Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

When an electrical conductor is moved so as to cut lines of magnetic induction, charged

particles in the conductor experience a force in a direction mutually perpendicular to the
B field and to the velocity of the conductor. The negative charges tend to move in one
direction, and the positive charges in the opposite direction. This induced electric field, or
motional emf, provides the basis for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.
In conventional steam power plants, the heat released by the fuel is converted into
rotational mechanical energy by means of a thermo cycle and the mechanical energy is
then used to drive the electric generator. Thus two stages of energy conversion are
involved in which the heat to mechanical energy conversion has inherently very low
efficiency. Also, the rotating machine has its associated losses and maintenance
problems. In MHD generation, electrical energy is directly generated from hot
combustion gases produced by the combustion of fuel without moving parts. The
conventional electrical machines are basically electro mechanical converters while an
MHD generator is heat engine operating on a turbine cycle and transforming the internal
energy of gas directly into electrical energy.

1
 Fig1.1 Basic diagram of MHD

Chapter 2.

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING OF AN MHD GENERATOR

The basic principle of MHD is just similar to dynamo except that the solid conductor of
high electrical conductivity is replaced by a gas with comparatively low value of
electrical conductivity. If the gas is heated to high temperature it gets converted into
plasma and plasma is conductor of electricity. When an electrical conductor is moved so
as to cut lines of magnetic induction, the charged particles in the conductor experience a
force in a direction mutually perpendicular to

the magnetic field (B) and to the velocity of the conductor (v). The negative charges tend
to move in one direction, and the positive charges in the opposite direction. This induced
electric field, or motional emf, provides the basis for converting mechanical energy into
electrical energy

The Lorentz Force Law describes the effects of a charged particle moving in a constant
magnetic field. The simplest form of this law is given by the vector equation.

Where

• F is the force acting on the particle (vector),

• Q is charge of particle (scalar),
• v is velocity of particle (vector),
• x is the cross product,
• B is magnetic field (vector).

The vector F is perpendicular to both v and B according to

the Right hand rule Fig2.1 MHD generator

2
At the present time nearly all electrical power generators utilize a solid conductor which
is caused to rotate between the poles of a magnet. In the case of hydroelectric generators,
the energy required to maintain the rotation is supplied by the gravitational motion of
river water. Turbo-generators, on the other hand, generally operate using a high-speed
flow of steam or other gas. The heat source required to produce the high-speed gas flow
may be supplied by the combustion of a fossil fuel or by a nuclear reactor (either fission
or possibly fusion). It was recognized by Faraday as early as 1831 that one could employ
a fluid conductor as the working substance in a power generator. To test this concept
Faraday immersed electrodes into the Thames River at either end of the Waterloo Bridge
in London and connected the electrodes at mid span on the bridge through a
galvanometer. Faraday reasoned that the electrically conducting river water moving
through the earth's magnetic field should produce a transverse emf. Small irregular
deflections of the galvanometer were in fact observed. The production of electrical power
through the use of a conducting fluid moving through a magnetic field is referred to as
magneto-hydro-dynamic, or MHD, power generation. One of the earliest serious attempts
to construct an experimental MHO generator was undertaken at the Westinghouse
laboratories in the .period 1938-1944, under the guidance of Karlovitz. This generator
(which was of the annular Hall type) utilized the products of combustion of natural gas,
as a working fluid, and electron beam ionization. The experiments did not produce the
expected power levels because of the low electrical conductivity of the -gas and the lack
of existing knowledge of plasma properties at that time. A later experiment at
Westinghouse by Way, OeCorso, Hundstad, Kemeny, Stewart, and Young (1961),
utilizing a liquid fossil fuel-“seeded” with a potassium compound, was much more
successful and yielded power levels in excess of 10 kW. Similar power levels were
achieved at the Avco Everett laboratories by Rosa (1961) using arc-heated argon at
3000˚K –“ seeded” with powdered potassium carbonate. In these latter experiments-
“seeding” the working gas with small concentrations of potassium was essential to
provide the necessary number of free electrons required for an adequate electrical
conductivity. (Other possible seeding materials having a relatively low ionization
potential are the alkali metals Cesium and Rubidium.)

3
 Chapter 3.
WORKING OF MHD GENERATOR

3.1 Working
In an MHD generator, electrically conducting gas at a very high temperature is
passed at high velocity through a strong magnetic field at right angles to the direction
of flow, there by generating electrical energy. The electrical energy is then collected
from stationary electrodes placed on the opposite sides of the channel. The current so
obtained is direct current which can be converted into ac by an inverter. Ionized gas
can be produced by heating it to a high temperature. On heating of a gas, the outer
electrons escape out from its atoms or molecules. The particles acquire an electric
charge and the gases passes into the state of plasma. However to achieve thermal
ionization of products of combustion of fossil fuels or inert gases extremely high
temperatures are necessary. Air becomes highly ionized at temperatures of 5,000 0 to
6,0000C. To have a reasonable value of electrical conductivity of gases at temperatures
around 2,000 to 3,000 K by reasonable ionization, the gases are seeded with additives of
easily ionizing materials (Alkali metals) such as Cesium or Potassium. The induced
current are collected by suitably placed electrodes and simplest system would carry direct
current to the external load.

Fig.3.1

4
3.2THE IMPORTANCE OF RESISTIVITY AND KINETIC EFFECTS

In an imperfectly conducting fluid, the magnetic field can generally move through the
fluid, following a diffusion law with the resistivity of the plasma serving as diffusion
constant. This means that solutions to the ideal MHD equations are only applicable for a
limited time for a region of a given size before diffusion becomes too important to ignore.
One can estimate the diffusion time across a solar active region (from collisional
resistivity) to be hundreds to thousands of years, much longer than the actual lifetime of a
sunspot - so it would seem reasonable to ignore the resistivity. By contrast, a meter-sized
volume of seawater has a magnetic diffusion time measured in milliseconds.

Even in physical systems which are large and conductive enough, simple estimates
suggest that the resistivity can be ignored, resistivity may still be important: much
instability exists that can increase the effective resistivity of the plasma by factors of
more than a billion. The enhanced resistivity is usually the result of the formation of
small scale structure like current sheets or fine scale magnetic turbulence, introducing
small spatial scales into the system over which ideal MHD is broken and magnetic
diffusion can occur quickly. When this happens, Magnetic Reconnection may occur in
the plasma to release stored magnetic energy as waves, bulk mechanical acceleration of
material, particle acceleration, and heat. Magnetic reconnection in highly conductive
systems is important because it concentrates energy in time and space, so that gentle
forces applied to plasma for long periods of time can cause violent explosions and bursts
of radiation.

When the fluid cannot be considered as completely conductive, but the other conditions
for ideal MHD are satisfied, it is possible to use an extended model called resistive MHD.
This includes an extra term in Ampere's Law which models the collisional resistivity.
Generally MHD computer simulations are at least somewhat resistive because their
computational grid introduces a numerical resistivity.

5
Another limitation of MHD (and fluid theories in general) is that they depend on the
assumption that the plasma is strongly collisional (this is the first criterion listed above),
so that the time scale of collisions is shorter than the other characteristic times in the
system, and the particle distributions are Maxwellian. This is usually not the case in
fusion, space and astrophysical plasmas. When this is not the case, or we are interested in
smaller spatial scales, it may be necessary to use a kinetic model which properly accounts
for the non-Maxwellian shape of the distribution function. However, because MHD is
very simple, and captures many of the important properties of plasma dynamics, it is
often qualitatively accurate, and is almost invariably the first model tried. Effects which
are essentially kinetic and not captured by fluid models include double layers, Landau
damping, a wide range of instabilities, chemical separation in space plasmas and electron
runaway.

6
 Chapter 4.
MAJOR TYPES OF MHD SYSTEM

4.1Coal-fired MHD systems

The choice of type of MHD generator depends on the fuel to be used and the application.
The abundance of coal reserves throughout much of the world has favoured the
development of coal-fired MHD systems for electric power production. Coal can be
burned at a temperature high enough to provide thermal ionization. However, as the gas
expands along the duct or channel, its electrical conductivity drops along with its
temperature. Thus, power production with thermal ionization is essentially finished when
the temperature falls to about 2,500 K (about 2,200 °C, or 4,000 °F). To be economically
competitive, a coal-fired power station would have to combine an MHD generator with a
conventional steam plant in what is termed a binary cycle. The hot gas is first passed
through the MHD generator (a process known as topping) and then on to the
turbogenerator of a conventional steam plant (the bottoming phase). An MHD power
plant employing such an arrangement is known as an open-cycle, or once-through,
system.

Coal combustion as a source of heat has several advantages. For example, it results in
coal slag, which under magnetohydrodynamic conditions is molten and provides a layer
that covers all of the insulator and electrode walls. The electrical conductivity of this
layer is sufficient to provide conduction between the gas and the electrode structure but
not so high as to cause significant leakage of electric currents and consequent power loss.
The reduction in thermal losses to the walls because of the slag layer more than
compensates for any electrical losses arising from its presence. Also, the use of a seed
material in conjunction with coal offers environmental benefits. In particular, the
recombination chemistry that occurs in the duct of an MHD generator favours the
formation of potassium sulfate in the combustion of high-sulfur coals, thereby reducing

7
sulfur dioxide emissions to the atmosphere. The need to recover seed material also
ensures that a high level of particulate removal is built into an MHD coal-fired plant.
Finally, by careful design of the boiler and the combustion controls, low levels of
nitrogen oxide emissions can be achieved.

4.2Other MHD systems

In addition to natural gas as a fuel source, more-exotic MHD power generation systems
have been proposed. Conventional nuclear reactors can employ hydrogen, or a noble gas
such as argon or helium, as the working fluid, but they operate at temperatures that are
too low to produce the thermal ionization used in MHD generators. Thus, some form of
nonequilibrium ionization using seeding material is necessary.

In theory, solar concentrators can provide thermal energy at a temperature high enough to
provide thermal ionization. Thus, solar-based MHD systems have potential, provided that
solar collectors can be developed that operate reliably for extended periods at high
temperatures.

The need to provide large pulses of electrical power at remote sites has stimulated the
development of pulsed MHD generators. For this application, the MHD system basically
consists of a rocket motor, duct, magnet, and connections to an electrical load. Such
generators have been operated as sources for pulse-power electromagnetic sounding
apparatuses used in geophysical research. Power levels up to 100 megawatts for a few
seconds have been achieved.

A variation of the usual MHD generator employs a liquid metal as its electrically
conducting medium. Liquid metal is an attractive option because of its high electrical
conductivity, but it cannot serve directly as a thermodynamic working fluid. The liquid
has to be combined with a driving gas or vapour to create a two-phase flow in the
generator duct, or it has to be accelerated by a thermodynamic pump (often described as
an ejector) and then separated from the driving gas or vapour before it passes through the
duct. While such liquid metal MHD systems offer attractive features from the viewpoint
of electrical machine operation, they are limited in temperature by the properties of liquid

8
metals to about 1,250 K (about 975 °C, or 1,800 °F). Thus, they compete with various
existing energy-conversion systems capable of operating in the same temperature range.

The use of MHD generators to provide power for spacecraft for both burst and
continuous operations has also been considered. While both chemical and nuclear heat
sources have been investigated, the latter has been the preferred choice for applications
such as supplying electric propulsion power for deep-space probes.

9
 Chapter 5.

ANALYSIS

An induced emf depends on the velocity of plasma and magnetic field

strength. If V is a velocity of the plasma and B is the strength of magnetic field at right
angles to it, the emf E generated normal to the flow and normal to the magnetic field is
given by
E=V.B
This is the well known Hall effect observed in solids and liquids, and also in gases
under suitable conditions.
The output power per unit volume of such a system is given by
P = σ V 2 B 2 K (1 − K )

Where σ is the electrical conductivity of the gas and K is the load factor.
The load factor K is a measure of the emf E due to the flow of current through the
circuit and is given by

Closed Circuit Voltage

K= Open Circuit Voltage

The recommended value of K=1/2 so the power output P per unit volume is given
by
σV 2 B 2
P=
4

Chapter 6.

10
 TYPES OF MHD GENERATORS

The MHD generators are classified into three groups as

• Open cycle MHD
• Closed cycle MHD
• Liquid Metal- Closed cycle MHD
6.1Open cycle MHD:
In this system the gaseous fuel produced from coal gasification plant is supplied
to the combustion chamber where it is burnt in the presence of high pressure air (5ata).
The gases coming out at high temperature (20000C) after seeding is passed through MHD
at a velocity of 700 to 800m/sec. The interaction between the flowing plasma and
magnetic field produces electricity. The gas leaving the MHD still contains large amount
of heat and seed material. It is essential to recover the seed material and the heat from
the gases to economise the plant. The heat of the hot gases coming out from MHD is used
for steam generation before it is exhausted into atmosphere. The generated steam is used
in conventional steam power plants. The power from the generator coupled to steam

11
turbine and power from MHD after converting from dc to ac is fed to the grid.

This arrangement gives overall efficiency of MHD steam plant higher than
that of the conventional steam plant. It is estimated that the thermal efficiency of MHD
steam plant of 500MW capacity would be around 50% and efficiencies upto 60% are
expected in future. The electrodes are usually made of graphite and the duct of Boron
nitride. Any type of fossil fuel can be used in MHD generator but a direct coal fired
MHD generator has following advantages:

1. Slag from coal combustion coats the generator electrodes and protects from
electrical and mechanical corrosion.

12
 2. Coal contains less hydrogen and therefore the sink for electrons in the flow
created by the presence of OH ions is reduced.

3. Char, having almost no hydrogen is better than coal even. It results in a 25%
increase in the performance of the generator.

RESULTS:
• An MHD generator of 16MW capacity based on open cycle plant developed by
Arnold, Engineering Development Centre in Jullahome used to supply the power
to a town of 5000 population.
• The largest generator todate working on open cycle without steam cycle is the
American AVCO company machine of 40MW gross capacity.

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6.2Closed cycle MHD:

The closed cycle MHD using rare gases as working fluid is the most promising
system among all. The working of the system is exactly similar to Open cycle MHD
except the working fluid is continuously circulated in the cycle instead of exhausting to
the atmosphere. As there is no loss of working fluid this can be chosen for its better heat
transfer and electrical properties. The noble gases with their low electron affinity are
most suitable. With the use of noble gas as working fluid it also becomes economical to
use calcium instead of potassium as seed material.
• The closed cycle MHD retains the seeding element, gives pollution free operation
and saves exhaust heat.

14
6.3Closed cycle MHD with Liquid Metal:
The use of liquid metal instead of gas as a working fluid is proposed since they
have high electrical conductivity about 1 million times that of plasma. Such a generator
could be linked with thermal flux source such as breeder reactor. The major difficulty in
such a system is the production of the liquid flow with high kinetic energy from a thermal
power source. The liquid potassium coming out of the Breeder reactor at high
temperature is passed through a nozzle to increase its velocity before passing to MHD
generator. The vapours formed due to nozzle action are separated in the separator and
condensed and pumped back to the reactor. The following are the advantages of Liquid
metal system:

• The use of Nuclear energy as high temperature is not the requirement of this
system as in the case of a plasma converter.

15
 • It can easily provide AC power supply directly, whereas it is impossible to do so
in a plasma system.
The size of the system including that of magnets is comparatively smaller.
This is because of high power density.

Chapter 7.

MHD GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION

This series of diagrams conclude the structural design of a MHD Generator. Below, is the
combustion chamber. This device is designed to produce a explosive pulse of gas. This
most basic component is designed on the same principals as a pulsed rocket engine. The
fuel injection system is not defined but, would require a high pressure pump, and the
utilization of stepping motors to regulate frequency.

The camber shape is correct to produce a flaming smoke ring. This is managed very
simply by a few structural features that are not visible in this diagram, or any other. Very
simply the hole in the dome is one third the diameter of the extended tube. A simple test
of a similar system would be a plastic 1 gallon milk jug filled with smoke. Then it is just
striked without crushing it. Consistently, it will produce smoke rings. This diagram is
intended to produce a flaming smoke ring. The difference is that high temperature gases
are by law of physics, plasmas, and plasmas conduct electricity as well as wire. Basically,
some fuels to burn, hot enough to produce plasma, welding gases, and hydrogen often
qualify. Plasmas occur around the same temperatures at which Thermionic Emission
takes place, which, is one of the basics of vacuum tube theory. This power generator
works on the principal of two known factors discovered present in standard rotary
generators. A loop of conductive gas, act like a short circuited loop of wire. Kick EMF
then intensifies an existing magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet. Underneath

16
it is another shorted loop of wire that produces an even more intense magnetic field.
From that point a second receiving coil is used to accumulate the energy in the exploding
gas.

Fig.7.1 This is the position of the coil/permanent magnet pair.

Fig.7.2 This diagram shows the position of the receiving coil which is used like any
typical generator's output coil.

17
Now, if we choose to build a device for continuous operation, then there's a little trick to
keep all but the radiated heat away from the metal. That's by introducing a neutral gas,
like nitrogen, CO2, or liquid helium. This gas will expand explosively but, not reach a
true temperature of conductivity that the burning fuel will, or can, based on the mix ratio.
The objective of the position of the coolant injectors is to produce a layer of cold gas
around and over the combustion plate. The combustion serves two purposes, one is to
shape the detonation of the fuel in order to produce a vortex, or flaming smoke ring by
the time it escapes the dome and enters the exit tube. In the exit tube the gas must be
burning clear past the receiving coil. The good point of it is that it can convert hydrogen
directly to water and electricity, and the velocity or horsepower of the escaping gas is
almost directly converted to watts. By size and weight a rocket engine is always small
horse per horse.

18
 Chapter 8.

VARIOUS MHD GENERATOR DESIGENES

An MHD generator, like a turbo generator, is an energy conversion device and can be
used with any high-temperature heat source-chemical, nuclear, solar, etc. The future
electrical power needs of industrial countries will have to be met for the most part by
thermal systems composed of a heat source and an energy conversion device. In
accordance with thermodynamic considerations, the maximum potential efficiency of
such a system (i.e., the Carnot efficiency) is determined by the temperature of the heat
source. However, the maximum actual efficiency of the system will be limited by the
maximum temperature employed in the energy conversion device. The closer the
temperature of the working fluid in the energy conversion device to the temperature of
the heat source, the higher the maximum potential efficiency of the overall system. A
spectrum of heat source temperatures is currently available, up to about 3000˚K.
However, at the present time large central station power production is limited to the use
of a single energy-conversion scheme-the steam turbo-generator-which is capable of
operating economically at a maximum temperature of only 850˚K. The over-all
efficiencies of present central-station power-producing systems are limited by this
fact to values below about 42 percent, which is a fraction of the potential efficiency. It is
clear that a temperature gap exists in our energy conversion technology. Because MHD
power generators, in contrast to turbines, do not require the use of moving solid materials
in the gas stream, they can operate at much higher temperatures. Calculations show that
fossil-fuelled MHD generators may be capable of operating at efficiencies between 50
and 60 percent. Higher operating efficiencies would lead to improved conservation of
natural resources, reduced thermal pollution, and lower fuel costs. Studies currently in
progress suggest also the possibility of reduced air pollution.

19
The essential elements of a simplified MHD generator are shown below in the figure.
This type of generator is referred to as a continuous electrode Faraday generator. A field
of magnetic induction ‘B’ is applied transverse to the motion of an electrically
conducting gas flowing in an insulated duct with a velocity ‘u’.

Fig.8.1 A Simplified MHD generator

Typically for a large scale power station to approach operational efficiency in computer
models, steps must be taken to increase the electrical conductivity of the conductive
substance. The heating of a gas to plasma or the addition of other easily ionizable
substances like the salts of alkali metals accomplishes this increase in conductivity. In
practice a number of issues must be considered in the implementation of a MHD

20
generator: Generator efficiency, Economics, and Toxic byproducts. These issues are
affected by the choice of one of the three MHD generator designs. These are the Faraday
generator, the Hall generator, and the disc.

Faraday generator: The Faraday generator is named after the man who first looked for
the effect in the Thames River. A simple Faraday generator would consist of a
wedge-shaped pipe or tube of some non-conductive material. When an electrically
conductive fluid flows through the tube, in the presence of a significant
perpendicular magnetic field, a charge is induced in the field, which can be drawn
off as electrical power by placing the electrodes on the sides at 90 degree angles
to the magnetic field.

There are limitations on the density and type of field used. The amount of power that can
be extracted is proportional to the cross sectional area of the tube and the speed of the
conductive flow. The conductive substance is also cooled and slowed by this process.
MHD generators typically reduce the temperature of the conductive substance from
plasma temperatures to just over 1000 °C.

The main practical problem of a Faraday generator is that differential voltages and
currents in the fluid short through the electrodes on the sides of the duct. The most
powerful waste is from the Hall effect current. This makes the Faraday duct very
inefficient. Most further refinements of MHD generators have tried to solve this problem.
The optimal magnetic field on duct-shaped MHD generators is a sort of saddle shape. To
get this field, a large generator requires an extremely powerful magnet. Many research
groups have tried to adapt superconducting magnets to this purpose, with varying
success.

21
 • Hall generator: The most common answer is to use the Hall effect to create a
current that flows with the fluid. The normal scheme is to place arrays of short,
vertical electrodes on the sides of the duct. The first and last electrodes in the duct
power the load. Each other electrode is shorted to an electrode on the opposite
side of the duct. These shorts of the Faraday current induce a powerful magnetic
field within the fluid, but in a chord of a circle at right angles to the Faraday
current. This secondary, induced field makes current flow in a rainbow shape
between the first and last electrodes.

Losses are less than a Faraday generator, and voltages are higher because there is less
shorting of the final induced current. However, this design has problems because the

22
speed of the material flow requires the middle electrodes to be offset to "catch" the
Faraday currents. As the load varies, the fluid flow speed varies, misaligning the Faraday
current with its intended electrodes, and making the generator's efficiency very sensitive
to its load.

• Disc generator: The third, currently most efficient answer is the Hall effect
disc generator. This design currently holds the efficiency and energy density
records for MHD generation. A disc generator has fluid flowing between the
center of a disc, and a duct wrapped around the edge. The magnetic excitation
field is made by a pair of circular Helmholtz coils above and below the disk. The
Faraday currents flow in a perfect dead short around the periphery of the disk.
The Hall Effect currents flow between ring electrodes near the center and ring
electrodes near the periphery.

Another significant advantage of this design is that the magnet is more efficient. First, it
has simple parallel field lines. Second, because the fluid is processed in a disk, the
magnet can be closer to the fluid, and magnetic field strengths increase as the 7th power
of distance. Finally, the generator is compact for its power, so the magnet is also smaller.
The resulting magnet uses a much smaller percentage of the generated power.

23
 Chapter 9.

24
 GENERATOR EFFICIENCY AND ECONOMICS

As of 1994, the 22% efficiency record for closed-cycle disc MHD generators was held by
Tokyo Technical Institute. The peak enthalpy extraction in these experiments reached
30.2%. Typical open-cycle Hall & duct coal MHD generators are lower, near 17%. These
efficiencies make MHD unattractive, by itself, for utility power generation, since
conventional Rankine cycle power plants easily reach 40%.

However, the exhaust of an MHD generator burning fossil fuel is almost as hot as the
flame of a conventional steam boiler. By routing its exhaust gases into a boiler to make
steam, MHD and a steam Rankine cycle can convert fossil fuels into electricity with an
estimated efficiency up to 60 percent, compared to the 40 percent of a typical coal plant.

A magnetohydrodynamic generator might also be heated by a Nuclear reactor (either

fission or fusion). Reactors of this type operate at temperatures as high as 2000 °C. By
pumping the reactor coolant into a magnetohydrodynamic generator before a traditional
heat exchanger an estimated efficiency of 60 percent can be realised. One possible
conductive coolant is the molten salt reactor’s molten salt, since molten salts are
electrically conductive.

MHD generators have also been proposed for a number of special situations. In
submarines, low speed MHD generators using liquid metals would be nearly silent,
eliminating a source of tell-tale mechanism noise. In spacecraft and unattended locations,
low-speed metallic MHD generators have been proposed as highly reliable generators,
linked to solar, nuclear or isotopic heat sources.

MHD generators have not been employed for large scale mass energy conversion because
other techniques with comparable efficiency have a lower investment and operating cost.
Advances in natural gas turbines achieved similar thermal efficiencies at lower costs,
with simpler equipment than an MHD topping cycle. To get more electricity from coal,
it's cheaper to simply add more low-temperature steam-generating capacity. If high

25
efficiency is needed in a new plant, coal gasification feeding molten salt or solid oxide
fuel cells is expected to have superior efficiencies because the fuel cell bypasses the
inherent inefficiencies of a heat engine.

However, MHD generators for fossil fuels are inherently expensive. A certain amount of
electricity is required to maintain sustained magnetic field over 1 T. Because of the high
temperatures, the walls of the channel must be constructed from an exceedingly heat-
resistant substance such as yttrium oxide or zirconium dioxide to retard oxidation.
Similarly, the electrodes must be both conductive and heat-resistant at high temperatures,
making tungsten a common choice.

Chapter 10.

26
 NEED OF MHD

The electricity requirements of the world including India are increasing at alarming rate
and the power demand has been running ahead of supply. It is also now widely
recognized that the fossil fuels and other conventional resources, presently being
used for generation of electrical energy, may not be either sufficient or suitable to
keep pace with ever increasing demand of the electrical energy of the world. Also
generation of electrical power by coal based steam power plants or nuclear power
plants causes’ pollution. The recent severe energy crisis has forced the world to
develop new and alternative methods of power generation. MAGNETO HYDRO
DYNAMIC (MHD) power generation is a new unique method of power generation.

The Magneto Hydro Dynamic power generation technology (MHD) is the production of
electrical power utilising a high temperature conducting plasma moving through an
intense magnetic field. The conversion process in MHD was initially described by
Michael Faraday in 1893. However the actual utilisation of this concept remained
unthinkable. The first known attempt to develop an MHD generator was made at
Westing house research laboratory (USA) around 1936.

The efficiencies of all modern thermal power generating system lies between 35-40% as
they have to reject large quantities of heat to the environment. We need to improve this
efficiency level as in all other conventional power plants like nuclear power plant, hydro-
electric power plant, for which first the thermal energy of the gas is directly converted in
to electrical energy. Hence it is known as direct energy conversion system. The MHD
power plants are classified in to Open and Closed cycle based on the nature of processing
of the working fluid. With the present research and development programmes, the MHD
power generation may play an important role in the power industry in future to help the
present crisis of power.

27
 The MHD process can be used not only for commercial power
generation but also for so may other applications. It is economically attractive from the
design point of view and as far as bulk generation of power is concerned. The MHD
process promises a dramatic improvement in the cost of generating electricity from coal,
beneficial to the growth of the national economy. Not only that the extensive use of MHD
can help in saving billions of dollars towards fuel prospects, lead to much better fuel
utilization but the potential of lower capital costs with increased utilization of invested
capital also provides a very important economic incentive in this case. The beneficial
environmental aspects of MHD are probably of equal or even greater significance. The
MHD energy conversion process contributes greatly to the solution of the serious air and
thermal pollution problems faced by all steam - electric power plants while it
simultaneously assures better utilization for our natural resources. The high temperature
MHD process makes it possible to take advantage of the highest flame temperatures
which can be produced by combustion from fossil fuel. While commercial nuclear
reactors able to provide heat for MHD generators have yet to be developed, the combined
use of MHD generators with nuclear heat source holds great promise for the future. In
India, coal is by far the most abundant fossil fuel and thus the major energy source for
fossil fuelled MHD power generation.

HISTORY OF MHD

28
Michael Faraday first proposed the idea in his "Bakerian lecture for 1832"to the Royal Society.

The first practical MHD power research was funded in 1938 in the U.S.by Westinghouse
in its Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania laboratories, headed byBela karlovitz.

The initial patent on MHD is by B. Karlovitz, U.S. Patent No. 2,210,918,"Process for the
Conversion of Energy", August 13, 1940.

In the 1960s, AVCO Everett Aeronautical Research began a series of experiments,

ending with the Mk. V generator of 1965.

In 2001 AIAA use mhd generators for supersonic flights

Chapter 11.

29
 Advantage, application and achievements

11.1 ADVANTAGES OF MHD GENERATOR

1. Since high temperatures are involved, operational efficiency is high.
2. No moving part, so more reliable.
3. As there is no limitation to the size of the duct, so high capacity generators are
possible.
4. Ability of reaching the full power level instantly.
5. Conceptually these generators are very simpler.
6. The walls can be cooled below temperature of working gas.
7. The more efficient heat utilization reduces the amount of heat discharged to
environment and thus the cooling water requirements are reduced.
8. The capital costs of the MHD plants are estimated to be competitive with those of
coal fired steam power plants.
9. The overall costs of MHD power generation are estimated to be lower (20%) than
those of conventional power plants. This is because of higher efficiency of MHD
power generation.
10. The generator has high efficiency, construction is not limited by the working
temperature of the gas inside the duct but is controlled by the nature of thermal
source upstream of the generator.
11. Direct conversion of heat into electrical energy results in the elimination of gas
turbine and both the boiler and turbine and thus in the reduction of energy losses.
12. The closed cycle system produces power, free of pollution.
13. The size of the plant is considerably smaller than conventional fossil fuel plants.
14. It can be started and put on the line within few seconds. It provides almost
instantaneous standby power.
15. It can be used most economically as peak load plant.
11.2Applications

30
 • MHD was developed as a topping cycle to increase the efficiency of electric
generation, especially when burning coal or natural gas. It has also been applied
to pump liquid metals and for quiet submarine engines.
• It is used in the liquid metal cooling of nuclear reactors and electromagnetcic
casting.
• MHD power generation fueled by potassium-seeded coal combustion gas showed
potential for more efficient energy conversion (the absence of solid moving parts
allows operation at higher temperatures.)
• MHD has got application in the field of orbital power generation platforms and
space propulsion. It is coupled with a pulsed detonation rocket engine (PDRE) to
simultaneously create propulsion.

11.3 Achievements

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 USSR has constructed a pilot plant of 75MW installed capacity, 25MW is
provided by the MHD generator. The fuel used is natural gas. The plant is
designated as “U-25”.
 A 5-15 MW thermal input pilot plant is being set up in India at Tiruchirapalli. This
plant uses fluidized bed combustion.
 Besides the use of MHD system for commercial electrical power generation it has
got other special uses. A major effort was made in U.S.A use MHD as the
conversion system in a nuclear electrical system for space craft.
 In India also considerable studies have been carried out in this field under the
National Council of Science and Technology (NCST) .
 The Department of Science and Technology of government of India has sponsored
research and development programmes on coal based MHD power generation.
 MHD conversion has also been considered for ship propulsion, airborne
applications, hypersonic wind tunnel experiments and for many other defence
applications.

Chapter 12.

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 NEED FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

12.1 Further Research

Focussing upon the advantages of a MHD system while considering its
disadvantages, we can conclude that this system needs further developments for
commercialization.

However the commercial use of MHD concept has not been possible because
numerous technological advancements are needed prior to commercialization of
MHD systems. Most of these are related to material problem created by the
simultaneous presence of high temperature and a highly corrosive and abrasive
environment. The MHD channel operates on extreme conditions of temperature,
magnetic and electric fields. Search is on for better insulator and electrode
materials which can with stand the electrical, thermal, mechanical and thermo-
chemical stresses and corrosion.

It is recognized more important to increase efficiency not only for saving energy
resources but also for reducing CO2 emission recently. Electric power generation system
is known as a heat cycle whose efficiency is restricted by the second law of
thermodynamics. Actual efficiency is limited below the Carnot efficiency which is
determined mainly by the highest cycle temperature because lower heat exhaust
temperature is generally temperature of environment. Figure 2 shows efficiency of
various power generation systems. Plant efficiency of advanced coal fired steam-turbine
is slightly higher than 40% at the temperature of 500C. Efficiency of advanced BWR in
Japan stays below 35% due to poor steam conditions for safety reasons. We understand
that steam-turbine system can reach up to about 40% and we have to combine other
system working higher temperature if higher efficiency is required.

33
Gas turbine system is already commercialized. Efficiency of combined cycle with gas-
turbine/steam-turbine is up to 52% at gas temperature of 1500C. However, this level may
be the upper limit because of complexity, material durability and delicate structures

On the other hand, for MHD generators, highest working temperature is 2400C for closed
cycle MHD and up to 3300C for open cycle. Efficiency is expected in excess of 60%. For
closed cycle system, working gas is inert gas of argon or helium. It needs high
temperature heat exchanger in spite of any heat source can be used.

Efficiency is higher about 40% at relatively lower temperature of 800C. However,

we can see so much heat energy is exhausted to environment through condenser. It is
necessary to recover steam to water. Although nuclear powered steam-turbine is one of
the lowest CO2 emission system, efficiency is kept lower than 35% due to poor steam
conditions.

Again, we can see that much heat is lost through condenser and as exhaust gas. And
therefore, efficiency seems relatively low even if system temperature is increased from
800C of steam-turbine to 1500C of combined cycle. From the above review of the
present power generation systems, it can be summarized as follows: In order to increase
plant efficiency, 1, increase working temperature, 2, don’t use condenser of steam-turbine
to reduce exhaust heat, and 3, construct energy re-circulating type system. Also, in order
to reduce CO2 emission, use nuclear power with high efficiency. We have to construct
nuclear powered energy re-circulating type system.

34
12.2proposal of near future power generation system

1. Energy Re-Circulating LNG/MHD System:-

The system does not combined with any other system and is called closed cycle MHD
single system. We can see that plant efficiency is expected over 60% even the enthalpy
extraction ratio of the MHD generator is only 30%. Thermal input to the MHD generator
is 200 and electric output is 60 in spite of only 100 input thermal energy to the system
because 100 of heat is recovered by regenerator. Enthalpy extraction ratio of above 30%
was achieved by experiments with shock tube facility. So this estimation of efficiency is
considered to be realistic in near future.

2. Energy Re-Circulating Nuclear/Gas Turbine System:-

It is pointed out that efficiency of power generation system with nuclear fission reactor
must be increased in order to reduce CO2 emission. Energy re-circulating type gas-
turbine single system with nuclear reactor is proposed. Schematic of this system is shown
in Figure 6. Here, working gas is re-circulating helium and high temperature gas-cooled
reactor (HTGR) is considered to be used in this system.

We can expect high plant efficiency about 47% in contrast with 35% for the case of
BWR/steam-turbine system. This remarkable increase in efficiency results in saving by
over 25% of nuclear fuel consumption. Main issue may be development of increase
operating temperature of HTGR.

3. Energy Re-Circulating Nuclear/MHD System:-

35
Because, in previous nuclear/gas-turbine system, highest working temperature is
considered to be 850C owing to requirement from difficulty in developing HTGR, its
efficiency is relatively low. A system using MHD generator to achieve higher efficiency
is proposed. This system is a special power generation system driven by HTGR directly
connected with MHD single power generation system for space applications. Typical
gasdynamic parameters of heat, Q in MW, temperature, T in K, and pressure, P in MPa
are shown.

Working medium of helium mixed with xenon is used so as to connect closed cycle
MHD system directly to HTGR. We exclude alkali-metal seed from the system. Mixed
inert gas (MIG) system has been studied to eliminate system complexity of seed
injection, mixing and recovery.
Ionization potential of MIG working medium is much higher than that of inert gas seeded
with alkali-metal, and therefore, ionization level, namely electrical conductivity, is not
enough at the temperature of the reactor exit, ~1800K. So, it must be pre-ionized
electrically. Disk shaped Hall-type MHD generator is used for simple geometry, fewer
electrode connections and simple structure of superconducting magnet. Regenerator
which is installed just downstream of the MHD generator can regenerate heat exhausted
from the generator in order to minimize waste heat radiated from the radiation cooler and
to improve plant efficiency. Other components are staged compressor with intercoolers
and radiation cooler. Figure 6. Energy Re-circulating type gas-turbine single system with
nuclear reactor as heat source.

Input power from the HTGR is fixed as 5MWth. Thermal input to the MHD generator is
about 13MW which is the sum of input thermal energy from HTGR of 5MW and
recovered one from the regenerator of about 8MW. Enthalpy extraction ratio, which is
the ratio of

output electrical power to thermal input, is assumed to be reasonable value of 35%.

Generated electric power is 4.5MWe and net output is 2.76% because some of the

36
generated power is used for compressor power. Finally, total plant efficiency reached to
55% with the 5MW input heat to this system and 2.76MWe net output electric power.
Main reasons of high efficiency are high operating temperature and thermal energy
recovery by regenerating heat exchanger. We have to note that we can reduce fuel
consumption by 25% by the increase in efficiency from 40% to 50% and almost no CO2
emission.

We recognized that this system will be an important candidate in near future.

A) Number of Compressor Stages :-

It can be seen that plant efficiency increases with the increase of compressor
stage number owing to increase number of intercoolers which can reduce power
worked by the working gas. We have to note, however, this effect is not
significant at the number in excess of 4. So, we should reasonably choose the
number of compressor stages of 3.

B) Regenerator Efficiency:-

Here the conditions at the exit of HTGR are set as the reference point of entropy
where both temperature and pressure are fixed. For the case of regenerator
efficiency of 1.0, working gas gains thermal energy at the process 1 through 3 in
the figure; heat from the regenerator at 1 to 2 and heat from the HTGR at 2 to 3.
Point 3 and 4 correspond the exit of HTGR and of MHD generator, respectively.
We can see that area enclosed T-s diagram becomes larger, namely increase in
output power for higher regenerator efficiency. So, regenerator is necessary to
achieve such high plant efficiency. Figure 10. Influence of regenerator efficiency
on regenerated power, thermal input to MHD generator and plant efficiency.
Figure 10 shows regenerated power Qreg by the regenerator (at the process 1-2 in
Fig.9), thermal input to the MHD generator QMHD and total plant efficiency as a

37
 function of regenerator efficiency. Here, temperature difference between high-
and low-temperature fluids is assumed as

50 K. When regenerator efficiency is decreased, i.e. regenerated heat is reduced; thermal

input to the MHD generator is also decreased as the thermal output from the HTGR is
kept the same level of 5 MW. Thus decreased output power from the MHD generator
results in the decrease of total plant efficiency. If the regenerator is removed from the
system, plant efficiency falls down to about 28%.

CO2 Recovery Type MHD Power System:-

To reduce CO2 emission is one of the urgent requirements to reduce global climate
change based on green house effect. If we burn fossil fuel, CO2 must be exhausted.
Therefore, we have to develop two directions; 1, increase plant efficiency which leads to
reduce fuel consumption and 2, CO2 recovery type power generation system. We discuss
how to increase plant efficiency using MHD generator previously. We would like to
discuss how to design CO2 recovery type plant.

At first, if we burn fossil fuel with air, exhaust gas contains so much N2 and we have to
separate CO2 from N2 and H2O. This process requires so much energy and again
increases CO2 production. If combustion exhaust contains only CO2 and H2O, it is easy
to separate CO2 from H2O. This can be achieved by burning fuel(s) with pure oxygen.
Of course some amount of energy loss to produce oxygen takes place.
However, temperature of combustion gas can be increased and if this increase in
temperature can be effectively used to increase of plant efficiency, such penalty can be
compensated.

Basic ideas of CO2 recovery type MHD power generation system are as follows: Heat
source is coal synthesized gas burning with pure oxygen. Coal must be considered as a
heat source in near future with in 200years instead of LNG or oil. Nitrogen free with
oxygen separate plant is included. Figure 11 shows typical CO2 recovery type MHD

38
generator plant proposed by Prof. N. Kayukawa at Hokkaido University.[5] In this
system, H2 and CO is burned with pure oxygen to drive MHD generator at the
temperature around 2800C. Downstream part after MHD generator, heat is recovered by
regenerative coal m de-composition. Energy penalty for oxygen production plant can be
recovered due to operate at high temperature with high efficiency of the MHD generator.
It is known that only MHD generators can be operated such high temperature regime.
Total plant efficiency can be expected as over 50% with CO2 recovery.

Combine mhd &steam plant:-

In a MHD generator it is not a solid metal conductor but a gaseous conductor-in fact a
high temperature ionized gas-that passes across the magnetic field created by a powerful
magnet. the combustion products of coal as the working fluid, the electrical conductivity
of which is enhanced by the addition of potassium carbonate “seed”.
A typical coal-fired, commercially viable MHD generator converts about 20 per cent of
the thermal input power to direct current electricity. Hence, at the exit of the generator
most of the thermal energy is still in the gas but it is no longer usable for MHD power
production due to its low electrical conductivity. The combined MHD/steam cycle,
shown in Figure I, is thermodynamically in series and electrically in parallel. It has a
potential for converting up to 50 per cent of the coal's energy in to electricity, compared
with 35 to 40 per cent for a conventional power plant. In addition the MHD generator
removes most of the sulphur from the effluent due to a sulphur/potassium reaction
inherent in the process, while at the same time nitrogen oxides are reduced to a level.

39
 Fig.12.1: Schematic diagram combination of MHD and steam plant

A typical commercially viable coal-fired MHD generator, shown schematically in Figure

5, may be 10 to 20 metres long, with a I m2 flow cross-section and will have hundreds of
pairs of current collecting electrodes.
The generator walls are subjected to a heat flux reaching 400 W/cm2 to
corrosion/erosion resulting from the hot (2500 K) high speed (1000m/s) slag, sulphur and
potassium laden gas flow, and also to electric fields that locally reach 10 kV/m. About 50
per cent of the internal surface of the generator is formed by electrodes.
Coal combustion was simulated by injecting fly ash and sulphur dioxide into the oil-fired
combustor, the weight fraction of sulphur being 0.18 per cent of the total mass flow. The
generator is one metre long and has 56 pairs of electrodes.
Hall (axial) electric field and electrical power density as a function of electrode number.

40
concluding summary of future plans:-

We reviewed issues of current electrical power generation system. It can be summarized

as follows: In order to increase plant efficiency,

1. increase working temperature,

2. don’t use condenser of steam-turbine to reduce exhaust heat, and

3. construct energy re-circulating type system.

Also, in order to reduce CO2 emission, use nuclear power with high efficiency. We have
to construct nuclear powered energy re-circulating type system. Also idea of CO2
recovery type power generation system must be developed. Energy re-circulating type
Nuclear/MHD power system was proposed to achieve high efficiency using high
operating temperature and eliminating bottoming cycle.For reduction of CO2 emission,
CO2 recovery type generator system was proposed, which has special features of using
coal synthesized gas burning with pure oxygen and heat recovery systems.

41
 LIMITATIONS

• The metallic vapours are poor electrical conductors.

• High velocities cannot be obtained by expansion in the system while it is much

easier to achieve a high fluid velocity employing a gas and a nozzle. This is
because the liquids are practically in compressible.

• The overall conversions efficiencies obtainable with liquid metal system are quite
below to that of plasma system

42
 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN DESIGN OF MHD

1. Sufficient high temperature for thermal ionization can be sustained by refractory

materials. A more practical method of reducing the required temperature is by
seeding.
2. Seed material potassium attacks insulating materials and make them conducting.
3. Electrode materials are chemically eroded by combustion of gases.
4. The major problem forced by this generator is the economics. Although the overall
thermal efficiency is 60% against 40% for conventional thermal plant, additional
investment in the magnet, generator, duct, compressors, scrubbers, seed recovery
plant and DC to AC converters may increase the plant cost and it may be much
higher than conventional plant.
5. Most of the problems are related to material problems caused by high temperature
and highly corrosive and abrasive environment.

43
 CONCLUSION

The threat of disappearing of the fossil fuels within few decades compel
the human beings to search for new energy sources will last for a longer time. Extensive
research is going on in different countries through out the world to find out the new
resources to replace the conventional fossil one. With the present research and
development programmes, the non-conventional power resources play an important role
in the power industry . The magneto hydro dynamic power generation is one of the
examples of a new unique method of generation of electricity. This power resource play a
minor role presently and its use on a vast scale is yet to be confirmed as it is in its
childhood stage. Man being optimistic should not leave the hopes on the success of this
MHD generator as the technology took the man to moon which was a dream long time
back, the same technology will help the human being to survive from the present crisis of
power shortage.

44
 REFERENCES

1). Sites:

• www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHD_generator
• www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/magnetohydrodynamics
• www.techsearch.htm
• www.answers.com
• www.britannica.com
• www.edufive.com
2). Books:

• Non-Conventional energy source : G.D. Rai

• Electrical Power System : Dr. Inamdar
• Generation Distribution & Utilization of Electrical Energy.
By C.L.Wadhwa
• A Textbook of Power System Engineering
By R.K. Rajput

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