2009 年 12 月 中国英语教学（ 双月刊） Dec．2009

第 32 卷　第 6 期 Teaching English in China —CELEA Journal（Bim onthly） Vol．32 No．6

TEACHER VOICE FROM CHINA ：

THEIMPACT OF CROSS－CULTURAL EXPERIENCES
ON TERTIARY EFL TEACHERS MOTIVATION FOR
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Feng Yan
University of Northa m pton ，UK
Yu Liping
Shaoguan University

Abstract
　　Based on the researchers assu m ption that teachers of English as a Foreign Language（EFL）in China with
cross－cultural experiences have better cultural awareness than their peers ，the research was conducted to
investigate the im pact of the experiences on tertiary EFLteachers m otivation for professional develop ment．
Narrative accounts fro m in－depth interviews with a case were triangulated with the data fro m a questionnaire
survey（ N ＝39 ）and participant observations in tw o Chinese universities． Meaning and kno wledge were
socially constructed with the researchers o w n career identity and reflexivity as Chinese tertiary EFLteachers
studied／ studying in English－ speaking countries． The findings support the existing literature on the positive
im pact of cross－cultural experiences on tertiary EFL teaching． The study also reveals that teachers with the
experiences have better m otivation in seeking professional develop ment than those w ho have not． Multi－
dimensional factors on the diverse teacher m otivation indicate that tertiary EFL teachers are encountering
dile m masin their professional develop mentin terms of finance ， time and other resourcesattheir disposal．This
im plies that better support is needed to encourage teachers for their active involve ment and investment in
professional develop ment w hilst teaching qualification and effectiveness should be further assessed as well．

Key words
teacher m otivation ；cross－
cultural experience ；EFLteacher professional develop ment ；teacher voice ；China

1．Research background

1．1 EFLteaching and cross－

cultural awareness
In China ，the perceived role of English in the m odernization drive has m ade it a co m pulsory subject
in curriculu m at allthree educationallevels（Hu 2005） ．Teaching English as a Foreign Language（TEFL ）
has witnessed a rapid advance m ent in theory ，research and practice in the past tw o decades． In
particular ，the mid 1990s had brought forth a series of reform in the curriculu m of English fro m prim ary
and secondary levels to the tertiary level （ Wu 2005 ）． Radical reforms e m phasise the im portance of
teaching m ethodology （ Ministry of Education 2001 ） ． Consequently ，co m m unicative approaches were
perceived as a forward m ove in language teaching． Recent study begins to attach im portance of teacher
learning（Richards ＆Farrell 2005 ；Wu 2004）in the EFLteaching process．

Mean w hile ，the increasing recognition of the im portance of culture in language learning has raised
the queries of the appropriateness of various teaching approaches “for Chinese learners in a Chinese
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 Feng Yan ＆Yu Liping

culture of learning context”with essential“Chinese characteristics” （Cortazzi ＆Jin 1996 ： 65 ，2001 ；Jin ＆
Cortazzi 2002 ） ．Studies （e．g． ，Tang ＆ Absalo m 1998 ）also identify so m e co m m unication difficulties
w hich arise w hen Eastern and Western cultures m eet in the context of language teaching and learning．
Despite the increased interaction between Chinese and Western acade mics ，it is evident that
misunderstandings and even antagonism are regular features of cross－ cultural discourses． Therefore ，
language teaching is no longer seen as just the teaching of linguistics and co m m unicative co m petence
（Brow n 1994）but also the teaching of the culture by raising learners cross－ cultural awareness（Duff ＆
Uchida 1997） ．Accordingly ， teaching m ethodology has been re－oriented aiming to foster learners critical
thinking and autono m ous learning skills． Text books have been revised prioritising co m m unicative
co m petence as well as culture learning．Pre－and in－service EFLteacher training（Paine 1991 ；Yang ＆ Wu
1999 ；Zhu 2003）has also been facilitated with better resources and higher quality． Above all ，tertiary
EFLteacher professional develop m ent has been given m uch pro minence（Gu 2007） ．

1．2 Professional develop ment in EFLteacher education

Chinese govern m ent s docu m ents and regulations with regards to teacher education contribute to the
unprecedented develop m ent in teachers professionalism since the 1980s （ Zhou ＆ Reed 2005 ； Wang
2004） ．In particular ，EFL teacher professional develop m ent has been influenced by the govern m ent s
priorities．For a long tim e ，teacher professionalism in China used to em phasise teachers acade mic
qualification（The“Teacher Act”，National People s Congress of China ，1993） ．Substantial efforts have
been m ade to im prove the quality of existing EFL teachers in so m e local or provincial level institutions
w ho started teaching with bachelor degrees of English Language． Many teachers were financially
supported by the govern m ent or theirinstitutions to take partin different forms of continuing studies．For
exa m ple ，the Sino－British cooperation in EFL Teacher Education Progra m m es was form alised in 1976 by
the Departm ent for International Develop m ent （ DFID ） ． This has created chances for tertiary EFT
teachers fro m cross the country for 20 years to enhance their culture knowledge and language teaching
skills through their Western tutors（Gu 2007） ．Another progra m m e of Post－Graduate Diplo m a in English
Language Teaching （ PGDELT ） jointly run by Chinese and Singaporean govern m ents provided
opportunities of cross－culturallearning for atleast 700 tertiary EFLteachers in the similar period（Chen ，
Lim ＆Gopinathan 2003） ．
However ，the increased de m and for the “change in the nature ，the purpose and the m ode of
delivery”of professional develop m ent in teacher education（Garner 2006 ： 17）is particularly challenging
given the growing disparities in wealth within the country and the unevenness of teaching force（Paine ＆
Fang 2006 ，2007 ） ．In the recent few years ，teachers are no longer auto m atically respected for their
knowledge and are also expected to undertake m ore higher education the mselves（Potts 2000 ：310 ） ．In
addition ，the increased de m and for EFL teaching as profession （Johnston 1997 ；Nunan 2001 ）fro m
educational authorities to key stakeholders has called for new professional develop m ent progra m m es．
Teachers are currently encouraged to seek professional develop m ent to provide quality teaching and to get
professional pro m otion（ Richards ＆ Nunan 1990 ） ． But ，instead of getting financial support and being
allocated study tim e for professional develop m ent fro m their institutions or the govern m ent ，teachers are
expected to m anage dile m m as（Paine ＆Fang 2007）with little resources at their disposal．

The de m and for professional develop m ent has put teachers in the spotlight． As professionals ，
teachers find it very challenging to live up to the social expectations． Most of the teachers are aware of
the necessity of professional develop m ent ，especially in terms of cross－
culturallearning and experiences．
However ，their m otivation for professional develop m ent varies．

1．3 Theoretical fra mework

The theory of intrinsic and extrinsic m otivation applied to this research is largely based on the Self－
Determination Theory （SDT ）（ Deci ＆ Ryan 1985 ；Ryan ＆ Deci 2000 ）developed fro m theories like
Herzberg s（1993 ） ．Deci and Ryan use the concepts of intrinsic m otivation and extrinsic m otivation to
differentiate the inherent satisfactions of doing an activity fro m the expectations of an outco m e or
instru m ental value w hich can vary in the degree of self－determination．In other w ords ，hu m an behaviour
can be out of the innate needs for co m petence ，autono m y and relatedness ，recognizing that basic need
satisfaction accrues in part fro m engaging in interesting activities or out of social or environ m ental
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 Teacher Voice from China ：The Impact of Cross－
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concerns．In this case ，four types of teachers m otivation for professional develop m ent as proposed by
Stout（1996）are categorised that the inner satisfaction of gaining new skills or knowledge is considered as
intrinsic m otivation w hereas salary enhance m ent ，certificate m aintenance and／or career m obility are
regarded as extrinsic m otivation．

1．4 Research aims and questions

Tertiary EFLteachers m otivation for professional develop m ent fro m teachers ow n perspective has
yet draw n enough attention in China．The void led to the initial idea of conducting a pilot study of this
nature．As tertiary EFLteachers in China ， the researchers began to develop so m e research questions and
form ulate a conceptual fra m ew ork for the research． It was based on their long years of teaching
experiences and their ow n cross－ cultural learning experiences in English speaking countries． The m ore
exposure in the target culture ，the higher their awarenessis of the im portance of cross－cultural knowledge
and understanding in their teaching． However ，they are highly mindful of the great disparities in EFL
teaching in Chinese higher education in qualification require m ent and teaching effectiveness assessm ent to
be coupled with econo mic im balance in teaching contexts．

In order to rationalise the m ulti－dim ensional factorsin the research contexts ， the researchers focused
m ainly on investigating into the im pact of tertiary EFL teachers cross－ cultural experiences on their
m otivation for professional develop m ent．In particular ， it tended to capture EFLteachers cross－ cultural
awareness and learning that contribute to their teaching effectiveness and further m otivate the m for
professional develop m ent．In so doing ， this study highlighted the efficacy of the cross－cultural experiences
in relation to their professionalidentity construction and reconstruction．Therefore ， it is not the purpose
of this sm all scale research to provide a generalisable picture of EFL teacher education with regards to
teacher professional develop m ent in cross－ cultural contexts． Rather ，it aims to provide an initial
fra m ew ork for future research into teachers professional path by linking it with their professional life
（Rinke 2008）．
Reviewing the literature and reflecting upon their ow n cross－
cultural knowledge and experiences ， the
researchers developed assu m ptions that EFLteachers with cross－ cultural experiences have better cultural
awareness than their peers．This enables the m to have m ore advantagesin terms oflanguage co m petence ，
teaching strategies and effectiveness ，w hich further m otivate the m for professional develop m ent． The
assu m ptions have a strong base on the researchers personal professional develop m ent．Of central concern
of the study was to investigate tw o m ain questions ：a） How do tertiary EFL teachers with cross－ cultural
experiences evaluate the experiences in their career life ？b） What are the im pacts of the experiences on
teachers m otivation for professional develop m ent ？

2．Methodology
Based on the afore m entioned assu m ptions ，
this pilot study was a flexible designed one using narrative
inquiry approach to exa mine the in－ depth teacher voice on their professional life with respect to cross－
cultural experiences．It was built upon social constructivist fra m ew ork in that knowledge is a hu m an
product socially and culturally constructed through interactions with the researchers and the researched ，
and with the environ m ent they live in．The researchers share the consensus that reality is constructed and
invented through hu m an activity（Kukla 2000）and culture and context play a vital role in understanding
the knowledge and interpretation of the world．

2．1 Methods of data collection

Qualitative data were prim arily collected fro m teachers career stories fro m narrative interviews with
an opportunity sa m ple of a tertiary EFL teacher fro m China． The data were triangulated with a self－
designed questionnaire survey coupled with through the researchers journals ， inform al conversation notes
and participant observations in two universities in China．The researchers reflexivity（Schon ，1983）as
tw o EFL teachers fro m the tw o universities under research was constructed with the data fro m the
questionnaire survey ad ministrated to a purposive and selective sa m ple（ N ＝39）in the university w here
one of the researchers attached．Inform al conversations between the researchers and participants on the
topic were retrieved． Meaning and knowledge were thus socially constructed in the research process．

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 Feng Yan ＆Yu Liping

2．2 Justification of the methods of data collection

The m ajor research instru m ent for this case study was a narrative inquiry of teachers stories about
their career life．Recent research （Connelly ＆ Glandinin 1990 ，2000 ；Elliot 2005 ；Webster ＆ Mertova
2007 ；Wu 2004 ；Xu ＆Connelly 2008）convincingly de m onstrates that narratives are not purely individual
productions．They are powerfully shaped by social ，cultural ，and historical conventions as well as by the
relationship between the storyteller and the interlocutor．The data collection was followed by a period of
reflection recorded in a research journal w hich allowed the researchers to exa mine the data fro m several
angles．

2．3 Ethical issues

Ethical guidelines for scholarly and professional research activitiesin China are yet to be form ulated
and applied within the context for researching education（Feng ＆Ja m ent 2008），given there is a growing
awareness of ethically sensitive issues in research． Most often ，research practices are executed under
generallaws or co m m on sense principles and are validated by certain conventions followed through by
researchers． Therefore ，in this research ，potential ethical proble ms and dile m m as regarding inform ed
consent ，confidentiality and anony mity ，and subjectivity and bias were identified and cleared with
greatest efforts and caution．

2．4 The sa m ple and the questionnaire

The questionnaire survey was conducted in tw o provinciallevel universitiesin China located in second
tier citiesin terms of educational and econo mic strength．The universities witness the expansion fro m late
1990s（Lin ＆Zhang 2006）fro m teachers collegesto a co m prehensive universitiesin the recent decade．In
one university ，a m ong the 83 full tim e EFL teachers fro m the School of Foreign Language ，6．7 ％ of
teachers had overseas study or living experiences over a period of 3 m onths with full or partial funding
fro m the university or other official sources．Another 20 ％ of the teachers had about 2－ 3 weeks overseas
study／ travel experiences．In the other university ，a m ong 97 fulltim e EFLteachers ，25 ％ of the teachers
have overseas study or living experiences．Those w ho joined the schools before the year 2000 are m ostly
bachelor degree holders but have furthered their degrees in the recent years through in－ service
professional develop m ent training．

The questionnaire consisted of tw o parts． The close part investigated participants de m ographic
inform ation and general perceptions and perspectives on EFLteaching and professional develop m ent．It
wasin four Likert Scale rating fro m “strongly agree”to“strongly disagree” ．The open－ ended part sought
further data on teachers m otivation for professional develop m ent．The survey was ad ministrated by e m ail
to a convenient sa m ple （N ＝56 ）of w ho m the researchers had their em ail addresses since during the
research period ，both researchers were studying abroad．The valid return was 69． 6 ％（N ＝39） ．

2．5 Case study sa m ple

The case under study has over 30 years tertiary teaching experience with a diplo m a of TESL ，one－
year experience as an acade mic visiting scholar and 3 m onths place m ent all fro m overseas．

3．Data analysis
The data analysis approach was interpretative and descriptive in nature．This approach was based on
the principle that theory ，data collection and data analysis are closely related （ Burgess 1984 ） ．It is
supported by Miles and Huberm an （1994 ： 8 ）that theoretical underpinning of a social construction of
reality plays a crucial partin data analysis．The data in textual were quoted verbatim w hereasthe nu m eric
data were analysed using sim ple percentage description to ascertain and to verify the values ，beliefs ，
attitudes and perspectives of teachers through their narratives． The researchers were highly mindful of
the issues related to the validity and reliability of the self－designed survey plus the interpretative and
descriptive approach to data analysis．Therefore ，instead of looking for illustrative exa m ples within the
transcripts of teacher accounts of their life stories ，the researchers analysed the data with a m ore
thorough process．That is ，by reading ，categorising ，testing and refining ，w hich was repeated until all
categories were co m pared against all the participants responses ，and the analysis was validated across
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individuals．Thus ，the validity and reliability of the m ethods was enhanced．

4．Findings

4．1 Survey findings

First of all ，the survey revealed that all the participants strongly agreed believed that culture has a
close association with language ，and that cross－ cultural experiences can play an im portant role in EFL
teaching．All of the m （with or without overseas study or living experiences）tried to introduce culture－
specific ele m ents in their classroo m teaching to raise interests fro m students． However ，97．4 ％ of the
participants found it challenging in explaining culture－ specific issues in EFL teaching due to the lack of
their personal cross－ cultural experiences in English speaking countries． This quote is fro m the
questionnaire data of a teacher with over 15 years teaching w ho only recently got her MA degree through
a part－tim e degree progra m m e．

We know too little about the culture．．

．
Ia m always feeling quite em barrassed because Ijust have the knowledge fro m books and Internet ，
without any im mediate experience．

Secondly ，with regards to the im pact of cross－ cultural experiences on EFL teachers professional
develop m ent ，the responses were m ostly positive．In specific ，all of the participants expressed their wish
to have a chance to experience in person the cultures of the English speaking countries．

And all I have known is just fro m books and m agazines that s why I have been drea ming of going
abroad and enjoying a cultural experience．
— Questionnaire data fro m a teacher
Thirdly ，teachers hoped to be sponsored or supported financially if seeking their professional
develop m ent overseas．Though 11 participants（28． 2 ％）w ould like agreed to fund the mselves for cross－
culturallearning overseas ，71．8 ％ of the m did not wantagree to do so．They w ould like their university or
their college to pay for their professional develop m ent． Through years observation and inform al
conversations with teachers ，the researchers find the following quote representing the co m plex feelings
towards seeking opportunities for cross－
cultural experiences．

How can Iafford it ？My years saving will not be enough for a return ticket．
— Inform al conversation with a teacher
In addition ，the survey also collected data fro m the teachers w ho had so m e cross－
cultural experiences
overseas about their perspective on the im pact of their experiences on their m otivation for professional
develop m ent．Evaluating their own teaching before or after the experiences ， teachers with cross－ cultural
experiences overseas claim ed that there was great im prove m ent． Most of the m w ho strongly agreed said
that cross－cultural experiences beca m e an incentive in their acade mic research and have a strong im pact
on their m otivation for further professional develop m ent．

Iguess so． The m ost im pressive change on me is that Ibeco me keen on creating a leaning atm osphere
for the students to learn rather than giving them the knowledge．
— Questionnaire data fro m a teacher
Yes． The real－life experience in the English－
speaking country provides me a better access to cultural－
specific elements ，which enable me to give m y students a m ore vivid and clear description．
— Questionnaire data fro m a teacher
Ihave to ad mit that the progra m Ireceive in a UK university is a very professional one． And I do
appreciate the teachers arts of the teaching in class．Itincludes arrangements of the classroo m setting ，
time m anagement ，lesson proceeding ，all the organizations of the course．Ithink this is m ostly used
in m y future teaching． Having witness their teaching ，Irealize that the teaching in classroo m can be so
flexible and colourful． Ifound that the teacher ，just one of the roles of the whole process ，can
actually count so m uch in helping his／her students to adjust their states to learn．
— Questionnaire data fro m a teacher
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 Feng Yan ＆Yu Liping

4．2 Narrative accounts of the case

Below is a m uch detailed description by the case about her personal cross－
cultural experiences and her
professional develop m ent ：

After 15 years of teaching ，Ioften found myself got stuck whenever culturalthings co ming up． Then I
had hard to prepare m yself to sit for EILTSand got an overseas scholarship．It was m y first time to be
exposed to an English environ ment and all im pressed me． I noticed a significant difference after m y
overseas study． Consciously or subconsciously Idrew m y cultural experiencesinto m y teaching．I m ade
a lot co m parison on the differences． To m y surprise ， m y students gave their full attention when I
taught．I realized that it was the cultural elements that added spices into the routine language
learning．

Besides ，m y idea about whatis a responsible teacheris differentfro m before ；my teaching methodology
has been changed ，with a mixture of both． My work has been recognized by the university authority ，
and Ihave been pro m oted to higher position and given lot tittles．

After so me years Ifound what Iknew was far fro m enough． This pro m pted me to further m y overseas
study for the third time． This time I partly funded m yself． So me colleagues said that at m y age I
should stay at ho me and enjoy m y co mfortable life with m y husband． They think what I know is
enough． Yes ，Ihave to spend 4 m onths of my salary to partly fund m yself for a 3－m onth academic
visit in UK ． Besides Ihave to leave m y husband behind． You m ay ask what m ake me to m ake such a
choice． My conscience and responsibility requires me to do so ，even if there are just a few years before
Iretire ，Istill feel a strong need to learn． The m ore you put（time ， m oney ，energy ）into your
study ，the m ore productive your teaching will be．Ibenefited fro m m y two previous study－ abroad that
is a strong im pact that has enabled me for m y third study abroad． My students and m y university s
recognition of m y work convinced me that m y study abroad worth whatever the loss．

5．Discussion

5．1 The understanding of cross－

cultural experiences on EFLteaching
Although so m e teachers in the research context still hold their self－
conceptions of good teachers ，
na m ely ，teachers with sound pedagogical content knowledge （ Zhang ＆ Watkins 2007 ），teaching is no
longer conceptualised as a “ perform ance ” entailing the effective utilisation and delivery of state
prescribed texts （ Cortazzi ＆Jin 2001 ） ． All the participants agreed that language is cultural bound．
Culture is an essential part of language learning w hich requires m eaningful interaction in the target
language．

To me ，language is like a tree trunk． Culture is like the leaves and flowers on it． Teaching language
without elements of the culture m ust be tasteless and boring． Teaching language through culture is
meaningful． Cross－ culture awareness can build up learners positive attitude toward alien cultures．
— Narrative accounts fro m the case teacher
Teachers with personal experiencesin English speaking countries usually have a very positive attitude
toward the cultures and people of those countries w hich help the m in turn to pro m ote their teaching and
further explore the target language and culture（La mie 2006 ：79） ．
Teaching with cross－
culture awareness can open the students eyes to a different world of culture and
people ，and can nurture the students minds for critical thinking and hearts for global awareness．
— Interview data fro m the case teacher
Researchers found that exposure to Western m ethodological innovation and training was show n to
enable Chinese teachers to m ake m ore rational decisions on approaches to language teaching and learning
（Gu 2004 ： 3）．For tertiary EFLteachers ，however ，due to the lack of personal cross－ cultural knowledge
and experiences ，teaching can be challenging w henever culture issues have to be addressed． This can
create confusion ，frustration and tensions that act as obstacles to language learning．Only by reflecting on
their ow n level of cross－cultural awareness can they hope to design and im ple m ent a culturally valid
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 Teacher Voice from China ：The Impact of Cross－
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syllabus that will ease the transition of students to a western syste m of education．Otherwise ，they tend to
judge the ele m ents fro m the perspective of Chinese culture．

Explaining so me culture－specific pheno menon very clearly is very challenging because I have no
experience in English－speaking countries． My lack of experience in overseas countries prevents me fro m
explaining m ore the m ost challenging thing is that you m ake a laughingstock of explanation just
because you learn so mething about it only fro m reading m aterials and judge or reason it subjectively in
a wrong way．
— Questionnaire data fro m a teacher
On so m e occasions ，teachers have to explain to their students culturally e m bedded concepts and
norms they the mselves are not clear． Misunderstanding isthus unavoidable if culturalsettings and contexts
are viewed fro m their ow n perspective．Those w ho have cross－ cultural experiences have an advantage in
that they have m ore authentic knowledge to share with students ，thus their teaching is m ore effective and
interesting．

There minds widen ，horizon broaden and m ore im portantly ，their style of thinking ，understanding
and acting are also being better cultivated in a silent way．
—the researchers journal
Thus ，Aktuna（2005）argues that for teachers to m ake m ore socio－ culturally inform ed pedagogical
decisions ，awareness raising and scrutiny need to be incorporated into EFLteacher education．

If the teacher does not have the overseas experience ，the students m ay not believe in the details fully．
— Questionnaire date fro m a teacher

5．2 Motivation for professional develop ment

Given the general high awareness of the im portance of cross－ cultural experiences in EFL teaching ，
teachers m otivation for professional develop m ent varies． This can be influenced by a nu m ber of
interpersonal ， social and environ m entalfactors of self－concept ，life experiences ， interests and／or abilities
and have long－ term consequences on people s professional life ，well－ being and their social situation
（Creed ＆ Wong 2006 ）． Motivation of EFL teachers has been m uch researched （Johnson 1986 ；
Hargreaves 1998 ；Ryan ＆Deci 2000） ．Dornyei（2001 ： 165）defines teaching as a profession w hose energy
is supplied fro m intrinsic m otives and states that there are so m e da m aging ele m ents w hich weaken and
destroy the intrinsic character of teacher m otivation． The four key factors influencing teachers
m otivation for professional develop m ent identified by Stout（1996）are gaining new knowledge and skill ，
salary enhance m ent ，certificate m aintenance and career m obility． These factors are considered in the
interpretation of the data fro m this pilot study．

5．2．1 Financial support verse salary enhancement

Financial support for professional develop m ent is considered as crucial factor influencing m otivation
for professional develop m ent． This is understood in tw o ways ：m oney invested in the professional
develop m ent process and rewards ， in terms of m oney ，after the process．Opportunities for cross－ cultural
experiences are te m pting ，im portant but not easily available．In the research contexts ad ministered by
provincial govern m ents ，the chances for professional develop m ent sponsored or partially supported in
finance by the universities or the host universities are reserved for a limited few ，often considered as
backbone teachers．The tight budget fro m officiallevel m akes it not practical or feasible to support m ost
of the teachers．For the m ajority of teachers ， they have to either m anage by the mselves or sim ply regard
it as a drea m as quoted in the findings． The case teacher gave the following accounts on the existing
reality of the barriers w hich caused tertiary EFL teachers reluctance to pay for their professional
develop m ent ，given that they all had the m otivation for it．

They have no m oney． They have to buy houses ，raise the baby． ．．“ The sad thing is that m ost teachers
do hope to get a chance to experience cultures of English speaking countries ，but both the govern ment
and university do not provide enough funds ， only those teachers in key universities are under
consideration． They think it is the govern ment or the school responsibility to pay for their education
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 Feng Yan ＆Yu Liping

abroad． They have strong em otion against the present ad ministration． They are not happy about the
uneven distribution of teaching facilities and funds ，m ore exactly to say the govern ment gives too m uch
privilege to those key universities”．

Besides ，according to Johnson （1986 ），m erit pay indicates a bonus plan that “supple m ents the
standard pay scale and rewards teachers for special services ，a m ulti－track pay scale that provides rapid
salary advance m ent for outstanding teachers or conducting in－ service training ”（1986 ：61 ）．In other
w ords ，in order to keep higherlevels of pay and status ，teachers carry on showing high perform ance．For
high perform ance ，econo mic rewards are im portant（ Hawley 1985 ： 58） ．

5．2．2 Certificate m aintenance verses life priority

On the one hand ，as identified in Li（1999 ），in the universities researched ，a large nu m ber of
teachers were recruited with the minim u m required qualification for teaching． That is ：a bachelor
degree．This is in contrast with so m e developed countries w here individuals pre－ qualify for entry into
higher education conditional on a graduate degree． Besides ，unlike the current highly co m petitive job
m arket ，graduates of English m ajor in 1990s were in high de m and w hilst provinciallevel universities were
not the first choice for those w ho did not have intrinsic m otivation for teaching． Naturally ，m any
graduates with m aster degree or above chose to go for professions with better financial rewards．
Therefore ， those w ho joined teaching with limited qualification and experiences are now encountering
dile m m as w hich they find very difficult to cope with．To so m e ，however ， their career priority gives way
to their life priority．

They have younger kids to take care of． Their kids education and care is m ore im portant than
anything else． They are waiting for their kids to grow up． By then they m ay think they are ready to go．
Or they think their kids education is m ore im portant than their own． They would rather save m oney
to send their kids abroad ，not they themselves．Itis a fact． Life is expensive．The first thing in life is
to eat and have a shelter． The next thing is to think about pro m oting one s education．
—the case
On the other hand ，institutional policies are not consistent in the universities researched ，w hich
so m etim es discourage EFL teachers taking initiatives in professional develop m ent． A call for cross－
culturallearning experiences to enhance classroo m perform ance has been chronically ignored due to the
universities tight budgets reserved for staff develop m ent．In so m e cases of EFLteachers ，those w ho study
for further degree within the ho m e universities have m ore incentive in terms of the benefits and
allowances during the study period． Moreover ，there is no clear difference in the pay scale upon their
return between those studied in or out of the country．Besides ，once teachers reach a certain degree or
title ，teaching effectiveness is not evaluated to m ake the pay difference．This helps to explain w hy m ost
of the teachers under research did not have the intrinsic m otivation in paying for their professional
develop m ent ，especially progra m m es involving cross－culturallearning ，w hich could be m ore costly．

I know that it is especially im portant for EFL teachers to have so me cross－ cultural experiences ，
preferably fro m abroad．But if all they［the university ，the researchers note］ want is a better degree
to show the inspectors［fro m the Ministry of Education for evaluation ，the researchers note］，Ican
just get one for them by joining a part－
time degree progra m me in China．　
— Inform al conversation with a teacher
The m otivation for develop m ent after degree upgrading relies on teachers priority．The barriers in
their professional life could be the conflicts between their heavy teaching w orkload and their fa mily
responsibility and co m mitm ent．This left the m little tim e or energy for studying（Forrester ，Mottera m ＆
Liu 2006） ．Therefore ，there was a lack of m otivation fro m so m e teachers for actively seeking further
personal and professional develop m ent at their ow n cost ，especially in a country w here English is used as
a native language．

5．2．3 Gaining knowledge and skill verses time

Professional develop m ent progra m m es enable teachers to gain knowledge and skill． However ，it
de m ands enorm ous efforts and tim e ，w hich is likely to be constrained by heavy w ork and fa mily related
47
 Teacher Voice from China ：The Impact of Cross－
cultural Experiences on Tertiary EFLTeachers Motivation ．
．．

co m mitm ent and responsibilities（Forrester ，et al．2006 ） ．Garner（2006 ）argues that there is a linkage
between attitude and provision ，both of w hich have contributed to the perception of a professional
develop m ent experience．There has been growing unease and frustration noticeable a m ongst teachers at
various stages about the way in w hich award－ bearing professional develop m ent course have been
structured and delivered． When teachers receive no support in respect of tuition fees ，they “beco m e
defensive about and resistant to any further de m ands on their tim e”（ Garner 2006 ： 18 ）． The question
raised by Garner（2006 ： 19）that“ Who benefits fro m teacher s professional develop m ent activity ，bearing
in mind that there are intrinsic as well as m ore prag m atic benefits ，and that these will relate to quite
distinct audiences ？
”deserves attention．
Who benefits ？Why bother ？ We do not want the pressure to further their study． What we have is
enough． We want the time to enjoy life． We do realise the real needs for im prove our cross－
cultural
awareness and understanding．But it is not so im portant． We can m ake do with what we have learned
fro m books or internet．
— Inform al conversation data with a teacher during observation
Given that one of the teachers co m m ented that ：

．．
．Ia m afraid what Iteach is out－ of－ date．Inform ation fro m books are too old ，while inform ation
fro m the internet seems not to be real so metimes．
— Questionnaire data fro m a teacher
Another survey participant expressed different opinion ：

Nothing particular ，generally speaking ，you can find this kind of knowledge in internet．
— Questionnaire data fro m a teacher
So how did teachers m anage the challenges concerning cross－ cultural issues w hen little support for
further education was available in terms of tim e and／or finance ？

They m ay ask so meone who might know ，or explore on the internet or fro m books．If not they justlet
it go ，avoid the encounter．It seems with it or without does not m ake any differences．
—the researchers journal
6．Im plications and limitations
In China ，constant reform in teacher education has witnessed vast and obvious im prove m ent in the
qualities and structurallevels of tertiary EFLteachers． More im portantly ， the awareness for professional
develop m ent has been raised at all levels． Yet ，by addressing so m e critical issues with a focus on the
factors influencing teachers professional develop m ent m otivation ， this research de m onstrates a contrast
between the rhetoric of the positive perspective and the intrinsic m otivation． That is ：the zest for
professional develop m ent and the practical barriers w hich prevented the m fro m doing so．This study has
identified so m e specific Chinese cultural aspectsim pacting teachers m otivation．The tension and conflicts
expressed by teachers indicate teachers struggle within an increasingly de m anding educational context．

Despite of a high awareness of the im portance of cross－ cultural experiences in teaching and the
intrinsic m otivation in continuous professional develop m ent ，this study suggests that extrinsic m otivation
tends to be prioritized in tertiary EFL teachers m otivation for professional develop m ent． To im prove
teaching profession ，public awareness of teachers acade mic and professional qualifications needs to be
increased（ Hargreaves 2007） ．The evidence suggests that China has to create a large nu m ber of teachers
w ho are well－m otivated individuals with skills and adaptability to m atch the develop m ent of science and
technology（Yang ＆ Wu 1999 ：160） ．Such findings m ay provide a useful basis for further exploration in
this research area ，w hich in turn m ay lead to m ore effective policy im ple m entation fro m various levels to
im prove teachers m otivation． Whilst m any w ould argue about the feasibility of seeking cross－ cultural
experiences for tertiary EFL teachers ，the data here suggest that m ore could be done to support and
encourage teachers in their active investm ent of tim e ，finance and effort in professional develop m ent．

As the sa m ple was sm all ，purposeful and selective as well ，

the associated weaknesses and limitation is
obvious in terms of the representativeness of the findings in the Chinese context． Therefore ，any
48
 Feng Yan ＆Yu Liping

generalisation could be inadequate without further reaching for a full understanding of the research topic．
However ，the pilot study has strived to provide a useful basis for further exploration w hich m ay provide
so m e guidance to enhance the accountability of teacher professional develop m ent． It is hoped that
m eaning and knowledge with regards to teachers m otivation for professional develop m ent could be
socially constructed by investigating the m ultiple interpretations surrounding this co m plex issue．Overall ，
it is intended that the current study could develop the limited body of literature on the relationship
between EFL teachers m otivation for knowledge and understanding of the target culture and their
professional develop m ent． Additionally ，the identification of the barriers and cultural frustrations
experienced by the tertiary EFL teachers and the articulation of the issues in teachers voices can
illu minate policy ，research and practice in EFL teacher professional develop m ent． Above all ，the
researchers tends to encourage the hidden voices fro m tertiary EFLteachers in China hoping that better
understanding can be achieved and that teachers can eventually be better m otivated for professional
develop m ent．

7．Conclusion
This case study exa mined Chinese tertiary EFL teachers cross－ cultural awareness and experiences
with a specific focus on teachers m otivation for professional develop m ent．This paper atte m pts to m ake
explicit so m e of the underlying assu m ptions held by the researchers that lack of cross－cultural awareness
and knowledge m ay constitute barriers in EFL teachers professional identity transform ation．The issues
identified fro m the researchers long years of observation as participants and fro m this case study reflect
the dile m m as tertiary EFL teachers are facing with regard to cross－ cultural experiences and EFL
teaching．

The findings are congruent with the existing literature（Pennington 1996 ；Kuang 2007 ） ． However ，
significant aspects of our findings are that ，the intricate relationship between foreign language teaching
and culture（Brya m 1988 ；Stern 1992 ）is generally well accepted by tertiary EFL teachers in China ；
tertiary EFLteachers share so m e co m m on understanding of the im portance of cross－ cultural experiences
in their career life． Nevertheless ，the m otivation for professional develop m ent varies． The needs for
tertiary EFLteachers to integrate the intercultural dim ension into language teaching do not necessarily
lead to teachers intrinsic m otivation in investing their ow n tim e ，m oney and efforts in actively engaging
the mselvesin professional develop m ent．The researchers tend to argue thatsocial cultural and educational
contexts of China are decisive co m ponents on their m otivation coupled with the availability of tim e and
finance．

The m ethodology is a mix one that inquires teachers m otivation for professional develop m ent．The
researchers heard echoes as they ca m e to m ake sense of their ow n professional experiences by critical
analysing teachers perspective and reflexivity of the questionsin focus（ Wu 2004 ） ．The researchers hope
that the study could contribute to tertiary EFLteacher professional develop m ent in China in three－fold．

First of all ，specific issuesidentified in terms of teacher m otivation for professional develop m ent are
expected to be addressed to im prove the effectiveness and relevance of the EFLteacher education syste m
（Richards ＆Farrell 2005）．In particular ，the current develop m ent in EFL teaching has extended and
challenged the traditional roles and responsibilities of language teachers（ Garrido ＆ lvarez 2006 ） ．For
EFLteachers ，only by reflecting on their ow n level of cross－ cultural awareness can they hope to design
and im plem ent a culturally valid syllabus for EFLlearners．

Secondly ， the narrative teacher accounts（Xu ＆Connelly 2008 ；Yang 2008）could highlight the need
for EFL teacher preparation progra m m es to include and e m phasise teacher professional develop m ent
opportunities． The witness of the case teacher s constant searching for career develop m ent and
experiences of professional growth will open possibilities for a change of perspective fro m other EFL
teachers in their teaching profession．

Finally ，insufficient pre－service training and in－service further education are the m ain causes for
teachers limited cross－ cultural knowledge． This ，as surmised ，w ould lead to a high m otivation for
professional develop m ent．However ，the m otivation is im pacted by factors w hich are m ulti－dim ensional
and contextual and individual－ specific． This allows for the research to provide acade mic and practical
49
 Teacher Voice from China ：The Impact of Cross－
cultural Experiences on Tertiary EFLTeachers Motivation ．
．．

significance to the limited body of knowledge in research of this nature in China．

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