslides triggered by the Chitten-

den earthquake swarm were minor, A
shallow slump of poorly consolidated
sand buried one lane of Highway 129
east of River Oaks in San Benito
County. This slump and several very
small debris avalanches occurred in the
Tertiary Etchegoin(?) Formation (Agure
3). The debris consisted of light-brown
sandy soil. bedrock blocks or fragments.
brush and trees. Similar shallow slumps

, '-
-.:'
occurred along the banks of the Pajaro
River in the same area. lhere were
also minor rockfalls onto Highway 129
at Chittenden and in Chinenden Pass.

- --',

Figure 2. Active faults of the Watsonville-Chittenden area (adapted from Sryanl and
and onto Highway 152 west of Hecker
Pass. All of these minor slides on the
roads, with the exception of the largest
one on Highway 129. were cleaned up
by California Department of Transpor-
otl'lers, 1981). Epicenter 01 M 5.4 earthquake, largest of the Chittenden earthquakes
(from Undh and Lester, 1990). t.. landslide or rockfalilriggered by Chittenden tation crews by noon on the day of the
earthquakes of April 18, 1990. earthquakes.

LEGEND

a" alluvium
f Cis landslide debris
~ ( Ooa older alluvium
Aromas sand
" :QIp
a' Paso Robles Formation

i>lTe
Elchegoln Formation
Tp Purisima Formation
t=-

Hqg
Tmp shale of Mt. Pajaro area
hornblende quartz.gabbro
·••
geologic contact
active fault
,,;•
"" ...."~
dike around margin
01 Soda lake

Bedrock units in the S<x:Ia Lake area

are quite different on either side of the
fault (FIgure 3). Northeast of the fault
the units are dominantly line-grained
marine sedimentary rocks of Tertiary
age. Southwest of the fault, bedrock
consists of Mesozoic hornblende quartz-
diorite overlain by Quaternary and Ter-
tiary eolian sand, and both marine and
non-ma.t\ne. sand and gravel. These Figure 3. Geologic map 01 the Soda Lake area ((rom Dibblee and Brabb, 1978)
units have been fractw"ed or folded or with traces 01 active raults (by Bryant and others. 1981).

CAlIFOFlNIA GEOlOGY OCT08ER 1990

 FAULT RUPTURE SEARCH
The San Andreas fault cuts through
the southern Santa Cruz Mountains,
where it has formed a series of right-
laterally offset drainages, side-hill
benches. and scarps. Following the Chit~
tenden earthquakes, we checked as
much of the fault in the quake epicentral
area as possible for surface rupture.
State Highways 129 and 152, Mount
Madonna Road. and Green Valley Road
all cross the San Andreas fault east of
Watsonville. All of these roads were
damaged in the Loma Prieta earthquake
by slumping of road fill and pavement
cracking that was commonly perpendicu-
lar to the roadway. The cracks on
Mount Madonna Road in October 1989
suggested right-lateral faulting, although
they may have been due to down-slope
movement of the road fill (Hart and oth-
ers, 1990). The Chittenden earthquakes
caused some longitudinal cracks in the
pavement of Highway 152 to re-open
slightly but no new cracks were obselV€d
along the trend of the fault at any of the
road crossings.
Following the reconnaissance of the
paved roads, a section of the San An-
dreas fault that crosses pasture land east
of Watsonville was examined. This seg-
ment of the fault is well defined by a se-
ries of tectonically produced geomorphic
features such as fault scarps. offset drain-
ages, and sidehill benches, There were
some minor shaking cracks in a dirt road
within the fault zone, but no cracks thai
indicated right lateral faulting.
LIQUEFACTION
AND RELATED EVENTS
Uquefaction is defined by Youd
(1973) as the transformation of a granu-
lar material from a solid state into a
liquefied state as a consequence of in-
creased pore pressure (pressure exerted
by groundwater within the voids among
mineral grains in soil, alluvium, and bed-
rock). It is a relatively common earth-
quake-related phenomenon in Holocene
sediments (Youel and Hoose. 1977). It
can be induced by rapid application of
stresses that result in increased pore
pressure by pore water migration.
The stresses that produce liquefaction
may be natural (shaking from earth-
"8
. .
•
Photo 3. "Flowing" sand boil. At about noon on April 18, 1990 several sand boils were still
active. When this photo was taken. water was still issuing 'rom the central crater o! this
sand boil and t10wing evenly over all sides 01 the volcano-shaped mound (note ripples on
the sides of the sand boil).
quakes or volcanic eruptions) or artifi-
cial (vibrations from heavy equipment or
blasting). Vibration of a saturated, po-
rous sand or silt causes pore water to
migrate toward the direction of least
confinement. If pore water cannot es-
cape. pore pressures can approach the
lithostatic pressure (the weight of the
overlying sediment). When liquefaction
occurs. the saturaled sediment no
longer acts as a solid but becomes a liq-
uid with suspended mineral grains.
Such material loses its internal resis-
tance to defomlation by shearing (or
~shear strength'") and can no longer
support a load. The excess pore pres-
sure may be relieved by rapid ejection
of water and sediment in suspension to
the ground surface to form sand boils
(also knov.m as sand blows or sand vol-
canoes). or by lateral spreading or hy-
draulic fracturing.
Simultaneous measurements of seis-
mically induced pore pressure changes
and ground accelerations at a site in Im-
perial County thai was undergoing
liquefaction during an earthquake indi-
cated that total pore pressures ap-
proached the weight of overlying sedi-
ments after most of the strong motion
ceased, and excess pore pressures were
generated once horizontal acceleration
CALIFORNIA GEOLOGY OCToeER 1990
•
exceeded a threshold value (Holzer and
others, 1989), The Imperial County
site did not undergo liquefaction during
earlier earthquakes with measured peak
accelerations of less than 18 percent of
the force of gravity {gravitational accel-
eration is 32 feet per second per sec·
ond}, but did so when the triggering
earthquake had a peak acceleration of
21 percent gravity. The unexpected
delay in recorded onset of liquefaction
(until after the strong motion ended)
was attributed by the researchers to re-
distribution of pore pressures through-
out the deposit.
Liquefaction occurred in many places
at the time of the Loma Prieta earth,
quake. It was extensive along Monterey
Bay, Soda Lake. and the Pajaro River
and caused severe damage to the Moss
Landing Marine Laboratory of the Cali-
fornia State Universities and Colleges.
Farther away from the epicentral area.
the Marina District of San Francisco.
Treasure Island, the eastern approach
to the San Francisco-Oakland Bay
Bridge, and the Port of Oakland were
heavily damaged, partly as a result of
liquefaction (Earthquake Engineering
Research Institute. 1989; Plafker and
Galloway, 1989).

Photo 4. Sand boil lormed by the Lorna Prieta earthquake
(cenlral lissure in foreground) with two sand boils that were
erupted on April 18, 1990, possibly from the same tissure.
SODA LAKE
The Loma Prieta earthquake caused sand boils 10 erupt
from the dry bed of Soda Lake. The volcano-shaped (conical)
sand deposits were as large as 10 feet in diameter by 1 foot
high. Water continued to flow from several sand boils for four
days after the main shock. The sand boils tended to be clus-
tered along fissures. some of which paralleled the edge of the
lakebed. Violent shaking from the Loma Prieta earthquake
also caused the entire lakebed to subside: fissures and scarps
along the edge of the lake indicated that the lakebed sank as
much as four feet during the earthquake (Manson and others.
in progress). The loose sandy sediment consolidated, becom-
ing both denser and more compact. This permanent consoli-
dation of the sandy material reduced the amount of pore
space and should have made the deposit less prone to future
liquefaction.
There are no reports of liquefaction in Soda Lake caused
by the April 18, 1906 San Francisco earthquake. although
severe ground shaking in the surrounding area was docu-
CALlFOONIA GEOLOGY
mented (Lawson and others, 1908; Youd and Hoose, 1978).
At Chittenden, several buildings were shifted off of their foun-
dations and the Southern Pacific Railroad bridge over the Pa-
jaro River was shifted three feet away from one of its abut-
ments. A large landslide was triggered at the mouth of a can-
yon just west of the Jake, and there was severe liquefaction
and fissuring in the Pajaro River and the Salinas River. Soda
Lake was probably full of water during the 1906 earthquake,
which followed a winter of above normal rainfall (Lawson and
others, 1908. p. 399).
Extensive liquefaction occurred at Soda Lake as a result of
the Chittenden earthquakes (maximum magnitude 5.4).
Much of the 66'acre lakebed was covered by fissures and
sand boils (Photos 1-4). The lakebed area affected by this
episode of liquefaction was as extensive as that resulting from
the Lorna Prieta earthquake (magnitude 7.1). There have
been no reports of renewed liquefaction from other localities
where it occurred in October 1989. Apparently. the rela-
tively small earthquakes of April 1990 were strong enough to
cause liquefaction only in the immediate epicentral area and
the deposits in Soda Lake may be especially susceptible to
liquefaction.
Soda Lake was originally a natural lake in an abandoned
meander bend of the Pajaro River (Jenkins, 1973). The surfi-
cial deposits and the material that formed the sand boils
(Photo 5) appear to be tailings from the Granite Rock Com-
pany's Wilson quarry 0.6 mile west of the lake (for a descrip-
tion of this quarry see Higgins, 1989). The material being
quarried by Granite Rock Company is hornblende quartz-dio-
rite (Dibblee and Brabb. 1978). Capacity of the natural lake
was increased by the construction of dikes along part of its
shoreline and the lake was used as a tailings pond for very
fine-grained quarry tailings from 1968 to the mid-1980s
(Bruce Woolpert, Jr., Granite Rock Company. personal com·
munication, 1990).
Grain-size analysis of the material erupted from the sand
boils shows that the material that liquefied is a well-sorted
sandy silt. with an average of 87 percent passing through a
200-mesh screen. Screen mesh numbers indicate the num'
bers of wires per inch for woven wire screens, particles pass-
ing through a 200-mesh screen are less than 0.074 mm in
diameter (Table 1, Photo 6). An average of about 10 percent
fine sand was also erupted from the sand boils, along with a
very small percentage of clay.
If the effects of liquefaction can produce denser deposits,
why has Soda Lake undergone repealed (at least two) epi-
sodes 01 liquefaction? There are numerous reported instances
of repeated liquefaction at many sites and in the laboratory
(Borchardt and Kennedy, 1979, p. 217). It is not unusual for
a sand sample to have a cyclic reaction to applied strain: the
sample liquefies then solidifies in less than one second. As
long as pore water drainage is blocked, the sample (or natural
deposit) can liquefy again and again (Youd, 1973, p. 3).
The sediments at Soda Lake are probably susceptible to
liquefaction for the following five reasons:
OCTOBER 1990 '29

I
Photo 5. Cross section of a sand boil formed at Soda lake by the Lorna Prieta
earthquake. Nole "feeder dike" 01 line sand below vent and line layering within
the sand boil. Photo by W.A. Bryant.
(I) The deposits have a uniform grain
size and almost total lack of cohesive
days that would tend to bind the par-
tides together. The grain-size analysis
(F19ure 4) shows that these sediments
plot within the range of ~potentially
liquefiable soil" though not within the
~most liquefiable soil" range.
(2) They were emplaced as a ~hydraulic
fill" that was deposited in and settled
out of a still body of water. Prior to the
Lorna Prieta earthquake this fill had not
been compacted. In this way, the fill at
Soda Lake is similar 10 the fill thaI un-
derlies much of the San Francisco
Marina District. The hydraulic fill under-
lying the Marina Disrtict also under-
went extensive liquefaction during the
Loma Prieta earthquake, which contrib-
uted to the wide-spread damage to
buildings. The Marina District fill is
coarser than the material at Soda Lake
but similar in its uniform grain size and
lack of cohesive days (Bonilla, 1990).
(3) The Soda Lake deposits are proba-
bly saturated, even when the lake ap-
pears dry, because it is a natural basin.
The level of the water table (depth to
groundwater beneath the land surface)
230
flows caused by liquefaction have oc-
curred in areas with intensities of M-M
V to M-M Xl, with the greatest propor-
tion (9 of 22 events, or 41 percent)
lying within M-M VII zones (Keefer.
1984). The lower peak acceleration
and shorter duration of strong shaking
associated with a M 5.4 earthquake,
compared to a M 7.1 earthquake, pre-
sumably is much less likely to cause
liquefaction.
Keefer (1984) constructed a chart
based on data from several hundred
earthquakes showing the distance of
liquefaction effects from the source fault
rupture lones. From Keefer's chart, a
magnitude 5.4 earthquake should cause
liquefaction no farther than 3.7 miles
from its hypocenter. Soda Lake is
about 3.7 miles from the hypocenter of
the largest Chittenden earthquakes
(hypocenter data from Lindh and
Lester. 1990).
(5) Shaking from the Loma Prieta earth-
quake may have caused uneven consoli-
dation of the sediments, compacting
may be just below the surface of the portions of the deposit but not affecting
lakebed. Any addition of rainwater and others. A model for repeated liquefac-
the water expelled by liquefaction seeps tion of a deposit due to partial compac-
back into the deposit. tion has been proposed (Finn and oth-
ers, 1970) and is summarized as: ~ A
(4) Soda Lake lies within the Modified series of small previous shakings either
Mercalli (M-M) VII intensity zone for the too weak to cause liquefaction or just
Loma Prieta earthquake (plafker and barely strong enough to cause [initial
Galloway, 1989). Lateral spreading or liquefaction!. allows the soil to densify
Silt Sand
10 0
A rage of
sa d bolls
~7/ ~/ 1//
0 Boundaries
I,
7 /
m SOda!y for most
liquefiable soil
0
I
II
E
0 Boundaries
for potentielly
I /
•o II / liquefiable soil
/
:f 20
// / / V
0
0.01 0.1 1.0 10
Grain size (mm)
Figure 4. Grain size distribution of the average of three samples taken from Soda
lake sal'ld boils ploned on chart sllowing "most liquefiable" al'ld "potentially
liquefiable" soil. By Tsuchida, 7970, as reprinted in Hausner and others, 7985.
CALIFORNIA GEOLOGY OCTOBER 1990
uniformly and increases subsequent TABLE 1. GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS OF THREE SAMPLES FROM SODA LAKE
resistance to liquefaction. However, a SAND BOilS. Adapted from F.H. Chin and J D Rogers written communication, 1990
very strong shaking may cause uneven % Retained on screen (Cumulative % passing"
Screen
densification, leaving a topmost looser size'
layer with increased susceptibility to sand Boil 1 Sand Boil 2 Sand Boil 3 Average
liquefaction ~ (Hausner and others,
No. 10
1985, p. 58).
No. 20 0.04199.95 0.02199.98 0.03199.97 0.03199.97
CONCLUSIONS
No. 40 0.02/99.93 0.12/99.86 0.40/99.57 0.18/99.78
The earthquakes of April 18, 1990
occurred on the anniversary of the No. 60 0.04199.89 0.83/99.03 0.92/98.65 0.60199.19
1906 quake and six months after the
No. 140 3.19/96.70 8.59/90.44 5.05/93.60 5.61193.58
Lama Prieta event. They were a dis-
tinct reminder to the people of the San No. 200 5.09/91.61 7.64/82.80 5.24/88.36 5.99/87.59
Francisco Bay area of the earthquake
hazards associated with the San An- PO' 91.61 82.80 88.36 87.59
dreas fault system. No surface rupture
• Screen size indicates the number 01 wires per inch for woven wire mesh.
and relatively little landsliding occurred •• Totals may not equal 100% due to rounding.
during the April 18 event, but the
earthquakes did cause liquefaction of a
sandy silt deposit in Soda Lake that had
also liquefied as a result of the Loma
Prieta event in October. 1989.

The liquefaction of this deposit from

a relatively small earthquake with a rela-
tively short period of strong shaking
shows that the hydraulically emplaced
deposits of Soda Lake are especially
susceptible to liquefaction. even after
lhey were made more dense by lique-
faction during the October 17. 1989
earthquake. This repeated liquefaction
of a hydraulic fill at Soda Lake suggests
that repeated liquefaction of similar hy-
draulic fills around the margins of San
Francisco Bay is also possible. Future
earthquakes in the San Francisco Bay
area could cause repeated liquefaction
of the deposits that the Loma Prieta
earthquake showed to be susceptible to
liquefaction. such as those underlying
the Marina District and along the east-
Photo 6. Electron micrograph of sit! grains that erupted from a sand volcano at
ern margin of San Francisco Bay. Soda Lake. Bar scale is in microns. Photo taken al the U.c. Davis Facility for
Advanced Instrumentalion.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to thank Mark Molinari, of REFERENCES

Dames and Moore, Jne., who brought
the liquefaction at Soda Lake to our at-
tention following the Lorna Prieta earth-
quake. We also wish to thank J. David
Rogers of Rogers-Pacific Inc., Pleasant
Hill. California for test data and review
of this article. Analyses were per-
formed by F.H. Chin of Rogers-Pacific
Company on samples collected by per-
sonnel of the Division of Mines and Ge-
ology and Rogers-Pacific Inc.
Alten. J.E., 1946, Geology 01 the San Juan
Baullsta quadrangle, California: California
Division Of Mines Bulletin 133, p. 75, 2
plates, scale 1:62,500.
Borchardt. G.A. and Kennedy, M.P., 1979,
Liquefaction potential in urban San Diego:
A pilot study: CALIFORNIA GEOLOGY, v.
32, no. 10. p. 217-221.
Bonilla, M.G" 1990, Natural and artificial de-
posits in the Marina District, in U.S. Geo-
logical SUNey. Effects 01 the Lorna Prieta
earthquake on the Marina District, San
Francisco. California: U.S. Geological
SUNey Open File 90-253.
Oibblee. T.W., Jr., arn::l Brabl>, E.E., 1978,
Preliminary geologic maps of the Chit-
tenden, Los Gatos. and Watsonville east
quadrangles. California: U.S. Geological
SUNey Open File Report 78-453, 3
sheets, scale 1:24,000.
Earthquake Engineering Research Institute.
1989. Lorna Prieta earthquake--Octooor
17, 1989: Preliminary reconnaissance
report: EI Cerrito, California. 51 p.

CALIFORNIA GEOlOGY OCT06ER 1990

'"
Finn, W.D.L., Bransby, P.l., and Pickering,
D.J.. 1970. Effects 01 strain history on
liquefaction or sands: Journal of the Soil
Mechanics and Foundations Division,
American Society of Civil Engineers, 96
(SM6). p. 1917-1934.
Hart, EW.• Bryant, W.A., Wills, C.J., and
Treiman. J.A.. 1990. The search for sur-
face faulting and signilicance of ridgetop
fissures, in S. McNutt and R.H. Sydnor,
editors. The Loma Prieta earthquake of
OCtober 17, 1989: California Department
01 Conservation, Division 01 Mines and
Geology Special Publication 104, in
press.
Higgins, C.T., 1989, Anhur R. Wilson
quarry-where nature gives man a
break: CALIFORNIA GEOLOGY, v. 42,
no. 11, p. 256·259.
Holzer, T.l., Youd, T.l.. and Hanks, T.C.•
1989. Dynamics of liquefaction during
the 1987 Superstition Hills earthquake,
California. SCience. v. 244, p. 56-59.
Housner. G.W. and the Committee on
Earthquake Engineering. National Re-
search Council. 1985. Liquefaction of
soils during earthquakes: National Acad·
emy Press. Washington, D.C., 240 p.
Jenkins. O.P.• 1973. Pleistocene Lake San
Benito: CALIFORNIA GEOLOGY. v. 26.
no. 7, p. 15"'63.
Keeler, O.K., 1984. Landslides caused by
earthquakes: Geological Society 01
America Bulletin, v. 95. p. 406-421.
Lawson, A. C., and others, 1908, The Cali·
lornia earthquake 01 April 18, 1906: Re·
port of the State Earthquake Investiga-
tion Commission: Carnegie Institute 01
Washington Publication 87, 2 volumes,
452 p.
Lindh. A. and Lester. R., 1990. Weekly
earthquake report for the San Francisco
Bay area, 16--23 April, 1990: U.S. Geo-
logical Survey, 5 p.
Manson. M.W., Keeter, O.K., and
McKittrick. M.A.. compilers. Landslides
and other geologic features in the Santa
Cruz Mountains, California, resulting
from the Loma Priela earthquake of
OCtober 17. 1989: Calilornia Department
of Conservation, Division ot Mines and
Geology Preliminary Report 29, in
progress.
Minster, J.B., and Jordan. T.H.. 1987. Vee·
lor constraints on western U.S. deforma-
tion from space geodesy. neotectonics,
and plate motions: Journal of Geophysi-
cal Research, v. 92, no. B6. p. 4798-
4804.
Perkins, J.A., Sims, J.D., and Sturgess,
5.5.,1989, Late Holocene movement
along the San Andreas fault at Melendy
Ranch: Implications for the distribution
01 fault slip in central California: Journal
of Geophysical Research, v. 94, no. 68.
p. 10,217-10,230.
Plafker, G. and Galloway, J.p.. editors,
1989. Lessons learned from the Loma
Prieta. California. earthquake of October
17,1989: U.S. Geological Survey Circu-
lar 1045. 48 p.
Tsuchida. H.. 1970, Predicfion and counler-
measure against the liquetaction in sand
deposits: Abstract of the Seminar in the
Port and Harbor Research Institute. p.
3.1'3.33 (in Japanese).
Wagner, D.l., 1990. Geologic and tectonic
setting of the epicentral area of the Loma
Prieta earthquake. Santa Cruz Moun-
tains, centra! California. in S. McNutt and
R.H. Sydnor, editors. The Loma Prieta
earthquake of October 17, 1989: Califor-
nia Department of Conservation. Division
of Mines and Geology Special Publica·
tion 104, in press.
Youd, T.l., 1973, Liquefaction, flow. and as·
sociated ground failure: U.S. Geological
Survey Circular 688. 12 p.
Youd, T.L.. and Hoose. S.N.. 1977. lique-
faction susceptibilily and geologic setting:
Proceedings of Ihe Sixth World Confer·
ence on Earthquake Engineering. v. 3. p.
2189·2194, Prenlice Hall, Inc.
Youd, T.l., and Hoose, S.N" 1978, Historic
ground failures in northern California trig-
gered by earthquakes: U.S. Geological
Survey Prolessional Paper 993, 177 p. ~

CALIFORNIA GEOLOGY
Welcomes New Editor

CAUFORNIA GEOLOGY is
pleased to welcome Lena Tabilio to
its staff. Lena. a graduate of the Uni·
versity of San Francisco, will assist
the Technical Editor in researching,
editing, and writing articles.

Lena comes to State seruice after

13 years of priuate industry and
freelance technical and promotional
writing experience. She also has an
extensive marketing and public
relations background. ~

232 CALIFORNIA GEOLOGY OCTOBER 1990


Regional Geology
VOLCANISM AND TECTONISM in the Columbia River Rood-
Basalt Province. SpeCial Paper 239. Edited by Stephen P. Reidel
and Peter R Hopper. Available from the Geological Society of
America. PO, Box 9140. Boulder. Co 80301. 400 p .. paper cover.
1 plate. $52.50 postpaid.
The geologic history and structural evolution of the Columbia
River Plateau has long intrigued geologists and other scientists. h is
an area that has been shaped in part by catastrophic nooding. aod by
tectonic events. occurring and re-occurring on a grand scale. How-
ever. these events often occurred Oller a very short period 01 lime.
The Columbia Plateau occupies an area large enough to contain
the six New England slales ilnd is approximately 62.320 squaTe
miles. During Miocene and early Pliocene time. lava welled up from
beneath the continental plate and inlennitlently poured 001 creating
what today is the Columbia Plateau. The process may have been
similar to what is happening today on ocean floors on both sides of
oceanic rifts. Extrusive events produced enough layered flow rock to
• vestigators to create a flow-by-f1ow record of the morphological and
Photo 2. This spectacular panorama shows the Grande Ronde
River meandering through a valley which has been cut into the
layered basalt plateau. The erosive 'orces 01 the river have
exposed more than a dozen individual Ilows. The river is
apparently approaching base level. The rate of down cutting is
subsiding as evidenced by the meandering course. The layer
cake form of rocks which make up the flood-basalt province is
very evident. Basalt flows are often easily eroded by fast moving
water In streams due to characteristic Joint patterns. Courtesy of
Washington Srare Division of Geology and Earth Resources.
CALIfORNIA GEOLOGY
Book Reviews
Books reviewed in thIS sectIon ale not available for purchase hom DMG.
Photo 1. This is a view of one wall of Frenchman Springs coulee.
A coulee is a long. steep-walled, trench-like gorge or valley. The
photo was taken trom Highway 90 at a point between Vantage
and George, Washington. Several flat·lying basalt layers ot vary-
ing thickness deposited by different tlow events can be seen in
the vertical 'ace 01 Ihe coulee wall. Weathering has caused disin·
tegration of the wall and deposits 01 talus at its base. Courtesy of
Washington Srare Division of Geology and Earth Resources.
cover approximately one half of Oregon and one quarter of Washing-
ton. a large portion of western and southern klaho, and parts of Cali-
fornia. and Nevada. Totalll'Olume of these flow basalts is approxi-
mately 41.520 cubic miles. Some individual IIows are less tnan 50
feet thick however. aggregate average fhickness of the flood basalts is
oolieved to be a lillie over 3.200 feet on fhe average. Basaltic Iavil
produced during individual eruptions was apparently not very viscous.
hence it did oot form cones around vents and traveled great distances
{I 00 miles or more) before solidifying completely.
Speciill Paper 239 is a compilation of 25 papers resulting from a
comprehensive invesfigafion of fhis region. These studies stress the
overall importance of an adequate stratigraphic framework in under-
standing this continental flood basalt province. Interpretations are
based on knowledge of flow strafigraphy acquired through field pe-
trography. magnetic polarity. and chemical analyses. Striltigraphy
provides the basis for current understanding of the morphological and
structural evolution of the province. Investigafors subdivided the pla-
teau info individual eruptions and. at the same lime. characterized the
larger packages of nows by using related chemical and/or physical
characferistics that act as common stratigraphic indicators in their
evolufion.
In addition to an increased knowledge of the stratigraphy of the
Columbia River Plateau, there now exists greater knowledge and
understanding of the infernal feafures of flood-basalt flows and the
physical processes of flow emplacemenf and cooling. Even simple
flows are now known to result from a complex series of processes.
Analysis of relationships bel\veen individual eruptions has enabled in-
structural evoluliOll of the province. Dating and analysis of individual
folds and faults on the Columbia Plateau yield accurate mcxIels of the
tectOllic evolution in this part of fhe Pacific Northwest.
Individual eruptions have produced flows 1.Vith volumes of up to
480 cubic miles. In addition to volume. several factors induding rapid
extrusion rates. linear vent systems. and the absence of collapse
calderas, indicate there are large magma reservoirs at or near the base
of the crus/. However. the origins of various magmas which formed
the Columbia River basalt province are complex and remain contro-
versial. Reviewed bV Richard Boylan.
(... mor8 books on pagB 238)
OCTOBER 1990 233
I ndustry and consumer alike depend upon commodities deliv-
ered by truck because it is often the most expedient fOnTI of
transport. California is the leading trucking stale in the na-
tion. Of the 39 million trucks in the United States. California
has more than 4.3 million or about 11 percent. More than 98
TransportirrcJ
percent of all commodities in California are transported via
truck. In 1987 the trucking industry in this state provkled
725,000 jobs with earnings of over $16 billion. Nearly 70
percent of the 10\4II'IS and cities in California are solely depend-
ent on trucking to deliver needed supplies.

Trucks are also important 10 the mining industry and ena1»e

remote mines to operate economically. Occasionally the most
effkient way to haul very heavy mining equipment is by truck.
Photos 1 and 2 show large pieces of ore processing equip-
ment being transported by trucks to mines. While this may
appear costly and time consuming, moving such equipment
often saves lNI?eks or months of expensive tear-down and re-
assembly at the mine site. Other benefits of moving large
equipment intact include minimizing damage and shortened
production schedules.

Photo 1 shows ill mammoth 425,000 JX>llIld autoclave

being moved 275 miles to a gold mine north of Flko. Nevada.
Although autoclaves have been used extensively since the 17th
century. their use in the mining industry is relatively recent.
Large autocla\JE!$ are used to extract gold from sulfide ore.

CALIFORNIA GEOLOGY OCTQ8EA 1990

A.fining Equipment By Truck

Photo 1. A gigantic 425,000 pound autocla.... e being transported

275 miles along pUblic roads 10 a gold mine north of Elko, Ne-
vada in June 1989. The entire unit includes two specially modi-
tied tractors: the Iront traclor as a 'poller" and the rear traclor as
a ·pusher." The entire load was 262leetlong. 21 feet wide, 18
leet tall, al1d grossed 704,500 pounds. All 164 tires made con-
tact with the road. This was the heaviest, largest. and longest
load ever moved on a freeway. Due to the extreme weight and
length. this shipment was limited to 40 miles per hour on the
freeway. The lull cooperation 01 slale and local authorities was
obtained, and the route was carefully planned. Photos courtesy
of Jake's Crane, Rigging, and Transpor1lnternational.

... Photo 2. Transporting a 170.000 pound. 20-'oot diameter. 14-

tool high grinding milt 600 miles to a mine site in northern Ne-

-- -
vada. The "pusher" tractor has a 15 1001 push bar and carries
25.000 pounds of ballast for traction on its drive wheels. Trans-
porting large pieces 01 mining equipment by truck saves costs
while increasing the efficiency 01 mining operations.

..
The process involves cooking the ore at high temperature
under high pressure in the autoclave. Large autoclaves like
the one in Photo 1 are effectively utilized in Califomia gold
mines.

Photo 2 shows a 20 foot diameter ore grinding mill being

moved from Kingman. Arizona to a mine site in northem
Nevada. Previously. such large pieces of equipment had to
be either disassembled for transport or simply could not be
transported at all and had to be fabricated in the field at the
mine site. ~

CALIFORNIA GEOLOGY OCTOBER 1990 235

[~ M_in_e_ra_'_1i_r_iv_ia_ _~J
(l) What is the difference in mean-
ing between the words "karat"
ana ~caral~?
Photo 1. Large exploratory oil
rig when il was used to drililhe
(2) When and where was the first 22,735-1001 test hole for the
producing oil well in California? Department 01 Energy at the
Elk Hills Naval Reserve, Kern
County. The accompanying
(3) What is the largest oil field in photos depict the sophisticated
California? technology of this rig and
illustrate the progress in oil
exploration since Ihe first oit
(4) How deep. was the deeoest oil wells were drilled In California
well drillea in California'? during the 1860s. Photos by
Mike Glinzak, courtesy of the
Division of Oil and Gas.

POOla 2, Called the ·Parller Aig No. 162,-
this rig is capable of drilling to 25.000 teet.
II is one of the largest land-based drilling
rigs in the wortd. The height from ground
level to the lop is over 200 feel. Electrical
power lor the rig is supplied by banks 01
large diesel engines with pistons the size of
5-gallon buckets-the same type 01 engines
used on modern diesel electric trains.
PholO 3. Drill pipe slacked next to fhe rig. Called "joints: each
lenglh of pipe is about 40 feet long and weIghs aboul 1,000
pounds. When these pipes are used on the rig. Ihree joints of pipe
are screwed togelher inlo a lenglh at pipe called a ·sland: Stands
are stacked venically on lhe rig tloor unlillhey are used to drill.
Every time a drilling bit is worn down, the entire length of pipe
called the "drill string" is pulled out ollhe hole by 12O-loot stand
sections. Pulling 22,000 leet 01 drilling pipe oul of the hole.
replacing the drill bit. then returning lhe entire drill string into the
hole is a tedious and arduous process thaI requires most of a day.

CALIFORNIA GEOLOGY OCTOBER 1990

Photo 4. Workers screwing drill pipe. To change a drill bit, each
stand is unscrewed as the drill string is lifted, then reconnected
when the new bit is in place. Drilling is rigorous work and is done
24 hours a day, 7 days a week in all types 01 weather. A drill
crew requires good teamwork: safety is emphasized at all times.

Photo 5. Powerful mud pumps located next to the rig. No deep

well could be drilled wilhout drilling mud for several reasons. One
reason why drilling mud is essential is because it is the only
means available for controlling the extreme physical forces that
occur in the drill hole thousands of feel beneath the ground sur·
lace: without the weighl of the drilling mud to hold the hole open,
the hote would implode at depth. Another reason is because mud
lubricates the drilling processes. Without mud the friction between
the drill string. the drill bit, and the rock it penetrates would be-
come overwhelming. Drill mud is also used to condition the hole
and to carry out the rock cuttings. Much care is devoted to clean,
monitor, and precisely combine various mineral additives, such as
barite and bentonite clay. into the mud.

Photo 6. The vertical metallic column
(commonly referred to as the "stack") in
the center of this photo shows blowout
prevention equipment that is located be-
neath the drill lloor and above the ground
surface. A blowout is an uncontrolled flow
of drill hole lIuids: it is extremely danger-
ous and can seriously deplete the total
amount of oil recovered from a lield.
Blowout prevention is critical when drilling
deep exploratory oil wells. The diNerent
types of blowout prevention equipment
shown in the stack allow the drill string to
freely pass through Irom the drill lloor into
the ground. When the drill bit enters a
rock formation that is under extreme pres·
sure with natural gas or lIuids at depth,
combinations of these blowout prevention
devices are used in conjunction with the
drilling mud to stabilize the pressures.
Answers
(1) Karat is used to Indicate the purity
o! gold. One karat is equal to 1124th the
total amount 01 pure gold in an alloy.
Pure gold is 24 karats. Gold With a lower
karat number, such as 18-karat gold,
indicates that the gold cont3Jns 18 parts
01 gold mixed with 6 parts of another
metal, usually copper or silVer. Carat is
used as a measure of weight in precious
gems such as diamonds, emeralds. and
rubies. Five carals are equal to 0.035
ounce (one carat is 200 milligrams). So a
gemstone weighing 1 ounce would be
about 142 carats. Both lerms karat and
carat are derived from the Greek word
"keration," meaning "carob bean." Carob
beans were used in arlClent Greece as
weight standards.
(2) The lirst producing oil well in Cali-
fornia was drilled in1861, only two years
alter the first oil well in the United States
was drilled near TItusville, Pennsylvania.
It was located on the north lork 01 the
Manole River near Petrolia, Humboldt
County. "Petrolia" IS derived from the
word petroleum.
(3) The largesl oil lield in Calilomia is
the Elk Hills Naval Petroleum Reserve,
Kern County. It is an oval-shaped area
aboul 14 miles by 8 miles and has oil
reserves estimated at 742.5 million bar-
rels (one barrel is equal 10 42 gallons).
At 21,600 acres in area. Elk Hills edges
out nearby Midway Sunset oil field by a
mere 340 acres.
(4) The deepest oil well drilled in Cali-
fornia was 22,735 feet deep at Elk Hills
Naval Pelroleum Reserve west 01 Bak-
erslield (Photos 1-6). In contrast. the
average ell well in California is about
4,400 feet deep and the deepest produc·
ing oil well in CaHlornia is at 14.680 leel
tn the Rio Viejo oilliald, Kern County.
The deepest exploratory oil well dnlled in
Ihe United States was in Oklahoma and
reached 31,444 leel. 'X'

CALIFORNIA GEOLOGY OCTOBER 1990

[~._._._m_o_r_e_B_o_o_k_R_e_v_ie_w_s~J
Earthquake

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS (35mm)

SUDES SHOWING EXAMPlES OF
STRUCT1JRAL DAMAGE AND SURFl-
CIAL EFFECTS OF THE M7.1 ocro-
BER 17, 1989. LOMA PRIETA, CAU-
FORNIA EARTHQUAKE. Compiled by
Cynthia C. Ramseyer. Specify U.S,
Geological Survey Open-File Report
89-687. 1989. Books and Open-File
Reports Section. Brdflch of Distribution,
U.S. Geok::agkal Survey. Box 2545.
Federal Center. Denver. CO 80225. 36
color slides. $72.00. make checks pay-
able to: Department of Imerior-USGS.

Collapsed section of the Cypress 1-880 freeway structure,

Oakland, California. Photo by M. Rymer/USGS.

The 36 slides in this set were taken

by geologists of the M7.1 Lorna Prieta
earthquake effects during the week fol-
lowing the temblor. This slide set will
be of interest to teachers and other
professionals concerned with inform-
ing others about the damaging effects
of earthquakes. Although the strong
shaking associated with the quake
lasted less than 15 seconds. it caused
67 deaths. more than 3.500 injuries.
and dose 10 $6 billion in property
damage. This U.S. Geological Survey
slide set shows damage caused by the
quake to a variety of structures includ-
ing; unreinforced masonry. older
wooden houses. the San Francisco-

Highway 1 bridge collapse, Struve Slough, Pajaro Valley. Calilornla.

Photo by J. Tinsley/USGS.

n. CALIfORNIA GEOlCXiY OCTOBER 1990

Oakland Bay Bridge. the Cypress 1-880
freeway overpass in Oakland, and the
Highway 1 bridge collapse at Struve
Slough. Pajaro Valley. In addition to
structural damage, this slide set shows
examples of surface expression on the
ground surface caused by the quake
and includes; extension cracks, land-
slides. rock falls, ground deformation,
collapse of coastal bluff. and sand boils.

Collapsed section 01 the San

Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge. ....
Phoro by H. Wilshire/USGS.

Structural Geology
THIS EXTENDED LAND: Geological
Journeys in the Southern Basin and Range.
Geological Society of America, Cordilleran
Section Meeting. Field Trip Guidebook. Law
Vegas. Nevada. 1988. Edited by David L.
Weide and Marianne L. Faber. 1988. Avail·
1----------------------------
able Irom, Depa"ment of Geoscience, Uni-
MAIL ORDER FORM
Complete oddress form 00 ned poge
II(!rsity of Nevada, Las Vegas. Las Vegas, Indicote number of copies Price includes
NE. 330 p. $22.00. soft cover.
•
BULLETINS
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In 1974 the Cordilleran Section 01 the _ _ B189 Minerals of Colifornio. 1966 . $ 7.00
Geological Society of America held its 70th _ _ 8190 Geology of no"hern Co[ifornia. 1966 ......•. $10.00
annual meeting in Las Vegas. Significant _ _ 8193 Gold districts of Co[ifornio. 1970 . $ 8.00
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the Mojave Desert and the southwestern
Great Basin have occurred in the succeeding SPECIAL REPORTS
14 years. Factors accounting for the evolu- _ _ SR120 Geology for p[onning in Sonomo County. 1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. S 13.50
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excursions covering an area from Utah to _ _ SR163 Surface ond groundwater monogement in surfoce mined-[ond reclomotion.
California to nonhern Mexico. The mecha~ 1989 (new) S10.oo
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CALIFORNIA GEOLOGY OCTOBER 1990 239
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2.. CALIFORNIA GEOlOGY OCToec:R 1990