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(Ust continues on the inside back cover)
WORLDBANKTECHNICAL
PAPERNUMBER234
Rodrigo S. Archondo-Callao is a consultant to the Transport Division of the Transport, Water, and Urban
Development Department Asif Faiz is division chief of the Infrastructure Division, Latin America and the
Caribbean-Co.ntry Department I.
Chapter 1
Ilnstallng HDM-VOC on Your Computer 1
SystcmRequircomets 1
Hardware 1
Software 1
Insalng and Runningthe Program 1
FloppyDiskSystem 1
Hard DiskSystcm 2
ProgramDiskBadcmp 3
SoftwarePackageContents 3
Chapter2
Using the Program 5
TheModcl 5
TheMainScreen 5
ThePages 6
TheInputData 6
Thesteps 7
TheResuts 8
TheDefaulValucs 8
Available
Help 9
Chapter3
Main Menu Options 11
TheMainMenu 11
InputData forthe CurrentScreen 12
m
Modifythe DataDisplaycd 12
Savethe InputData 12
LoadInput DatafromDisk 13
Computeand Displaythe Results 13
DisplaytheInputData 13
Enter a Titleforthe Reportsor Tables 14
CreateReports 14
TheReports 14
Destination 14
CreateTables 15
TheTables 15
TheRequirement 16
Destination 16
RoughnessSensitivity Table 17
One VariableSensitivity Table 17
One VariableSensitivity Chart 18
TwoVariablesSensitvityMatrix 21
VehicleFleet OperatingCostsTable 24
VehicleOperatingCostsCoedcients 26
ListFileson Disk 2
Set all Input Variablesto Zero 28
Quit the Program 28
Chapter 4
The HDM-VOC Relationships 29
The Steps 29
VehicleSpeed 30
The Steady-StateSpeed 30
VDRIVEuand VDRIVEd 34
VBRAKEuandVBRAXEd 36
VCURVE 37
VROUGH 38
VDESIR 40
Fuel Consumption 40
LubricantConsumption 43
Tire Wear 44
CrewTime 47
PassengerTime 47
CargoHolding 47
iv
Maintcnance Parts 47
Maintenance Labor 49
Dcpreciation 50
Vehicle ServiceLife (LIFE) 50
Vehicle Annual Utilization (AXM) 51
Interest 53
Overhead 54
Chapter S
The Input Data 55
Surface Type 55
Roughness 56
Vertical Profile 57
Horizontal Profile 60
Altitude of Terrain 62
Effective Number of Lanes 62
Vehicle Type 62
Tare Weight 63
Payload 64
MaximumUsed Driving Power 65
Maimum Used Braking Power 66
Desired Speed 66
AerodynamicDrag Coefficient 67
Projected Frontal Area 67
Calibrated Engine Speed 68
Energy-EfficiencyFactor 68
Fuel Adjustment Factor 69
Tire Wear Information 69
Average Annual Utilizatio in Kilometers 70
Average Annual Utilization in Hours 70
Hourly Utilization Ratio 70
Average ServiceLife 70
Use Constant Servicelife? 71
Age of Vehicle in lrometers 71
Passengers per Vehicle 71
Unit Costs 72
New Vehicle Price 72
Fuel Cost 72
Lubricants Cost 72
v
Ncw Tirc Cost 72
Crcw Timc Cost 72
Passenger Dclay Cosl 73
Maintenance Labor Cost 73
Cargo Dclay Cost 73
Annual Interest Ratc 73
Overhead per vehidce-km 73
Maintenance Parts Parametcrs 73
Maintenance Labor Paramctcrs 73
Lubricant Parameters 74
Vehicle Speed Parameters 74
Fuel Parameters 74
Additional Options 75
Rolling Resistance Coefricient 75
Vary Engine Speed for Cars 75
SpecifyVehicle Speed 75
Index 77
vi
Foreword
vii
Thespeedpredictionmethodsusedin the Brazilrelationshipsgiveonly
theaveragefree-flowspeed for eachvehicletype,takingaccountof grades,
curves,surfaceroughnessand desiredspeed,but not the delayscausedby
othertrafficon theroad. HDM-VOCversion4.0givesan additionaloption
to directlyspccifyspeed,wherethe userhas othersourcesof information.
Thisfeaturecanbe uscdto take somcaccountof trafficcongestioneffects,
but doesnot addressall aspectsof congestioneffectson vehiclcoperating
costs.
Thisreportis one ofa seriesof documcntsarisingfrom theHDM study.
The othervolumesare:
VehicleOperatingCosts:
EvidencefromdevelopingCountries(1987)
TheHghwayDesignand MaintenanceStandardsModel
Volume1.Descriptionof the HDM-IIIModcl(1987)
LouisY.Pouliquen
Director
Transport,Water and UrbanDevelopmentDepartment
viii
Abstract
ix
Chapter 1
System Requirements
Hardware
e An IBM xr, AT, 803K, 80486,or compatiblecmputer.
- A minimuminstaIL-dmemory of 520 Kb.
* One floppydisk drive. A hard disk is optional.
- A coloror monochromemonitor.
- A printer capable of printing 102 c,aracters per line.
software
- DOSversion3.0or higher.
* OptionalLotus 1-2-3to analyzethe results.
1
2 Estimating
VehideOperatingCosts
ICOPY A*.
To run the program from the hard disk, followthe steps below.
e Tum on your computer and at the DOS prompt C>, change to
the HDM-VOC ditory with the command:
ICD\HDM-VOC
e Run the program with one of the folowing commands
for English version
IHDM-VOC
for Spanish version
HDM-VOC ES
for French version
|HDM-VOC FR
for Portuguese version
HDM-VOC PO
0
Instaling HDM-VOCon Your Computer 3
HDM-VOC.EXE HDM-VOCprogram
VOCXLP Help file
VOC.EN Englishlabels
VOCES Spanishlabels
VOC.FR French labels
VOC.PO Portugueselabels
CAR.VOC Sampledata for a passengercar
BUS.VOC Sampledata forbus
LIGHT.VOC Sampledata for lighttruck
MEDIUM.VOC Sampledata for mediumtruck
HEAVY.VOC Sampledata for heavytruck
ARTICYVOC Sampledata for articulatedtruck
README Latest documentation
Chapter2
5
6 EstimatingVehicleOperatingCosts
The Pages
The program presents the input data and the resuts in 'pages of infor-
maion on a standardscreenformat.The programdisplaysthe pagenumber
and the typeofinformationbeingdisplayed(inputdata or results)at the top
of eachpage.
Youare alwaysfree to moveamongthe inputdata pagesand,after you
computethe results,amongthe resultpages.Pressthe followingkeysto
moveamongpages.
- Press PgDnto moveto the nextpage.
3 Press PgUpto moveto the previouspage.
- Press Hometo moveto the furstpage.
* Press End to moveto the lastpage.
* Press a numberto moveto the correspondingpage.
FM-.W VEHICLEOPERATINO
COSS EL w.veralm4.0 FllMaIg
Saul I Ca. -lam Oat.
-I P.S: 8 1 I DfllI
Vehicle COIrNctrlCaoit.c
I Term eight g 70.00 D
2 crrie
cad k 230 00
S
aNlew u driving power astric MP 37.00 D
4 N.i. au uad braking poer _stric W 20.00 D
5 o.ared apne" k.'ha.030 0
S Aerodnmic drag coefficient
7 Project." frn"ti a ro
dtn.
* 2
I. 0.
2.00 D
0°
S Calibrated egine ead rm 39000 00 D
9 Enerpy-efflciency fantor *;_ nl;< a 0.70 0
lOFuml adjustment factor dimensinless 1 1f D
The Steps
Whenyoustart the program,theprogramsets al variabes to zeroandis
yourtaskto fillali inputpagesand computethe resultswiththe following
steps.
3 Go to inputpageI (prcss the Homekey or thenumber I key).
3 input the roadwayinformation(usethe Input option).
* Moveto inputpage2 (pressthePgDn keyor the number2 key).
- Selecta vehicletype(usetheInput or Modifyoption).
NVote:Whenyou selecta vehide tpe, theproram collectsthe default
vehiclechdwctersics (D's).
* Input the remainingrequireddata(variableswithoutD's) on
pages 3 to 9 (usethe Input or Modifyoption).
* Modifyanydefaultinputvariable(use the Modifyoption).
* Correctanyinputvariableon inputpages 1 to 9 (usethe Modify
option).
* Computethe results(usetheVOC option).
* Viewthc resultson resultspages1 to 6 (use the PgUp and PgDn
keys).
* Create reports (usetheReportoption).
* Create sensitivitytables(usethe Tablesoption).
* Returnto the inputdata pages(useData option).
a EstimatingVehide OperatingCosts
The Results
Use the VOC option to obtain the results. The program displays the
result pages and you can now move amongthese pages with the same keys
used in the input data mode (PgUp, PgDn,Home and End). The results are
classifiedin the foUowinggroups.
* Physicalquantities of consumptionand vehicle speed, displayed
on page 1 (see Figure 3).
* Vehicle operating costs, displayedon page 2 (see Figurc 4).
* Pcrcentage of total VOC of individualVOC components,
displayed on page 3.
* Other computed intcrmediatevalues,displayed on pages 4 to 6.
Figurc 3 - PhysicalQuantities of Consumption
Use the Data option to return to the input data pages, modifyany vari-
able and use the VOC option again to displaythe new results.
AvailableHelp
Help is availableat the Main Screen. You have the followingoptions.
Press At To obtain
Volume1.DcscriptionoftheHDM-Il[ Model
Volume2. User's Manualfor the HDM-IIIModel
11
12 Estimating
VehicleOperatingCosts
Create Reports
The Reports
The Reports option creates the followingreports (see Figure 6).
* Input Data ReporL One page report with all the main input
variables.
* Results Report. One page report with the roadway data, vehicle
type, unit costs,and the results.
* Input Data Print-out. Two page print-out of all input variables.
* Results Print-out. Two page print-out of the results and other
intermediate values.
Figure 6 -The Reports Menu
-_ Reort I
Your c.tior are:
inut Onto Report
ResulIt Report
Input Onto end Umwlts Reports
Input Drts Print-out
S Rauwlt Print-ut
In paut Dots and Rewlts Print-out
0) Return to the Fhin 11m
Enter your selection:
DesUnation
You can print the reports or save the reports in ASCII text files (see
Figure 7). Print the reports on a printer capable of printing 102 characters
per line (12 pitch in an 8.5 inches widc paper). Note that to print the accets
correctly in spanish, french,or portuguese the printer must be set to print the
IBM US (PC8) SymbolsSet or the Epson Extended Graphics Characters.
If you want to import the reports into your word processor, save the
rcports into ASCiI text files.The program prompts for the filename of the
ASCII text filc to crcate and you should enter a valid DOS filename.
Main MenuOptions 15
-1 Deti; -ti-
Create Tables
TheTables
The Tables option creates the folowing tables (see Figurc 8).
* Roughness SensitivityTablecTablc of VOC snsitivity to
roughness at three diffecrntlevels of curvature.
* OneVariable SensitivityTable. Table of VOC sensitivityto any
input variable.
* One Variable SensitivityChart Chart of VOC sensitivitYto any
input variable.
* Two Variables SensitivityMatri Matric of VOC snsiivity to any
two input variables.
Figure 8 - The Tables Meu
-| Tables |
Your optioneare:
S) Rauglan Saneit;w;ty Table
2) On Vriable SensitivityTable
3 One VariableSeneitivity Chert
) Two Variable Senaitivity Matrix
Vehicie Flaet Oerata Coset Table
Vehicle Opasting ot Coefficients
0) r
Retu to the Mi n Menu
Enter your selection:
16 EstimatingVehicleOperatingCosts
The Requirement
Enter the roadwayand vehiclccharacteristicsfor a vehicletypebefore
creatingthetables
Destnation
TheRoughnessSensitivity Table,the One VariableSensitivity Table, the
VehicleOperatingCostsFleet Table,and the VehicleOperatingCostsCoef-
ficientscanbe displayed,printedor savedon ASCIIfiles.Youhavethe fol-
lowingoptions(see Figurc9).
* Displaythe table. Use this o1 l__.. uviewthe tableon tbe screen.
* Print the table. Usethis optionto printthe table on a printer
capableof printing102charactersper line.
* Savethetable (ASCIItextfile). Use this optionto importtie
table intoyourwordprocessor.
* Savethetable (delimitedASCIIformat). Use this optionto
importthetable intoLotus 1-2-3.
Figure9 - TablesDestinationMenu
_I oBttiI
Your options ar:
Dielay tl tabli
2 Print tbh tble
3 Save the table (ASCII tezt file)
*Se the table (delimited ASCII ferat)
0) Return to the Main menu
if you want to impon a table into your word proccssor, usc the import
ASCII file option of your word processor. If you want to import a Lableinto
Lotus1-2-3,use the/ (F)ile(I)mport(N)umbcrsoptionof Lotus1-2-3.Fol-
low the steps bclow.
* Create a table and save it in delimited ASCII format.
* Name the table using.PRN for the filnamte cxtension.
* Load Lotus 1-2-3.
* Changeto the VOC directorywiLhthe/ (F)ilc (D)irectory option.
* Importthe tablewiththe/ (F)ile(I)mport(N)umbersoption.
0 2 2S 7 24 3.1 9.0 0.0 0.0 4.3 0.5 20.6 16.4 0.0 115.1 6 0
0 2 23.1 2.5 3.4 9.7 0.0 0.0 4.6 11.0 20.716.0 0.0 111.7 67 3
4 22 .4 2 .6 3. 9.4 0.0 0.0 4.0 12.7 21.6 15.5 0.0 1 612.6 7
0 S 21.5 2.7 3.6 9.2 0.0 0.0 5.2 14.6 27.8 16.1 0.0 127.6 6 11
0 6 20.6 2.6 4.0 9.1 0.0 0.0 5.6 16.7 26.8 14. 0.0 132.1 a 16
0 7 19.4 2.6 4.1 6.9 0.0 0.0 5.o 19.0 25.8 14.2 0.0 13o.7 20
21
0 a 18.2 2.6 4.2 6.6 0.0 0.0 6.0 21.5 24.7 13.7 0.0 147.4 77
-| Libt of Varinblao
I Avurage rouyhn CIRI) 21 V :r cefficient of trd 4 CLp "
2 Avergen poset.u- grO dit 24 A. rage nknual utiliat;e 44 CL "
3 Avergec negative grai;t 25 Average annual utilixat;o 47 COo Lu
* Proortoion of ujhll tray 26 Hourly utilization rutlo 40 ATI0 VC
5 Average boriaantal curvat 27 Awerg _rvieu life 49 FRATI1 VC
S Avrge auperailetion 25 Age ofrv ;clo in hiilrat SO MARVX WR
7 Altituad of tarrun 26 Pssngers per vehiclg St Oki VD
S Tore weight 30 Nsw vehicle price 52 ETA S
9 Lad Carr; ed 31 Fuel cost 53 E so
10 Mio. -- ed driving pJe 32
us Lubricants cost fi AO Fu
11 Heu;iw. used braking powe 33 Mm T;re cost S S Al Fu
12 Deslred speed 34 Crew tie cost 56 A2 Fu
3 As redynic drag coeffici 35 Passnger delay cost S7 A3 FP
1a Proj ctEd frontal area 38 Ma;ntnannce labor cost S A4 Fu
is Clibrtd enine speed 37 Cargo delay cst s9 AS Fu
16 Energy-efficiency factor 36 Annual interest rots 60 AG Fu
17 Fu-l adjustment factor 3J Oer par vehicle-k 61 A7 Fu
1S Number of tirem per vehic 40 KJP MaintenancePe U2 0 Fu
19 Wearablevolus rf rubber 41 CP MaintenancePe 63 RCI RMlling r
20 Retreaing cost per nsr t 42 CPa Maintenance pm 66 1|L Rol I n r
21 Maximumnumbr of recaps 43 QlP Maintenance pm 96 Vel c I aspeed
22 Constanttere of tread we* CL. Mintsnance t 6
For cxample:
Select variable number 1 (Averageroughness)
For roughness, enter.
minimumvalue equal to 2
ma,dmumvalue equal to 12
Note: Theprogran does not check if your inputs are outsidea nomwalrange.
Therefor4make se you enter conistent vaFuesfor the vadiabi slectedL
The program computes the rcsuls on elevenpoints between the mini-
mum and maimum values and displaysa chart of total VOC as a function of
the variable selected and a menu.
-- Sensitivity Chsrt
OChrt 12: Total VOC per 1000 vehicet4
Average roughness (WI) *h-
Predicted Values
-| SensltivityChart
Chart ili VehicleSPea km/he
Average rougse. (VtRI) r/lum
Predicted Valvwe
2 67.......
4 . nmuuuwMm..I .IHININ
. off"!
2.0 67.0 ii.us,s uee*e
4.0 u.H U 6J ffi#uoueun uguuu3uupeene
7.0 80.2 u,uuu..e0INIgl00u.0f
1i 01 u00.100 *i
90.0 733IIHOIIIH*IHUIPIMNHIII 11
11.0
i2.0
45.6
61.0
II---------
tII 190c
eceecccecuccccc1uucceccec.1
I---
cucq. 1f".ecc.cieuunNIIII
0.0 21.9 43.? 65.6 67.4
Preas: Ec - Return to min men P - Print Pr,u - D0 "Ipaprevious chart
L - List 0 - CD C - CAw.rimn switch S - Save Pfn - Displaynext chart
-| Sensitivity Chart
Th-e avilahle charts are:
24 Total Vehicle OperutinrCasts T
25 Fuel S
25 Lubricants T
27 Ti r £
25 Cre tim S
29 Peamaanertime
30 Car=. hlzding T
31 Ib;ntenance i-bor T
32 Maintance parts S
33 Deprwcitian I
34 Interet S
3J Overhead T
to continue
Prom <Enter)
Eie - ReUm to minu
Prees: P - Print Pp - Mieaplypreviouschart
L - List C - Co C - Ccmparim sitch S - Save PeDn - Display
Rest chart
.0 3.1 on
4.0 6.7 1111,,
5.0 10.1Ii 11
6.0 15.6 glgiu"'ue:i
7.0 211.3 le
9.0 35.9*O3i BUf g " Ofgof"
10.0 44.7 Of Ieuuuuunggguuuguggggg
11.0 53.7 gia0 ofgugligfgggggggugggggggg
12.0 62.AmhNIloOulglIulIeiglIuguuugou eggngH
0.0 15.7 31.4 47.1 62.8
Prse", Ejc - Return to _;n mnu P - Prit. Pub - Oilar previouschart
L - Li;t a - Oo C - Camparsen switch S - Save PgOn - Display nest chart
Ub. on arrowe - Change corparien cell
-1 Senstivity Chart
Chart 12: Total VOCper 1000 vehi.cle-m
K7 Averag. roughness(II)
Comparison
in Percentagewith Coll C
a/km
4.0 )
2.0 -6.2 fffl
4.30 0.O
S.a 3.9 *
6.0 8.4 gggggggg*
7.0
5.:0
1277
20.0
; ....
fOUOIg,f
e
9.0 27.4 ugH,Ngggggg
10.0 35.7 0,fh,g,gN0 NggOIg.,gggof
11.0 44,1 gpgggggsggegggggegggg
12.0 52.7 *...~ue.gg.g.g....~gnggg.
-6.2 8.s 23.2 37.9 52.7
Press: Eec - Return to main menu P - Print PUp - Display previous chart
L - LUat C - Co C - Comparison Switch S - Save PgDn - DiOl y sest chert
Up. Down arroy. - Change comparian cell
22 Estimating
VehicleOperatingCosts
-l List of VmrI.blee
Averae re me (IRS) 22 Wear oefficlent of tread 46 Cap me
2 Average = 1 1redie,t
24 Avwnege manualutilailz e,46 C.q "a
3 Average neptive gradint Di Aver"ge nual utiliatie 47 C*o Lu
4 proportion of upd IIl troy Meinrl, utiliztiorn retio 46 FAT1O0 VC
Average hoeriontal ourvut 21 Averg eva;rvife life 49 PATM1I VC
Averege perelewatin Ago o hi cf ;r llmet 60
'le AAWIAX WR
7 Altitude of terrain 20 Posangro per vehicle a1 W VD
O Tere *eisht 38 iw vehicle price U2 UEA Sp
* Ld oeerried 31 Fuel coet as SD SP
10 Naslus usam drivIng poe 3 Lubricenlecoat M AO 4 u
11 tb ;oeuueed braking pme 3t Now Tir- moat SS Al u
12 Dea red speed 34 Crea tim coat 56 A2 iu
13 Aerodynamic drag cetflci 35 Pasaengr delay cot 57 AS Fu
14 Pro4ected frontal area 6 Melintenance Iaborcost SB A4 Pu
15 Calibrated engine epeed 37 Cargo delay cot 50 AS Fu
1i iErany-efflciencpy f*ctor S Annual interest rate 90 AS Fu
17 Fuel adjustment factor S3 Ovrhead Per vehiclo-b. 61 A7 Fu
16 Nuuber of tires per vehmc 40 KP Maintenance pea2 ID Pu
19 Wearable volum of rubser 41 CPo Maintenance pa iS XAMRol lin r
20 Retrading coat per now t 42 CPq Maintenance ae64 SL Rolling r
21 Maximum:uaber of recape 43 oZPo Ma;ntenance pa 65 Vehicle esped
22 Conatant tere of trad as 44 Cia Maintenance Is BS
Enter FIffT variable number:
-1 Sensitivity Matrix
Matrix 12: Total VOC per 1000 vehicle-he 7
PredictedValu
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 3.0 0.0
0.0 11S.15 118.71 22.1 127. S 2J.14 139.69 147.40 156.48
20.0 115.18 11.75 122.85 127.1 13.11t 139.73 147.43 156.48
40.0 itS 28 11. 83 122 94 127 70 133 27 L30.32 14751 156.S5
60.0 115.42 118.98 123.I0 127. 384 133.41 13.5 147.64 156.67
80.0 l.S 60 119.1 123 .26 1211.02 133.58 140.12 147.60 156.82
*t0 115.81 119.37 123.47 128.21 13 .79 140.32 147.99 1S7.00
120.0 116 .06 119.62 123.71 126.47 134.02 140.54 148.20 lS7.20
140 .0 116 .33 19.89 I.23 . 128.73 1U.241 140.79 146.44 157.42
Colu
In-e A.erage roughness(IRTJ MAE
Rove Average horizontal curvature d-a/ku
Pre as Eac - Return to ain menu P - Print PgUp - Display rev;ioke chart
L - Liat C - CO C - Comparison owitch S - Save PgDn - D;iplay neat chart
MainMenu OpUons 23
For horizontalcurvature,enter
minimumvalueequaltoO
maximumvalueequalto 140
Theprogramcomputesfor eachvariablethe resultson sixpointsbe-
tweenthe minimumand maximumvaluesand displaysa matrixoftotal VOC
as a functionof the twovariablesselected(seeFigure 19)and a menu.
Theprogramalsostoresthe matrixesforvchiclesped the physical
quantitiesof consumption,the operatingcostsof eachVOCcomponent,and
otherintermediatevalues.To displayanyof thesematrixes,use thePgUp,
PgDn,Home,and End keys(see Figure20).
Figure20- VehicleSpeed SensitivtyMatrix
-I sen.t;i;vt etr;. 1
Patti; 11: Vehic;e Sed h-/hr
Pr.dicte Value
2.0 o3.0 4.0 8.0 .o0 r.0 .0 0.0
0.0 87. W.04 8.26 84.02 62.08 60.25 76.00 73.34
20.0 67 21 6862 .0s 6472 2.76 60.10 76.67 73.24
40.0 66.67 86.29 15.54 68.26 82.33 70.73 76.67 73.00
60.0 86.00 65.53 8.81 83.57 81.71 70.20 76.13 72_.6
60.0 84.04 84.50 63.91 82.73 60.06 78.S4 75.58 72.21
100 .0 3.115 63.S3 82.98 61.77 80.06 77.78 74.04 71.60
220.0 82.68 82.37 61.77 60.72 70.13 75.06 74 .24 71.1
140.0 81.46 61.16 10.S60 70.62 76.22 76.06 73.46 70.49
Caloue:
Row:
Awarage *qgee
: Awvrage hDri wl
(IlN)
curvature re--
r/
Pro..: Eec - Return to spin _enuP - Print PaLt - Oislay p*reim chart
L - L;-C C - Co C - Comp.rison _itd S - SmwP DO
- s lay neat dart
-1 Seniti,wtv Ketr;Ia
pltrix 12: Total VOCper 100 vshicl_nh 6
- aCome iean in Percentee with ClIl ( 0.0 . 2.0)
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 6.0 0.0
. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
0.0 0.00 3.00 6.65 10.70 15.63 21 32 28.01 36.67
20.0 0. a
3.13 6.60 10.82 1s.66 21 .3 2B.04 35.60
40.0 0.21 3.21 6.77 10.e0 15.74 21.42 28.11 3.as0
60.0 0.24 3.33 6.8e 11.02 1C.88 21.S4 28.22 36.06
10.0 0.39 3.40 7.04 11. 11 lS.01 21.1 28.36 36.10
100.0 0.58 3.6 7.22 l1.36 16.10 21.86 28.S2 36.35
220.0 0.79 3.68 7.44 11.57 16.30 22.06 28.71 38.52
140.0 1.93 4.12 7.67 11.80 16.62 2Z.27 28.01 6.n71
Columin : Awerage roughn_es CuRI) rnks
Roe : A.rage horizontal curvature dog/km
Pree.: Enc - Return to min menu P - Print PglJ - Oie.lay previous dcart,
L - Liet C - Co C - Comparison switch S - Save PgDn - Dislay nest chart
Up. Doen. Left. and Riot arrowe - OCanp comparison cell
24 Estimating VehicleOperating Costs
-| S....ltvt.g sit,I. I
Outri a12: Total VOC per 100 vehIcle-h.
Comparlsn in Percentge with Col I C 40.0 . 4.0)
2.0 *.0 4.0 - 0 6.0 7.0 6.0 -. 0
0.0 4.34 -3.44 -0.1 8.77 6.00 13.6 10. .28
10.0 -6.31 -3.41 -0.6 .6 6.3 136 1.32 73
40. -6. 0.00 3.J7 8.40 13.73 19.06 27 .3
60.0 -6.2 -3.22 0.11 3.60 6.81 13.63 20.06 37.44
s0.0 -. 07 -3.07 .3 413 6.6 13.97 20.22 27.56
100.0 -5.60 -2.00 0.43 4.30 6.63 14. U 30.37 2. 70
10.0 -5.60 -2 .70 0.63 4.46 0.01 14.32 20.65 27.U3
140.0 -5.36 -2 .4 0.6 4*.71 *.22 14.U 30.74 21.04
Colum : Avere romhnem C/I )
RO e Average her amtal curvature u/hW
Pr,-: Erc - Return to min mwu P - Print Pgt - Dispahy erevies ckhrt
L-List C - O C - Comprie mit.ch S - Sav PDn - Disulw net chart
Up. Down. Left. and R;ght nrras - Change comperi;en el I
Vehicle FleetOperatingCostsTable
Thisoptioncomputesthetotal VOCof a vehiclefleet usingthe roadway
informationdefinedon page1 and vehiclecharacteristicsstoredin disk filer
Thepreliminarystepsrequiredto createthis table are the folowing.
* Enter the roadwayand vehiclecharacteristicsfor a vehicletype
and savethe inputdata intoa disk file(see Savethe InputData).
* Repeat the step abovefor eachvehicletypeon the fleet,saving
the inputdata under differentfilenames.
To prepare thetable, enterthe flename and theAverageDailyTraf-ic
(ADT)of eachvehicletypeon thefleet,usingoption1 of theVehicleFleet
Menu(see Figure23).
Afterselectingoption1,usethe followingkeysto enterthe filenames
and the ADT,moveamongvehicles,switchamongfilenamesand ADT
columns,and to returnto the VehicleFleetMenu.
MainMenuOptions 25
Figure23 - VchiclcFleetMenu
10_
Your optimsee,-
_:Key Action
I c-r.vc 700
2 bu:-o eSO
3 m_;Ius. VW 250
4
VehicleOperatng CostsCoefficients
This optionproducesa table of VOCsensitivityto roughnessand uses
this tableto computeregressioncoefficientsfor the followingtwoalternative
equationsthat relateroughnessto total VOC (see Figure26).
Fguwrc26- VehicleOperatingCostsCoefricients
E-Rlw VBCLE OPiNATDaiCocS mas version 4.0
Small Caf Samle Dota
- VehicleOprartingsCast Co.ffic.nta
Average poitive gradint 0.00 Surface ty 1
A=r 0 neeative grd;ent 0 00 Effective number of lIae 0
P gortion df phll tral 50.00 Altitude of terrain 0.00
Average horizaontal curvture 0.00 Average superelevti.n 0.0000
SEMll ar
Cost Braeakdon by Percentage and Total VOC per vihicl_lo
DtI RIJE LLJ0t TIME CW PASSCARCO.L. M.P. EFR tNTE 0V TOTAL SPED
m £ * S 5 * s S * S U VOC ka/
he~~~ S ~~~~~~~~~~~~~
our
2 28.7 2.4 3.1 0.9 0. 0. 4.3 . 0 14 0 05 67
3 3.1 2.5 3.4 0 7 0.0 0.0 6 1.0' 20.7 1 0' 0.0 0.ur7 67
| 22.4 2.6 3.Ct.4 0.0 0.0 4.9 12.7 23.6 1S 00 .l226 S6
5 21.6 2.7 3.6 0.2 0.0 0.0 5.2 14.6 27.6 15. 0.0 0.1276 as
6 20.6 2.8 4.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 S.5 U.7 25.6 14.6 0.0 0.1331 ,3
I 19.4 2.6 4.1 s.g o.o 0.0 8.6 19.0 25.6 14.2 0.0 0.o 37 60
s 10.2 2.8 4.2 a.6 0.0 0.0 6.0 21.5 26.7 13.7 0.0 0.1474 77
O 16.9 2.6 4.2 8.7 0.0 0.0 6.2 24.2 28.6 13.3 0.0 0.ISS4 73
10 15.7 2.6 4.2 86. 0.0 0.0 6.4 27.0 22.5 12.9 0.0 0.16o 6o
11 14.6 2.7 4.2 6.6 0.0 0.0 6.6 20.4 21.5 12.5 0.0 0.1770 u
1213. 2.7 4.2 8.6 0.0 0.0 6.6 31.1 20.6 12.2 0.0 0.1675 62
13 12.7 2.7 4.2 8.7 0.0 0.0 6.7 33.3 10.6 12.0 0.0 0.1O1 SS
14 12.0 2.6 4.2 6.7 0.0 0.0 6.7 36.0 10.1 11.6 0.0 0.2069 55
1S 11.3 2.6 4.2 6.6 0.0 0.0 6.7 36.5 1S.4 11.6 0.0 0.2107 S2
16 10.7 2.6 4.0 6.6 0.0 0.0 6.7 37.6 17.6 11.8 0.0 0.2203 40
17 10.2 2.6 3.o 8.g o.o 0.0 6.7 30.1 17.3 11.4 0.0 0.2408 47
16 9.9 2.5 3.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.6 40.2 16.6 11.3 0.0 0.2515 44
19 0.7 2.5 3.5 9.0 0.0 0o. 6.6 41.2 16.3 11.1 0.00 02620 42
20 9.6 2.5 3.4 0.1 0.0 0.0 5. 42.0 156 11 0 0 2743 40
Eaustion: VOC- a bel-! * c*R'2
a . .1018802
b 4.31796VE-03
a . 2.238201E-04
t2 _ .00799
S.d Err 2.486609E2-0
Eouation: VOC EXP(C bhMRI)
a _ -2 300476
b _ 5.1217SE6-02
R2 -. 906341M
Srd Err 1.786657E-
Quitthe Program
The Quit option ends the program. Make sure to save your input data
before using this option.
Chapter4
The Steps
The steps followedby the modcl to compute the vehicle operating cost
for a givenvehicle type are the following:
29
30 EstimatingVehide OperatingCosts
VehicleSpeed
The predictionof vehiclespeedis an aggregateprobabilisticlimiting
velocityapproachto steady-statespeed prediction.Note the following;
a) Aggregateimpliesthat the predictionmethodworkswith ag-
gregatedescriptorsofroad geometryand surfaceconditionrather
hanwithdetailed nformationaboutthe road.
b) Steady-stateimpliesthat the modeldoes not considerthe transi-
tionaleffects,that is, speed-changecyclesalongthe road.
c) Probabilisticlimitingvelocityapproachbecauscthepredicted
speed is a probabilisticminimumof severallimitingor constrair;ng
speeds.
Speed(km/h) vuP*E
30_
250
200
\VROUIGH
so _ \ ~~~~~~~~~~VDFNVE
too _VOESIR
50 V
2 3 4 5 o 7 B 9 10 11 12
Roughness
(IRImIkm)
Curvatr - 25 deGnmebn
Gradier - -3.5
32 EstimatingVehicleOperatingCosts
Speed nlmh)
250
*10 4 4 4 -2 a 2 4 a 8 10
Gradient(1)
Pmghns - 31RInVln
CufOm - 25idgtm
Speed man/h)
200 2W ~~~~~~~
150 VORH
VCURVIE
100 V~~~~~~~OESA
50so
_V v
O.
0 80 100 110 I00 250 20 20 400 480 tlO
Curvature
(degrees/ki)
Roughme - 3 I mr1n
Gimi-it -
VDRIVEuand VDRIVEd
VDRIVE,the speedlimitedby drivig powerfor a givenroad segment
as determinedby powerand gradient,derivesfrom thehypothesisthat the
vehicleis drivenat steady-statespeed on a smooth,straightroad usinga high
level of power called the drivingpower, HPDRIVE. Maximumused driving
powerwasfoundgenerallyto be lessthanthe rated powerofthe engine,
especiallyfor gasolineenginevehicles.Reasonsfor the differenceare largely
behavioral(unwillingncssof driversto usefullpowcr)and perhaps partly
mechanical(operationat less thanrated rpm,powerlost in the transmission
and usedbyaccessories).
VDRIVErelatesto HP1RIVE and the gradientthroughthe balanceof
forceswithoutacceleration
[DriveforceJ= Rollingresistance]+ [Graderesistance]+ [Air
resistance]
The HDM-VOCRelationships 35
VBRAKEuand VBRAKEd
VBRAKEP the speed for a givenroad segmentas limitedbybraking
capacityandgradient,derivesfromthe conceptof usedbrakingpower,u
whichis a positivequantity,reprcsentedbyHPBRAKE,in metrichorse-
The HDM-VOC
Relationships 37
VCURVE
VCURVE,the curvature-limited speed, is derivedfromthe postulate
that whencurvatureis significantthe tendencyofthe wheelsto skidlimitsthe
speed. A good indicatorof the tendencyto skid is the ratio of the sideforce
on the vehicleto the normalforce,FRATIO.
For the vehicletravelingat a steady-statespeedV, the lateralor side
forceon the vchiclein the directionparalel to the road surface,LF, in new-
tons,is givenbythe followingkinematicrelationshipc
LF = [Centrifugalforce] + [Gravitationalforce]
LF = (GVWV2/ RC) cossp - (GVWg) sin sp
sp is thesuperclevationanglm.
RC is theradius of curvature,inmeters
The forceon the vehiclein the directionperpendicularto the road sur-
face,the normalforcerepresentedby NF, in newtons,is givenby:
NF = GVW g cos sp + (GVW V2 I RC) sin sp
Sincecurvesuperclevationnormallydoes not excced20 percent,use the
followingapproximations:
Cossp 81
sin sp -SP
SP is thesuperelvation expressedas a fraction.
38 EstimatingVehide OperatingCosts
consequently,the cquationssimplifyto:
LF - (GVW V21 RC) - GVW gSP
NF - GVWg + (GVWV2/ RC) SP
FRATIO,the "usedperceivcdfrictionratiodis givenby the ratio of the
lateralto the normalforce:
FRATIO - LF / NP
Substitutingthe LF and NF equationsand furthersimplifying
by neglect-
ingthe term (V I g / RC) SP,producesthe equation:
FRATIO - (V 2 I g RC) - SP
SolvingforV, one has the curvature-limitedspeed constraint,VCURVE,
expressedas:
VCURVE - [(RATIO + SP) gRC] 05
The allowablevalueofFRATIOwasderivedas a functionof the payload
of the vehicle:
FW.TIO = max (0.02, FRATI0o - FRAT101 LOAD)
whereFRATIOoand FRATIO1are parameterswhichdependon thevehide
typeas uell as the surfacetypeof the road. Table 1 liststhe valuesestimated
fromthe Brazildata set forFRATI0oand FRATIOI.
he radiusof curvature,RC,is a simplefunctionof averagehorizontal
curvature:
RC = 180000D/Tmax(l8/I
( T, C)
C = thehorizontalcurvature,in degreesper km.
Note:For practicalpurposesthe modelconsidersthe curva-
ture-constrainedspeed onlywhenthe radius of curvature
(RC) issmallerthan 10000meters.
If youdo not supplyvaluesfor superelevation,SP,the modelestimates
the superelevationfromthe followingformulas:
SP = 0.012C forpavedroads
SP = 0.017C forunpavedroads
Thesefornulas are approximations to suggesteddesignstandardsfor typical
speedson these surfaces,and maybe unrealisticfor actualconditionsin par-
ticularcases.Therefore,wheneverpossibleyou shouldprovidesupereleva-
tionvaluesbased on actualroad geometry.
VROUGH
VROUGH, the roughness-limited speed constraint,derivesfrom the
'averagerectifiedvelocity'measure(ARV) that is recommendedas an ade-
quate measureof ride discomfort,or severity.ARV is definedin generalfor
a givenvehiclewitha rigidrear-axdeas the averagerate or rear-axlesuspen-
sionmotion,morespecificalyas the rate of cumulativeabsolutedisplace-
ment of the rear-axderelativeto thevehiclebodyCmmmls).ARV is related
to the vehiclespeed,V,by meansof the folowingidentity
ARV = VARS
TheHDM-VOC
Relationships 39
Repmanlsle Vain Ch1w Chip Valn Mom Ford Ford Marc. Mac sca
, n l wagan Bug t Se No1
model 1fi0 a ZI K 0bl F-400 F-oe 1113 1113 lleS
DU 2Su Iwas 39
Taweight 910 1200 1610 1320 e100 3120 3370 5400 Om 14730
rARE (kg)
Paj$ad LOAD(kg) 400 400 400 9w0 4000
S&iggaukdSdue
q;gcoatclwa 0.4 OA0 04 0AS 0.05 0.70 0.70 ate a.as 0.6
VOESIRo 8Z2 il.2 6z2 70.3 *A 712 71. 72.1 72.1 48.6
(knuh)Unpavedrads
BWaingle-la 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.78 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73
SWmorelhanone t 1 1 1 I 1 1 1
BETA43J 0.274 0274 0.274 O.00 0.273 0.304 3J04 0.310 0310 0244
ED 1.003 1003 1.003 10 1.012 1.0 1.06i J
1.013 1.03 ltiu
VDESIR
VDESIRis the desiredspeed constraint,i.e thespeed at whicha vehicle
is awmed to be operatedwithoutthe constraintsbased on the vertical
grade,curvature,and roughness.The desiredspeedresultsfrom the drivers
responseto psychological, safety,economic,and otherconsiderations.
The Brazilstudyconsiders,for eachsurfacetype Ci.e.pavedor un-
paved),VDESIRto be a constantfor eachvwhicletypc.Howecr, for narrow
roads (that is,thosewith effectivenumberof lanesequal to one or single-
lane roads),the modelassumesVDESIRto be lower.The folowingformulas
were adopted,based on an analysisof speeddata fromIndia.
VDESIR = VDESIRn BW
VDESIRois the unmodifieduser-specifiedvalueof the
desired speed, in km/.L
BW is the widtheffcctparameterapplicableto single-lane
roads.
Table I lists the originallyestimatedvaluesofVDESIRo,as estimated
from theBrail data set, and the valuesof BW.
Fuel Consumption
The programexpressesthe fuelconsumptionper 1000vehicle-km(FL)
as the nuniberof litersconsumedper 1000vehicle-kn.The fuelconsumption
cost per 1000vehicle-kmis givenby.
Costper 1000veh-km= FL fuelcostper liter
The fuelconsumptionpredictionmodelusesof the concept oftime-rate
fuelconsumptionor unitfuelconsumption,representedbyUFC (C mVs).
Basicprinciplesof internalcombustionenginesuggestthat, under idealized
environmentalconditions,the unit fuelconsumptionis a functionof power
output(HP, in metrichp) and enginespeed (RPM,in rpm).
For a vehicleoperatingon a givenroad sectionof specifiedgeometry
alignment,the averagefuelconsumption,FL, in liters/1000vehicle-knis
given by@.
FL = 1000al a2 (UFCu LP / Vu + UFCd (1-LP) / Vd)
UFCu is the predictedunitfuelconsumptionfor the upbill
segment,in m/s.
UFCd is the predictedunitfuelconsumptionfor the
downhillsegment,in mVis.
LP is the proportionof uphilltravelexpressedas a fraction.
ai isthe relativeenergy-efficiency
factor.
The HDM-VOCRelationships 41
ae is thc fueladjustmentfactor.
Vu,Vd are the estimatcdspeedsin m/s.
Sincethe testvehiclcsused in the Brazilstudyare makesand modelstypi-
cal in the rmid-1970s,a 'relativeenergy-efficiencyfactor,"represcntedby a,
has beenintroducedto allowto incorporatechangesin vehicletechnology.
This factorhas a valueof 1.0for makesand modelscloseto the ones
employedin theBrazilstudy.However,you mayspecifylowervaluesfor
newer,more fuel-efficient vehicles.For passengercars,the followingenergy-
efficiencyfactorsare recommendedfor late-1980svehiclesand are the
defaultsof the HDM-VOCmodel:
Smallcar 0.7
Mediumcar OA
Lagercar 0.4
To accountfor the differencesbetweenexperimentalconditionsand real
life drivingconditions,a fueladjustmentfactor",representedby a2 has been
introduced.The modcluscsas default,the valuesdeterminedby calibrating
the mechanisticfuelpredictionmodelto the Brazilroad usercost survey
data. It is 1.16for carsand utilitics,and 1.15forbusesand trucks.
Whileit is not possibleto deducethe preciseformof the UFC function
from ticoreticalconsiderations,the functionis knownto be convexin both
arguments.In the Brazilstudy,a quadraticformwasemployed,withseparate
coefficientsfor positiveand negativepowerregimeLThe experimentbasical-
ly involvedrunningthe testvehicleson 51 selectedtest sectionsof constant
slope under differcntloadsand speedsvaryingin thcrange10-120kmAnL
The predictedunitfuelconsumptionis givenseparatelyfor the uphill
(UFCu)and downhill(UFCd)road segments,as foHows:
UFCu = (UFCo+ a3 HPu + a4 HPu RPM + a5 HPu2) 10E-5
if HPd > 0:
Fu Cmmplan
CRPM ( 3500 3000 3300 33m0 2300 3300 2600 1800 18a0 17W0
d2 .1201 2343 -23705 6014 -7276 -46361 -418113 -225 -2356 4100
d JA33A 40. 100. 37.6 635 127.1 71. 150 85.0 1561
*2 0 0.012140 0 0 0 0 a o 0
3 5a3 m7 2784 3846 4323 56 512 5 4002
.14 0 0 0A308 1318 0 0 0 0 0 0
.5 0 0 1391 0 04 4.70 0 10.12 19.12 4A1
ds 44EO 6552 4590 304 2470 383 2853 2394 2394 4435
d7 0 0 0 0 11.50 0 0 13.76l 137 2608
NH0 -10 -12 -15 -12 410 40 40 46 45 45
ff1 0.7 OA OA 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C12 1.16 1.18 1.16 1.16 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15
LsbIcuitoCoruptmipnu
COo 1.55 1.55 1.5 1.55 3.07 220 2.20 307 30 5.15
42 Estimating VehicleOperatingCosts
Lubrin\tFu CnComtmplin
40
300
20
10 20 30 40 50 so 70 so
Vehicde
SpeedOcm/h)
LubricantConsumptin
The program expressesthe lubricant consumption per 1000vehide-km
(AOIL) as the number of liters consumed per 1000vehicle-km.The lubricant
consumptioncost per 1000vehicle-kmis given by
Cost per 1000veh-km = AOIL lubricant cost per liter
Lubricants consumptionwas not part of the Brazil study. For complete-
ness, the model uses the followingrelationship where lubricants consumption
is a function of roughness. The relationship is as modified by Chesher and
Harrison (1987) from those obtained from the India study (CRRI, 1982):
AOIL = COo + 0.151RI
44 EstimatingVehicleOperatingCosts
TireWear
The programexprcssesthe tirewear per 1000vehicle-km(EQNT)in
"costequivalent"or simply"cquivalent"newtircsper 1000vehicle-km.The
tire wcar costper 1000vehiclc-kmis givenby:
Costper 1000vehidc-km= EQNTnewtire cost
The modelemploystworclationshipsobtainedin the Brazilstudyfor
predictingtire wear one for cars and utilities,and anotherfor trucksand
buses.Becausethe tire datafor cars and utilitiesobtainedin the Brazilstudy
were inadequate,the relationshipsconstructedwiththe data forthesevehicle
typesis relativelycrude.On the other hand the morecomprehensivedata for
trucks and busespermitteda moreelaborateanalysison mechanisticprin-
ciplesand idealizeduphilland downhillroad segmentsas in the speed and
fuel relationships.The relationshipsare:
a For passengercars (small,mediumand large)and utilitiesthe tire
wea (EONT)is givenby:
EQNT = NT (0.0114+ 0.001781RI) for0 < RI & 15
EQNT = NT0.0388 for RI >15
NTis thenumberof tiresper vehicle.Table 3 liststhc
defaultvaluesfor NT.
RI is the road roughness expressed in the International
RoughnessIndexunits,IRI (in .1km).
b) For light(gasolineand diesel),medium,heavyand articulatedtrucks
and largebusesthe tfirewear (EQNI) is givn b:
E:NT = CrV/CN
CIV isthe tire wear costper 1000vehicle-km.
CN is the cost of anew ti
The tire wearcostper 1000vehicle-km(CTV)is expressedby:
CTV = NT (CN + CRT NR) / DISTOT
NTis the numberof tiresper vehiclc.
CNis the cost of a newtire.
CRT isthe costof one retreading.
NRis the numberof retreadings.
DISTOTis the total distanceof travelprovidedbythe tire
carcassthroughits newtread and retreads,in 1000km.
The tire wear(EQNT)canbe expressedas:
EONT = NT (1 + 0.01RREC NR)/ DISTOT
The HDM-VOC
Relationships 45
NT 4 4 4 4 8 E 6 6 10 18
RREC 4 - i-s I 15 s5 15 15
NRao 3. t.3 1I.3 3.J 339 4.57
ViOL (d 4.30 43 7.9 7.30 .33
Oe - - - - 0.104 0.164 0.164 .164
0.16 0.1
CIG CO[10E-3 12.78 12.78 12.78 1Z78 12.78 12.78
46 EstimatingVehide Opeting Costs
0.20
01 Roughness- 6 IRIn*km
0.18
0.12
0.10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 s0
VehicleSpeed ,kmih)
TheHDM-VOC
Relationships 47
Crew Time
The programexprcsscsthe crewrequirementsper 1000vehicle-km
(CRH)as the numberof crew-hoursspenttravelingper 1000vchicle-m.
The crewcost per 1000vehicle-kmis givenby:
Cost per 1000veh-km= CRH crewcostper hour
CRH is givenby:
CRH = 1000/V
V is the computedvehiclespeed, in km/h
Passenger Time
The programexpressesthepassengerdelaysper 1000vehicle-km(PXH)
as the numberof passenger-hoursspent travelingper 1000vehice-km.The
passengerdelaycost per 1000vehicle-kmis givenby:
Costper 1000veh-hn = PXH passengertime costper hour
PXH is givenby:
PXH = 1000PAX / V
PAX is the user-specifiedaveragenumberof passengers
per vehicle.
V is the computedvehiclcspeed,in kmhL
Cargo Holding
The programcxpressesthecargoholdingper 1000vehicle-km(VCH) as
the numberof vehicle-hoursspent in transitper 1000vehicle-knLThe cargo
holdingcostsper 1000vehicle-kmis givenby:
Costper 1000veh-km= VCH cargoholdingcost per hour
VCH is givenby:
VCH = 1000/V
V is the computedvehiclespeed,in km/h
Maintenance Parts
The programexpressesthemaintenanceparts consumptionper 1000
vehicle-km(PC) as a percentageof the averagenewvehiclecost.The main-
tenanceparts cost per 1000vehicle-kmis givenby:
Costper 1000veh-km= PC / 100newvehiclepricecost
The maintenanceparts consumptionisrelatedto roughnessand vehicle
age (Chesherand Harrison,1987).Theeffectsof thesetwo factorsare multi-
plicative.Holdingthe age constant,therelationshipbetweenmaintenance
parts consumption(PC) and roughnessis generallyexponential,especially
for relativelylowvaluesof roughness.However,the exponentialrelaton
tends to ovcrpredictPC at highervalues.Therefore,the recommendedeqra-
tionis a compositeof exponentialand linear - exponentialup to a transition-
al valueof roughness,QlPo, whichis differcntfor differentvehiclctypcs,and
48 Estimating VehicleOperatingCosts
Mairleranc.Paris
KP 0308 030 0.30B 0.308 0.483 0.371 0.371 0 0.371 0.371
CPo(IOE-6) 32.49 32.49 32.49 32.49 1.77 1.49 1.49 1.48 8.61 13.4
CPqIIOE-3) 13.70 13.70 13.70 13.70 3.5 251.79 251.79 251.79 35.31 15.65
OlPo 923 9.23 923 9.23 14.62 0 0 0 0 0
MahtananceLabor
CLo 77.14 77.14 77.14 77.14 293.44 242.03 242.03 022 301.46 652.51
CLp 0.547 0.547 0.547 0.547 0.517 0.519 0.519 0.519 0.519 0.519
CLQ 0 0 0 0 0.0055 0 0 0 0 0
The HDM-VOCRelationships 49
0.25
020 _
PbughNes 2IR! Wnmn
00 _1
10 20 30 40 9 70 s
Vshide Speedsanh)
Maintenance Labor
Theprogramexpressesthe maintenancelabor requirementsper 1000
vehicle-km(LB) as the numberof maintenancelabor-hoursrequiredper
1000vehicle-km.Themaintenancelaborcost per 1000vehicle-kmis givenby:
Costper 1000veh-km= LH laborcost per hour
Maintenancelaborhoursrelatesprimarilyto maintenanceparts require-
ments,and in somecases,to roughness.Whensignificant,thelatter hasbee
foundto be exponentialand the twocffectsare multiplicative. The relation-
shipinits generalformiswrittenas:
LH = CLo (PC/100)CLP exp(CLqRI 13)
PC is the standardizedparts cost per 1000vehicle-kmex-
pressedas a fractionof newvehicleprice.
CLo is the constantcoefficientin the relationshipbetween
laborhoursand parts costs.
CLp is the exponentof parts cost in the relationshipbe-
tweenlaborhoursand parts costs.
CLq is the roughness coefficientin the exponential relation-
shipbetweenlaborhoursand roughness.
RI is the road roughnessexpressedin the International
RoughnessIndexunits,IRI (m/lkn).
50 EstimatingVehicleOperatingCosts
Depreciation
The programcxpressesthe depreciationper 1000vchiclc-km(DEP)as a
percentageof the averagenewvehiclecost.The dcpreciationcostper 1000
vehicle-kmis givenby:
Costper 1000vch-km= DEP I 100newvehicleprice cost
A vehicleis a medium-tcrmcapitalasset;its purchasecostsrepresents
an investmcntwhichyieldsservicesoverseveralyears.The marketvalueof
the assetdeclineswithboth the passageof timeand, usualy to a much
smallerdegree,withthe amountand typeof usage.
It is this lossof marketvalue(as distinctfromsome physicalor account-
ing concept)that representvehicledepreciation.The vehicledepreciation
per km is a functionof the averageannualdepreciation(ADEP) and the
vehicleannualutilization(AKM).
DEP = 1000ADEP I AIKM
ADEP is theaverageannualdepreciation,expressedas a
percentageof the averagenewvehiclecost, givenby.
ADEP = (1/LIFE) 100
LIFE is the averagevebicleservieelife,in
years.
AKMis the averagenumberofkilometersdrivenper
vehicleper year.
Figure 31showsdepreciationand interest as a functionof
vehice speed for a heavytruckon a tangentlevelgoodcon-
ditionroad.
PercontageatN.wVehIcIePriacOOku
0.30 -
025-
020 - \
0.15 \
0.10 Ir_
aDO
10 20 30 40 50 eo 70 50
VehicleSpeed Qcm/h)
52 EstimatingVehiceOperatingCosts
Interest
Theprogramcxpresscsthe interestdhargeper 1000vehicle-Irm (}NT)as
a pcrccntageof the averagenewvehiclecost. The interestcost per 1000
vehiclc-kmis given by.
53
54 EtimatingVehicleOperatingCosts
Overhead
The programexpressesthe overheadper 1000vehicl-km(OVER) as a
1Unp sumoverheadcostper vehicle-klm.
The overheadcost per 1000vehicle-
km is givenby:
Cost per 1000veh-km= OVER/1000
OVERis the user-specificdoverheadcost per vehicle-km.
Chapter 5
55
56 EstimatingVehicleOperatirigCosts
* Fuel consumption
* Tire wcar
* Crew time
* Passengertime
* Cargoholding
* Depreciation
* Interest
Roughness
The road roughnessis deined as the deviationsof a surfacefrom a true
planarsurfacewith characteristicsthat affectvehicledynamics,ride quality,
dynamicloadsand drainage.Enter the averageroad roughnessin IRI units
(InternationalRoughnessIndex,in ni/kn).If you haveroughnessin 01 units
(roughnessmeasuredby a quarter-ca indexscale),convertit intoIRI units
usingtheformula:
IRI = QI /13
If youhaveroughnessin BI units(roughnessmeasuredbyBumpIntegrator
trailerat 32km/h),convertit intoIRI units usingthe formula:
IRI = BI /715
If youhaveroughnessin otherunits,convertit intoIRI unitsusingan ap-
propriatecalibrationmethod.Referto the followingpublicationfor morein-
formationaboutthe InternationalRoughnessIndex and its relationshipto
otherroughmessunits.
Sayers,M.W.,T.D. Gillespieand W.D.O.Paterson.Guidelinesfor
Conductingand CalibradngRoadRoughness Measmuements.Techni-
cal Paper No.46,The WorldBank.Washington,DC, 1986.
If a roughnessvalueis not availablein anyof the aboveunits,translateyour
subjectiveassessmentofthe road roughnessinto IRI unitsby usingthe five-
pointscalegivenbelow(sincetheseguidelinescanonlyprovideverybroad
approxAmations, youare urged to workwithactualroughnessmeasures,if
possible):
* VBRAKE,the brakingpowcr-limitcdconstraintspced
* VROUGH,the roughness-limited
constraintspced
* Fuelconsumption
* Lubricantconsumption
* Tirc wear
* Maintenanceparts
* Maintenancelabor
Vertical Profile
Youcan identifythree distincttypesofjourneyson a road betweentwo
points,sayA and B.Thescare:
(i) one-wayjourneyfromA to B;
(ii) one-wayjourneyfromB to A; and
(iii)round tripjourneyeither fromA to B and backto A, or from B
to A and backto B.
Of the three,the firsttwoare basicin the sensethat youmayobtainpredic-
tionsfor the round-tripjourneyfromthe predictionsfor the twoone-way
journeysby appropriateaverages.Homogeneoussectionsof the road be-
tweenA and B whichwouldhavea positivegrade in (i)win havea negative
gradein (ii),and viceversa.The road studiedin (iii)is conceptuallyidentical
to a road whichis twicein lengthand has the homogeneoussectionsofboth
(i) and (ii).
To obtainthe desiredpredictionsfor eachjourneytype,the modelre-
quiresthree aggegate attributesofverticalgeometryof the road:
* Positivegradient(PG, in percentage)definedas the ratio ofthe
sumof aUascents(or rises) alonga road by the lengthof the
sectionsconstitutinguphilltraveL
* Negativegradient(NG, in percentage)defunedas the ratio of the
sumof absolutevaluesof all descents(or falls)alonga road bythe
lengthof the sectionsconstitutingdownhilltraveL
* Proportionof uphilltravel (LP,in percentage)definedas the ratio
of the total lengthofroad sectionswithpositivegradeby the total
lengthof the road.
However,the aggregateinformationon verticalgcometryobtainedfor either
journeytype(i) or (ii) is also sufricientforthe other typeand also for the
round tripjourney.For most applications,predictionsfor a roundtrip are
adequate.The onlysignificantexceptionis the caseof a truckwithverydif-
ferentloadlevelsin the twooppositedirections.In this case,obtainpredic-
tionsseparatelyfor (i) and (ii).
Followthe stepsbelowto computethe verticalgeometricaggregates
froma detailedgeometricprofile:
1- Startwitha detailedverticalprofileof the road as shownin
Figure32.
58 EstimatIng
VehicleOperiting Costs
A PaSUW.
. ~ ~ ... .. ..
1,300 450 400 6oo 670
Horizontal Profile
A B
L P1L NL P
Bom point A to B
Posuldwm
Grdlt (PC)- 42ao 1.060 * 100 - 4.0%
Horizontal Profile
Twomeasuresthat are independentof directionof travelrepresentthe
horizontalprorlle:
* Averagrhorizontalcurvature(C), definedas the weighted
averageofthe curvaturesofthe curvysectionsof the road, the
weightsbeingthe proportionof the lengthsof curvysections.Its
unitsare degrees/kmL The horizontalcurvatureof a curvysection
is the angle(in degrees)subtendedat the cenmerby a unit
arc-lengthof the curve(in kn). Note that the curvatureof a curvy
sectionis an inversefNnctionof the radius of curvature:
Cs= 180,000/Vwrcs
K S
Altitudeof Terrain
The modelusesthe altitudcof tcrrain (the averagcelevationof the road
abovethe meansea level,in meters)to computethe airresistanceto the
vehiclemotion.The recommendedrange for altitude(AL) is from0 to 5000
meters.
The altitudeof terrain affectsdirectlythe foUowing
predictions:
* VDRIVE,the drivingpower-limitedconstizintspeed
J Fuel consumption
* Tire wear
EffectiveNumberof Lanes
The modelprovidestwooptionsfor the effectivenumberof lanes:(i)
One lane and Cii)More thanone lane.Enter 1 to selecta single-laneroad,
and 0 to selecta morethan onelane road.
The modelmakesa distinctionbetweensingle-laneroads and other
roads.If the carriagewaywidthis lessthan 4.0m designatethe road as single-
lane (vehiclestravelingin twooppositedirectionsshareboth wheelpaths). If
the road is widerthan 5.5ni, designateit as havingmorethan one lane
(vehiclestravelingin twooppositedirectionseither shareone wheelpath or
havedistinctwheelpaths). Designateroads withwidthbetween4.0and 5.5 m
based on otherfactorssuchas,shoulderwidthand condition,dailytraffic,
and trafficcomposition.
The effcctivenumberof lanesaffectsdirectlythe followingpredictionc
* VDESIR,the desiredconstraintspeed
Vehicle Type
You canselectthe vehicletypeamongthe vehicleclasseslistedin Table
5.Table 5 also liststhe representativemakesand modelsas employedin the
Bra7il study and the main vehicle characteristics.
TheInputData 63
RaprentaVe Vail- Chl, iye. Vdok- Mac Fod Ford Mar. Mwc. Sca.
vehicle,make ugan rolat ag
=r Benz 9.nt Benz rnl
moda 1300 Opl Dodg I 0362
0m F410 F.400
. 1113 1113 110l
DLt 2atiu 3axln 30
Vehiclcoda 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10
Wetght(kgl:
TWOwalghl 6 120W l050 1320 8100 3120 3270 5400 6600 14730
(TARE)
carrled 400 400 400 g00 4000
LOAD)
hrontatae (2 1.80 2.011 220 2.72 6330 3.25 3.25 1. 5.20 5.78
Aarodynantl drg O.5 0.50 0.45 0.46 0.6 0.70 0.70 0.85 0.65 0.63
Thes:
Number 4 4 4 4 6 6 0 a 10 10
Nombi dimeter rmm) 0w0 900 lo 1000 100 1100
Wearrubba voklu (din) 6.J5 4.3 4.3 7.8 7.3 69
TareWeight
Themodelused thetare weight(TARE) to computethe grossvehicle
weight(GVW)usingthe formula:
GVW = TARE + LOAD
TARE is the vehicletare weight,in kg.
LOADis the vehiclepayload,in kg.
The modelprovidesdefaultvaluesfor tare weight(see Table 1) and the
rccommcndcdrangefor grossvehicleweight(GVW)isgivenbelow:
Vehicle RecommendedGrossVehicleWeightRange(1g)
Cars 8,000- 2,000
Utilities 1,1000-2,500
Buses 7,500-12,000
Lighttrucks 3,000- 6,500
64 Estimating
VehicleOperatingCosts
Mediumtrucks 5,000-16,000
Heavytrucks 6,000- 22,000
Articulated trucks 13-,00 - 45,00
Payload
Themodelusesthe payload(LOAD)to computethe grossvehicice
weight(GVW)and to estimatethe tendencyto skid ratio (FRATIO)usedin
thecalculationof VCURVE.
Themodeldoesn't providedefaultvaluesfor payload.If the vehicleis a
car,a busor a utilty, the payloadrepresentsthe weightof the passengersand
somelightload.Suggestedvaluesfor payloadare givenbelow.
Vehicle RecommendedPayloadRange(k?
Cars 0 -400
Utilities 0- 1,400
Buses 0-4,500
Lighttrucks 0-3,500
TheInput Data 65
Mcdiumtrucks 0 -11,000
Heavytrucks 0 - 16,000
Articulatcd trucks 0- 32,000
Vehicle Re-commendedMaxNimum
M~edB3rakingPnwer (Metric HP)
Cars 15 -30
Utilities 20 - 35
Buses 140-180
Light trucks 90-120
Medium trucks 230 - 270
Heavy trucks 230 - 270
Articulated trucks 460 - 540
DesiredSpeed
The desired speed constraint (VDESIR) is the desired vehicle speed
without the effect of road severity factors. On a straight, flat and smooth
road, although the driving, braking, curve and ride severity speed constraints
do not exist, the vehiclestill does not normally travel at the speed afforded by
its own maximumor even used power. Rather, its speed is usualy governed
by subjective considerations of such factors as fuel economy,vehicle wear,
safety or blanket speed limits.Since it was not possible to separate thesc ef-
fects in the study data, they were combined in the parameter "desired speed
constraint VDESIR
The model uses the user-specified desired speed (VDESIRo) to compute
the desired speed constraint (VDESIR). Based on observed speed data from
Brazil, it was found satisfactoryto assume that the desired speed constraint
(VDESIR) for a vehicleclass depends only on the surface type of the
homogeneous section. However, in the extension to the steady-state speed
prediction model based on Indian data, (VDESIR) depends also on the
width class of the homogeneous section. Thus the desired speed constraint
(VDESIR) is given by the followingformula:
VDESIR = VDESIRo BW
The Input Data 67
Energy-Efficiency Factor
The sample of test vehicles for the Brazil study was chosen before the
two major oil crises, in the early and late seventies,that stimulated an un-
precedented change in vehicle technology to improve fuel economy. To allow
you incorporate changes in vehicle technology, a 'relative energy-efficiency
factor," denoted by ixl, has been introduced.
This factor has a default value of 1.0 for makes and models close to the
ones employed in the Brazil study. You may specifylower values for newer,
more fuel-efficientmakes and models. Some typicalvalues ar given below
AverageAnnualUtilizationin Hours
The average annual utilization in hours (HRDo) is the number of hours
driven per vehicle per year. The model uses the user-specifitedbase average
annual utilization in hours (HRDo) to compute the predicted vehicleannual
utilization (AKM). The model doesn't provide default values for annual
utilization in hours.
T-heaverage annual utilization in hours affects directly the following
predictions:
* Depreciation
* Interest
Hourly UtilizationRatio
The hourly utilization ratio (HURATIO) is the ratio of the annual num-
ber of hours driven to the number of hours available for operation. The
model uses the hourly utilization ratio to compute the predicted vehicle an-
nual utilization (AKM). The model provides default values for the hourly
utilization ratio (see Page 52).
The hourly utilization ratio affects directly the followingpredictions:
* Depreciation
* Interest
AverageServiceLife
The model uses the base uscr-specifredaverage service life (UFEo) to
compute the predicted servicelife (LIFE) which can be a function of the
predictcd vehicle specd. The modcl doesn't provide default values for the
base average service life.
The average scrvice life affects directly the followingprediction:
* Depreciation
The Input Data 71
Use ConstantServiceUfe?
The modelhas providesoptionsfor computingthe servicelife (LIFE).
Enter 1 to usea constantscrvicelifewhichis equalto the base user-specified
averageservicelife(LIFEo),and enter 0 to computethe servicelife as a func-
tionof thepredictedvehiclespeed, the user-specifiedserice life (LIFEo)
and thebase vehicleutilization.
Theservicelife computationmcthodaffcctsdirectlythe foliowingpredic-
tion:
0 Dcpreciation
Vehicle Ocml
Car and utility 3,000,0DO
Bus 1,000,000
Lighttruck 600,000
Heavytruck 600,000
Articulatedtruck 600.000
Theaverageageof vehiclein km affectsdirectlythe folowingpredic-
tions:
* Maintenanceparts
* Maintenancelabor
Passengersper Vehicle
The modelusesthe numberof passengerper vehicle(PAX) to compute
the passengertime costs.The modeldoesn'tprovidedefr.zt valuesfor num-
ber of passengersper vehicle.
The numberof passengerper vehicleaffectsdirectlythe followingpredic
tion:
* Passenger time
72 Estimating VehicleOperatingCosts
Unft Costs
You mayspecifyunitcostsin cithr financialor economicterms.The
modelcomputesthe vehidleoperatingcostsin the correspondingterm.
Fmancialcostsrepresentthe actualcostsincurredbytransportoperatorsin
owningand operatingthe vehidcsovcr the road. Economiccostsreprcsent
the real coststo the economyof that ownershipand operation,whereadjust-
mentsare madeto allowfor marketpricedistortionssuch as taxes,formign ex-
changerestriclions,laborwagelaws,etc, and wherethe implicitcostsof
passengers'timeand cargoholdingare accountedfor.
Note that youcanentcr the unitcostsin anycurrency,but bc awarethat
youmayhavesomeproblemsin the formatof reports and tablesif themag-
nitudeof yourinputcurrencyis muchdifferentfromUS dollars.A sugges-
tionis to usethousandsor millionsof the currcncyunit.
The modeldoesnot providedefaukvaluesfor unitcosts.The unitcosts
requiredare the following:
Fuel Cost
The gas or dieselcost (costper liter) affectsdirectlythe following
prediction:
* Fuel cost
Lubricants Cost
The lubricantcost(cost per liter) affectsdirectlythe followingprediction:
* Lubricantcost
MaintenanceParts Parameters
The modelusesthe followingparametersto predictthe maintenance
parts costs:
_ KP is the ageexponent.
* CPois the constantcoefficientin the exponentialrelationship
betweenspareparts consumptionand roughness.
* CPqis the roughnesscoefficientin the exponentialrelationship
betweenspareparts consumptionand roughness.
* QIPo isthe transitionalvalueofroughness.
The modelprovidesdefaultvaluesforthese parameters(see Table 4,
Page 48).
MaintenanceLabor Parameters
The modelusesthe foliowingparametersto predictthe maintenance
labor costs:
* CLois the constantcoefficientin the relationshipbetweenlabor
hoursand part costs.
74 EstimatingVehicleOperatingCosts
Lubricant Parameters
The model uses the followingparameter to predict the lubricant con-
sumption:
* COo is lhe constant term of the lubricants relationship.
The model provides default values for this parameter (sec Table 2, Page
41).
Fuel Parameters
The model uses the followingparameters to predict the fuel consump-
tion:
* AOthrough A7 are coefficients used in the prediction of the unit
fuel consumption.
* NHOis the lower limit on negative power.
The model provides default values for these parameters (see Table 2,
Page 41).
TheInput Data 75
Additlonal Options
Coeficient
RollingResistance
Youmayspecirythe rclationshipbetweentherollingresistancecoefri-
cicntand roughness.You mayenter thc constantvalue(a) and the slope (b)
forthe followingequation:
CR - a + bIRI
The defaultvaluesfor a and b arc fromthe Brazilstudy.
77
78 EstimatingVehicleOperatingCosts
Crewtimecosl,5-72
Curvature
See Horizontal curvature
D
Data files
See Sample files
Data option, 3-13
Default data files extension,3-12 - 3-13
Default values, 2-8,3-12
Default values (or fuel consumption, 4-42
Dcfault values for specd prediction, 440
Default values for Lircwear prediction, 4-46
Depreciation, 4-50
Desired speed, 5-66
Disk requirements, 1-1
Displayresults
See Cornpute and display results
Display the input data, 3-13
DOS requirements, 1-1
Drag cocfficient,4-35
Drivc force, 4-35
E
Effectivenumber of lanes, 5-62
End program
See Quit option
Energy-efficiencyfactor, 4-41,5-68
Engine speed, 4-40 - 4-42,5-68,5-75
English version, 1-2
Enter a tiLle,3-14
Enter data
See Input data for current screen
Epson extended graphics characters, 3-14
Exit the program
See Quit option
F
Fl key, 2-9
F3 key, 2-9
F5 key, 2-9
F7 kcy, 2-9
Filcs option, 3-27
Floppy disk system, 1-1
French acccnts, 3-14
French version, 1-2
Fuel adjustment factor, 4-41, 5-69
Index 79
Fuel consumption,4-40
Fuel cost,5-72
Fuel parameters,5-74
G
Grade resistance,4-35
Grossvehicleweight,4-35,5-63
H
Hard disksystem,1-2
Hardwarerequirements,1-1
HDM-IIImodcl,5-60
HDM-Mpublications,4-29
Help, 2-9
Basicinformation,2-9
Help on a particularmenuoption,2-9
Help on a particularpage,2-9
Help on help,2-9
Programinstructions,2-9
Horizontalcurvature,4-38,5-60
Horizontalprofile,5-60
Hour drivenper year,4-51
Hourlyutilizationratio,4-52,5-70
I
IBMUS (PC8)symbolsset, 3-14
Import reportinto a wordprocessor,3-14
Import tableintoa wordprocessor,3-16
ImporttableintoLotus 1-2-3,3-16
Input data,2-6,5-55
Input data filesextension,3-12-3-13
Input data print-out,3-14
Input data report,3-14
Input option, 3-12
Insert data for the current screen,3-12
Installation,1-1
Interest,4-53,5-73
K
Kilomctersdrivenper year,4-50
L
Lancs
See Effectivenumberof lanes
Latestdocumentation,1-3
Listfileson disk,3-27
Loadinputdata from disk,3-13
Loadoption,3-13
Lotus 1-2-3
so EstimatingVehicleOperating Costs
Portuguesevcrsion,1-2
Positivcgradient,4-36,5-57
Powcroutput,4-40
Printer requiremenLs,1-1
Programdiskbackup,1-3
Programfiles,1-3
Programsteps,4-29
Projcctcdfrontalarea, 4-35,5-67
Proportionof uphilltrawl, 4-33,5-57
Q
01,5-56
QuiLoption,3-28
Quitthe program,3-28
R
Radiusof curvature,4-37
Relationships
See VOC relationships
Reports
Destinatior,3-14
Input data print-out,3-14
Input data report,3-14
Options,3-14
Resultsprint-out,3-14
Resultsreport,3-14
Reset variables
See Clear option
Results,2-8
Resultsprint-out,3-14
Rcsultsreport,3-14
Retreadingcost ratio,4-45
Rollingresistance,4-35,5-75
Rollingresistancecoefficient,4-35,5-75
Roughness,4-39,5-56
Roughnesssensitivitytable,3-17
Contents,3-17
aunmple,3-17
Run the program,1-1- 1-2
S
Samplefiles,1-3
Saveoption,3-12
Savethe inputdata, 3-12
Sensitivitychart,3-18
Contents,3-19
Example,3-19
Options,3-20
Sensitivitymatrix,3-21
82 Estimating
VehicleOperatingCosts
Contcnts,3-23
Examplc,3-22
Options,3-23
Sensitivitytable, 3-17
Contcnts,3-17
Example,3-18
Service life
See Vehicleservicelife
Set allvariablesto zero,3-28
Softwarepackagecontents,1-3
Softwarerequirements,1-1
Spanishaccents,3-14
Spauishversion,1-2
Speed
See Vehiolespced
Steady-statespeed,4-30
Steps,2-7
Computationsequence,4-29
Superelevation,4-37,5-60
Surfacetype,5-55
Systemrequirements,1-1
T
Tables
Destination,3-16
Options,3-15
One variablesensitivitychart,3-18
One variablesensitivitytable,3-17
Requirements,3-16
Roughnesssensitivitytable,3-17
Twovariablessensitivitymatrix,3-21
Vehiclefleet operatingcoststable,3-24
Vehicleoperatingcostscoefficients3-26
Tare weight,5-63
Themainscreen,2-5
Theprogram,2-5
Threwear,4-44
Trrewear information,5-69
Title,2-5,3-14
Treadwear,4-45
Tread wearmodel,4-46
Twovariablessensitivitymatrix,3-21
Contents,3-23
Example,3-22
Options,3-23
Index 83
U
Unit costs, 5-72
Used perccivcd friction ratio, 4-38
Using thc program, 2-5
V
VBRAKE, 4-31,4-36
VCURVE, 4-31
VDESIR, 4-31,440
VDRIVE, 4-31,4-34
Vehide annual utilization, 4-51
Constant annual hourly utilization method, 4-53
Constant annual kiloinetcrage method, 4-53
Vehicle fleet operating cost table, 3-24
Contents, 3-26
Examplc, 3-26
Menu, 3-25
Options, 3-25
Vehicle operating costs coefficients,3-26
Vehicle service life, 4-51,5-70
Vehicle speed, 4-30,4-33,5-75
Vehicle speed for downhillsegment, 4-33
Vehicle speed for uphill travel, 4-33
Vehicle speed parameters, 5-74
Vehicle types, 5-62
Vertical profile, 5-57
VOC components, 4-30
VOC option, 3-13
VOC relationships, 4-29
Model calibration, 4-29
Volume of rubber, 4-46
VROUGH, 4-31,4-38
w
Weibull distribution, 4-33
Weibull distribution shape parameter, 4-33
Width effect parameter, 4-40,5-67
World Bank publications, 4-29,5-56
Distributors of World Bank Publications
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