HANDOFF MANAGEMENT:

DETECTION AND ASSIGNMENT

4.1 Handoff
When a mobile user is engaged in conversion, the MS connected to a BS via a radio
link. If the mobile user moves to the coverage area of another BTS, the radio link to
the old BS is eventually disconnected and a radio link to the new BS should be
established to continue the conversion. This process is variously referred to as
automatic link transfer, handover, or handoff.

4.1.1 Why Handoff?

Once a call is established, the set up channel is not used again during the call
period. There fore handoff is always implemented on the voice channel. The
value of implementing handoff is dependent on the size of the cell. For example,
if the radius of the cell is 32 km, the area is 3217 km2.After a call is initiated in
this area there is little chance that will dropped before the call is implemented as
a result of a weak signal at the coverage boundary. Even for 16 km radius cell
handoff may not be needed. If a call is dropped in fringe area, the customer
simply redials and reconnects the call.

Hand off

Fig 4.1: Occurrence of Handoff

 Handoff is needed in two situations where the cell site receives weak signals
from the mobile unit: (1) at the cell boundary , say, -100dbm which is the
level for requesting a handoff in a noise limited environment and (2) when
the mobile unit is reaching the signal-strength holes within cell site as shown
in fig:7.1.

4.1.2 Determining the probability of requirement for handoff

To find the probability of requiring a handoff, we can carry out the following
simulation. Suppose that a mobile unit randomly initiates a call in a 16 km
(10mi) cell. The vehicle speed is also randomly chosen between 8 and 96 km/h
(5 -60mi/h). The direction is randomly chosen to be between 0 and 360, and
then the chance of reaching the boundary is dependent on the call holding time.
Table summarizes the results. If the call holding time is 1.76 min, the only
chance of reaching the boundary is 11%. If the call holding time is 3

Handoff Probability (%) Call length (min)

11.3 1.76
18 3
42.6 6
59.3 9
Table 4.1: Probability of having a handoff in a 10 – mi coverage area.

Min the chance of reaching the boundary is 18%. Now we may debate whether
a handoff is needed or not. In rural areas, handoff may not be necessary.
However, commercial mobile units must meet certain requirements and handoff
s may be necessary at the at time

4.2 INTER-BS HANDOFF / INTER CELL HANDOFF

In inter BS handoff the new and the old BSs are connected to the same MSC.
Assume that the need for handoff is detected by the MS; the following actions are
taken.
1. The Ms momentarily suspends conversation and initiates the handoff procedure
by signaling an idle channel in the new BS. Then it resumes the conversion on
the old BS.
2. Upon receipt of the signal, the MSC transfers encryption information to the
selected idle channel to the new BS and sets up the new conversation path to the
MS through that channel. The switch bridges the new path with the old path and
informs the MS to transfer from the old channel to the new channel.
3. After the MS has been transferred to the new BS, it signals the network and
resumes conversation using the new channel.
 4. Upon receipt of the handoff completion signal the network removes the bridge
from the path and releases resources associated with the old channel. This
handoff process is used with the mobile controlled handoff strategy.

4.3 INTER SYSTEM HANDOFF / INTER MSC HANDOFF

In intersystem handoff, the new and old BSs are connected to two different MSCs.
In the description that follows, we trace the intersystem handoff procedure IS-41,
where network –controlled handoff is assumed. Fig: shows the trunk connection
before and after the intersystem handoff. In this fig a communication mobile user
moves out of the BS served by MSC A and enters the area covered by MSC B.
Intersystem handoff requires the following steps:
1. MSC A requires MSC B to perform handoff measurements on the call in
progress. MSC B then selects a candidate BS, BS2, and interrogates it for signal
quality parameters on the call in progress. MSC B returns the signal quality
parameter values, along with other relevant information to MSC A.
2. MSC A checks if the MS has made too many handoffs recently (this to avoid,
for example numerous handoff between BS1 and BS2 where the MS is moving
within the overlapped area) or if intersystem trunks are not available. If so,
MSC A exits the procedure. Otherwise, MSC A asks MSC B to set up a voice
channel. Assuming that a vice channel is available in BS2, MSC B instructs
MSC A to start the radio link transfer.
3. MSC A sends the MS a handoff order. The MS synchronizes to BS2. After the
MS is connected to BS2, MSC B informs MSC A that the handoff is successful.
MSC A then connects the call path (trunk) to MSC B and completes the
handoff procedure.
In this handoff process, MSC A is referred to as the anchor MSC, and is always in
the path before and after the handoff as illustrated in the fig. this anchor approach is
used in all exiting mobile phone networks because the re-establishment of a new
call path between MS and the new MSC would require extra trunk release / setup
operation in PSTN which is not available or not cost effective.

4.4 INITIATION OF A HANDOFF

At the cell site, signal strength is always monitored from a reverse voice channel.
When the signal strength reaches the level of a handoff then the cell site sends a
request to the mobile telephone switching level (MTSO) for handoff on the call. An
intelligence decision can also be made at the cell site as to whether the handoff
should taken place earlier or later. If an unnecessary handoff is requested, then was
made too early. If a failure handoff occurs, then a decision was made too late.

The following approaches are used to make handoffs successful and to eliminate all
necessary handoff. Suppose that -100dbm is a threshold level at the cell boundary at
which a handoff would be taken. Given this scenario, we must set up a level higher
 than -100dbm +∆ dbm and the received signal reaches this level a handoff request is
initiated. If the value of ∆ is fixed and large then time it takes to lower -100 dbm +∆
to -100dbm is longer. If ∆ is small, then there is not enough time for the call to
handoff at the site and many calls can be lost while they are handed off. Therefore ∆
should be varied according to the path loss slope of the received signal strength and
the level crossing rate of the signal strength.
Let the value of ∆ be 10 db in the example given in the preceding paragraph. This
would mean a level of -90db as the threshold level for requesting a handoff. Then
we can calculate the velocity V of the mobile unit based on the predicted level
crossing rate(LCR) at a -10 db level with respect to the root square mean level
which is at -90 dbm; thus
nλ (7.1)
V = (√2π) 0.27
nλ
Where n is the LCR counting positive slopes and is the wavelength in feet. Equation
(7.1) can be simplified as

V(mi/h) ≈ n(crossing/s) at 850 MHZ AND -10dB level.

There are two circumstances where handoffs are necessary but can not be made: (1)
when the mobile unit is located at a signal –strength hole within a cell but at the
boundary (fig) and (2) when the mobile unit approaches a cell boundary but no
channels in the new cell are available.

4.5 DELAYING A HANDOFF

4.5.1 Two Handoff level Algorithm
In many cases a two handoff level algorithm is used. The purpose of creating
two request handoff levels is to provide more opportunity for a successful
handoff. A handoff could be delayed if no available cell could take the call.
A plot of signal strength with two request handoff levels and a threshold level is
shown in fig. the plot of avg signal strength which is recorded on the channel
received signal strength indicator (RSSI) which is installed at each channel
receiver at the cell site. When the signal drops below the first handoff level, a
handoff request is initiated. If for some reason the mobile unit is in a whole (a
weak spot in a cell) or a neighboring cell is busy, the handoff will be requested
periodically every 5s. At the first handoff level, the handoff takes places if the
new signal is stronger.
However when the second handoff level is reached, the call will be handed off
with no condition.
The MTSO always handles the handoff call first and the originating calls
second. If no neighboring calls available after the second handoff level is
 reached, the call continuous until the signal strength drops below the threshold
level; then the call is dropped.

4.5.2 Advantage of Delayed Handoffs

Consider the following example. The mobile units are moving randomly and the
terrain counter is uneven. The received signal strength at the mobile unit
fluctuates up and down. If the mobile unit is whole for less than 5 s (a driven
distance of 140 m for 5s, assuming a vehicle speed of 100 km/h), the delay (in
handoff) can even circumvent the need for a handoff.
If the neighboring cells are busy, delayed handoff may take place. In principle,
when call traffic is heavy, the switching processor is loaded and thus a lower
number of handoffs would help the processor handle call processing more
adequately.
The advantage of having a two –handoff –level algorithm is that it makes the
handoff occur at the proper location and eliminates possible interference in the
system. Fig case 1, shows the area where the first level handoff occurs between
cell A and cell B. if we only use the second level handoff boundary of cell A,
the area of handoff is too close to cell B.

4.6 FORCED HANDOFFS

A forced is defined as a handoff which would normally occur but is prevent from
happening or a handoff that should not occur but is forced to happen.

4.6.1 Controlling a Handoff

The cell site can assign a low handoff threshold in a cell to keep a mobile unit in
a cell longer or assign threshold level to request a handoff earlier. The MTSO
also can control a handoff by making either a handoff earlier or later, after
receiving a handoff request from a cell site.

4.6.2 Creating a Handoff

In this case, the cell site does not request a handoff but the MTSO finds that
some cells are too congested while others are not. Then the MTSO can request
cell sites to create early handoffs for those congested cells. In other words, a cell
site has to follow the MTSO order and increase the handoff threshold to push
the mobile units at the new boundary and to handoff earlier.

4.7 STRATEGIES FOR HANDOFF DETECTION

4.7.1 Mobile controlled Handoff (MCHO)
MCHO is the most popular technique for low –tier radio system s and is
employed by both the European DECT and the North American PACS air
interface protocols. In this method the MS continuously monitors the signal
strength and quality the signal strength and quality from the accessed BS and
several handoff candidates BSs. When some handoff criteria are met, the MS
checks the best candidate BSs for an available traffic channel and launches a
handoff request.
The combined control of automatic link transfer and time slot transfer by the
MS is considered desirable, in order to:
• Offload the handoff task from the network
• Ensure robustness of the radio link by allowing reconnection of calls even
when radio channels suddenly become poor.
• Control both automatic link transfer and time slot transfer .Thus
preventing unhelpful, simultaneous triggering of the two processes.
Automatic link control transfer control requires the NS to make quality
measurements of the current and candidates channels in the surrounding
BSs. The MS,s handoff control between channels on the same BS is made
possible by passing uplink quality information, in the form of a word error
indicator back to the MS on the downlink. Quality maintenance processing,
described schematically in Figure 7.2

Measurements
Processor

Yes
No
Link-
quality
Select new
channel or Execute
Acceptabl
e? time slot ALT or TST

Fig 4.2: MS quality maintenance

Consists of four components:

• On going measurements and processing of measurements data which
allow the MS to monitor quality
• The trigger decision mechanism where the MS uses the processed
measurements data to determine that some action , such as automatic link
transfer or time slot transfer is required
• The choice of the new frequency carrier for automatic link transfer or the
new time slot for time slot transfer , which is a process closely allied with
the triggered decision
 • Execution of the automatic link transfer or the new time slot transfer via
signaling protocol between the MS and network equipment.

4.7.2 Network controlled handoff(NCHO)

In this method, the BS monitors the signal strength and the quality from the MS.
When these deteriorate below some threshold, the network arranges for a
handoff to another BS. The network asks all BSs to monitor the signal from the
MS and report the measurement result back to the network. The network then
chooses a new BS for the handoff and information both the MS and the new BS.
The handoff is then affected.
The BSs supervise the quality of all current connections by making
measurements of RSSI. The MSC will command surrounding BSs to
occasionally make measurements of these links. Based on these measurements,
the MSC makes the decision when and where to effect the handoff. Because of
heavy network signaling traffic needed to collect the information and the lack of
adeq0ate radio resources at BSs to make frequent measurements of neighboring
links the handoff execution timeis in the order of seconds. Since measurements
cannot be made very often, the accuracy is reduced. To reduce the signaling
load in the network the neighboring BSs do not send measurement reports
continuously back to the MSC; therefore, comparisons cannot be made very
before the actual RSSI is below a predetermined threshold. The required
handoff time for NCHO can be up to 10 seconds or more.

4.7.3 Mobile Assisted Handoff(MAHO)

MAHO is a variant of network controlled handoff whereby the network asks the
MS to measure the signals from surrounding BSs and report those
measurements back to the old BS so that the network can decide whether a
handoff is required and to which BS. This handoff strategy is employed by the
high-tier GSM, IS-95 CDMA and IS-136 TDMA standards; it is not used by
any of the low tier PCS standards.
In MAHO the handoff process is more decentralized. Both the MS and the BS
supervise the quality of the link, for example the RSSI and WEI values. RSSI
measurements of neighboring BSs are done by the MS. In GSM the MS
transmits the measurements results to the BS twice a second. The decision as to
when and where to execute the handoff is still made by the network, which is
the BS and the MSC or BSC. The GSM handoff execution time is
approximately 1 seconds .In both MAHO and NCHO systems network signaling
is required to inform the MS about the handoff decision made by the network
that is on which new channel to begin communicating is transmitted on the
falling link. There is some probability that the link will fail before this
information can be transmitted to the MS; in this case the call will be forced top
terminate.
 4.7.4 Handoff failure
In the link transfer procedure, there are several reasons handoff failures can
occur, some of which are:
• No channel is available on selected BS.
• Handoff is denied by the network for reasons such as lack of
resources- for example no bridge or no suitable channel card; the MS has
exceeded some limit on the number of handoffs that may be attempted in
some period of time.
• It takes the network too long to set up the handoff after it has
been initiated
• The target link fails in some way during the execution of handoff.

4.8 CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT

Channel assignment schemes attempt to achieve a high degree of spectrum
utilization for a given grade of service with the least number of database lookups
and the simplest algorithm employed in both the MS and the network .some trade
offs occur when trying t accomplish the following goals:
• service of quality
• implementation complexity of the channel assignment algorithm
• number of database lookups
• Spectrum utilization
Handoff request and initial access request complete for radio resources. At a busy
BS, call attempts that fails because there are no available channels are called
blocked calls handoff requests for exiting calls that must be turned down because
there are no available channels are called forced terminations. It is generally
believed that forced terminations are less desirable than blocked call attempts.
Several channel assignment strategies have been developed to reduce forced
termination at the cost of increasing the number lost or blocked calls. Several
handoff initiates access channel assignment schemes such as the non prioritized
schemes, the reserved channel schemes, the queuing priority schemes.

4.8.1 Non prioritized schemes

In the NPS the handles a handoff call in exactly the same manner as a new call;
that is the handoff call is blocked immediately if no channel available. The
flowchart of NPS is given in fig 7.3
 New or
NEe yes no
handoff Call

Ch aila
call arrival Blocked

Av
a n bl
ne e
l
Channel Ongoing Channel
Assigned Call released

Fig 4.3: Flowchart for nonprioritized scheme.

4.8.2 The Reserved Channel Schemes

The reserved channel schemes is similar to NPS expect that a number of
channels or transceivers in each BS are reserved for handoffs. In other words
the channels are divided into two groups: the normal channels; which serve both
new calls and handoff calls and the reserved channel which only serve handoff
calls. The flowchart for RCS is shown in fig 7.4

New call Call

Arrival
No an able

blocked
Ch ail
rm nel
Av

al

Channel Ongoing Channel

assigned call refused

Handoff al l
ai ne d

m
av an ve

call arrival or ne
la l

N h an ab l e
Ch eser

e
bl

C ai l
R

av
 Fig 4.4: Queuing Priority schemes

The queuing priority scheme is based on the fact that adjacent cells in a
PCS network overlap. Thus, there is a considerable area where a call can
be handled by either BS of the adjacent cells, called the handoff area. The
time that an MS spends in the overlapped area is referred to as the
degradation interval.

Yes
Channel
Handoff Channel Ongoing
Availabl
call arrival e assigned Call

No
Channel
Insert the call Released
into the
waiting queue
New call
Channel
Released
Is a channel Yes Is the
available waiting
before call queue
expires? No empty

Yes
No

Call Blocked The channel Idle

Fig 4.5: Flowchart for queuing priority scheme (handoff is idle)

The flow chart of QPS handoff call channel assignment is shown in fig
7.5. The channel assignment for a QPS new call is the same as that for
NPS. If a channel in the new cell is available for the handoff, the handoff
actually occurs. If no channels is available after the MS moves out of the
handoff area –the degradation interval expires the call is forced to
terminate. In these schemes, when a channel is released, the BS first
checks if the waiting queue is empty. If not the released channel is
assigned to a handoff call in the queue. The next handoff to be served is
selected based on the queuing policy.
4.1.1 Implementation issues
To implement prioritizing handoff schemes a radio system must have a physical
channel that is a system signaling channel for the MS to request the link transfer
even when all traffic channel are in use. This channel should always be
available and therefore cannot be used as a traffic channel. Some PCSs radio
system already reserve a channel for other purposes such as system broadcast
channel, which can be shared by the handoff prioritizing procedure. For system
with conventional handoff procedures the reserved channel is not necessary
because the request is made through the network.
The QPS take advantage of the handoff area to buffer the handoff calls. The
implementation for the measurements based priority schemes is more complex
than that for the fifo schemes but the performance is almost identical. QPS
effectively reduce forced terminations at the expense of increasing new call
blocking
Several analytical and simulation models have been proposed to evaluate the
performance of the handoff channel assignment schemes. The results are
summarized here. RCS is easy to implement and it reduced the forced
termination probability more effectively than NPS. The new call blocking
Probability for RCS however larger than that of NPS.
To conclude the selection of a particular handoff and initial channel assignment
schemes is a trade –off between implementation complexity and performance. If
reducing forced termination is more import ant than reducing total call
implementation, then RCS, QPS, SRS are better than NPS. If implementation
cost is a major concern then RCS and NPS should be considered. To achieve the
best performance with a slight voice quality degradation SRS should be
selected, if BS density is high in a given PCS service area then queuing priority
schemes may be a good choice, because the overlapping coverage areas
between BSs will be large.