TERM PAPER

Electrical Science
ELE: 101

Topic: Light Sensor

Submitted to: Submitted by:

Ms Jaspreet Kaur Sneha Sharma
Department of Section:231
Electrical science Roll no:R231A26
Regn no:10804368
Class: Btech-Mtech
CSE
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I ,Sneha Sharma, a student of Btech-Mtech computer science

would like to thank Lovely Professional university for introducing such
a concept of term paper with presentation.

I would also like to thank my faculty Ms. Jaspreet Kaur,

Department of Electrical Science, for her help and co-ordination in
completing this term paper. I would also like to thank my friends and
classmates for encouraging me and helping me in every way for the
completion of this assignment.

Sneha Sharma
CONTENTS
1. Definition of Sensor
2. Types of Sensor
3. Light sensor
4. LED(Light Emitting Diode) as a light sensor
5. Application of Light sensor
6. References
 DEFINITION OF SENSOR

A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and

converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by
an instrument. For example, a mercury thermometer converts the
measured temperature into expansion and contraction of a liquid
which can be read on a calibrated glass tube. A thermocouple
converts temperature to an output voltage which can be read by a
voltmeter. For accuracy, all sensors need to be calibrated against
known standards.

Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive

elevator buttons and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the
base. There are also innumerable applications for sensors of
which most people are never aware. Applications include cars,
machines, aerospace, medicine, manufacturing and robotics.

A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output

changes when the measured quantity changes. For instance, if the
mercury in a thermometer moves 1 cm when the temperature
changes by 1 °C, the sensitivity is 1 cm/°C. Sensors that measure
very small changes must have very high sensitivities.

Technological progress allows more and more sensors to be

manufactured on a microscopic scale as microsensors using
MEMS technology. In most cases, a microsensor reaches a
significantly higher speed and sensitivity compared with
macroscopic approaches. See also MEMS sensor generations.
TYPES OF SENSORS

1. Thermal

2. Mechanical

3. Electromagnetic

4. Chemical

5. Light sensor

6. Biological sensors

7. Geodetic sensors

Light Sensors
Light sensors often use an infrared LED as a light source.
Infrared LEDs have a greater intensity than LEDs that emit
visible light. And when infrared photodiodes are used the sensors
are relatively insensitive to ambient light.

Photoelectric light sources are often modulated at a given

frequency to prevent interference from ambient light. But
flashes or reflections can still fool light-activated sensors. This
problem is solved by using a modulated receiver. Here the
detector is synchronized to the light source frequency. One
trend in photoelectric sensors is the development of modular
devices. Sensor heads can be combined with a separate base and
power supply, and with various logic options. The approach tailors
a sensor for particular needs. Another advantage is that sense
heads or logic options can be changed in the field without
disturbing wiring or beam alignment. This minimizes downtime and
allows unskilled personnel to repair equipment.

Fiber optics also are turning up in photoelectric sensors, both as

optional sense heads, or integral to the sensor itself. The
technology has a number of advantages over conventional
methods such as through-beam or reflective sensors. Fiber-optic
cables are small, some are only about 1/16 in. in diameter and the
fiber-optic head is usually just a little larger. As a result, it can
fit into tight spaces. Fiber optics can also be used in explosive
environments because all electrical signals are remote. Similarly,
optic cables can reside next to high-voltage cables in plenums.

Reflective light sensors (RLSs) are frequently employed to sense

an object's presence because they are easy to use. An RLS
differs from other light sensors in that the target does not
simply break a light beam but reflects light to a detector.

Through the years, RLSs have been refined so that they are less
sensitive to ambient light and can detect minute or transparent
objects. Some devices can even determine the distance between
sensor and object, thereby offering an alternative to ultrasonic
systems.
 While in general, RLSs are becoming smaller, two divergent
trends are emerging as well. One group of sensors is becoming
simpler, basically containing only a light source and detector.
Sensor output is a simple on/off signal, and users provide the
power supply and signal processing circuitry.

The other group is becoming full featured. These devices contain

a power supply and logic. Users program the device by setting
switches or with a PC.

Simplicity has not come at the cost of technological innovation or

accuracy. Sensor manufacturers are integrating advanced devices
like solid-state lasers into their devices. Usually the power supply
for the laser and an amplifier for the signal output are contained
in a separate unit. An advantage of placing system functions in
different packages is that the sensor is kept small

Light sensors are used to measure the radiant energy that exists
in a very narrow range of frequencies basically called "light", and
which ranges in frequency from "Infrared" to "Visible" up to
"Ultraviolet". Light sensors are passive devices that convert this
"light energy" whether visible or in the infrared parts of the
spectrum into an electrical signal output. Light sensors are more
commonly known as "Photoelectric Devices" or "Photosensors"
which can be grouped into two main categories, those which
generate electricity when illuminated, such as Photovoltaics or
Photoemissives etc, and those which change their electrical
properties such as Photoresistors or Photoconductors. This leads
to the following classification of devices.

Photoemissive Cells These are photodevices which release

free electrons from a light sensitive
material such as caesium when
struck by light.
Photoconductive Cells These photodevices vary their
electrical resistance when subjected
to light. The most common
photoconductive material is
Cadmium Sulphide

Photovoltaic Cells These photodevices generate an

e.m.f. in proportion to the radiant
light energy received. The most
common photovoltaic material is
Selenium.

Photojunction Devices These photodevices are mainly

semiconductor devices such as the
photodiode or phototransistor which
use light to control the flow of
electrons and holes across their pn
junction.

The Photoconductive Cell.

Photoconductive devices change their physical properties when

subjected to light energy. The most common type of
photoconductive device is the Photoresistor which changes its
electrical resistance in response to changes in the light intensity.
Photoresistors are Semiconductor devices that use light energy
to control the flow of electrons, and hence the current flowing
through them. The commonly used Photoconductive cell is called
the Light Dependant Resistor or LDR.

Photojunction Devices.
Photojunction Devices are basically PN-Junction light detectors
made from silicon semiconductors and which can detect both
visible light and infrared light levels. This class of photoelectric
device includes the Photodiode and the Phototransistor

Photodiodes are commonly used in cameras, light meters, CD and

DVD-ROM drives, TV remote controls, scanners, fax machines
and copiers etc, and when integrated into operational amplifier
circuits as infrared spectrum detectors for fibre optic
communications, burglar alarm motion detection circuits and
numerous imaging, laser scanning and positioning systems etc

Typical applications of Phototransistors are in opto-isolators,

slotted opto switches, light beam sensors, fibre optics and TV
type remote controls, etc. Infrared filters are sometimes
required when detecting visible light.

Photovoltaic Cells.

The most common type of photovoltaic cell is the Solar Cell. This
device converts light energy directly into electrical energy in the
form of a voltage or current. Solar cells are used in many
different types of applications to offer an alternative power
source from conventional batteries, such as in calculators and
satellites. Photovoltaic cells are made from single crystal silicon
PN junctions, the same as photodiodes with a very large light
sensitive region but are used without the reverse bias. They have
the same characteristics as photodiodes when in the dark. When
illuminated the light energy causes electrons to flow through the
PN junction and an individual solar cell can generate an open
circuit voltage of about 0.58v (580mV). Solar cells have a
"Positive" and a "Negative" side just like a battery.

Individual solar cells can be connected together in series to form

solar panels which increases the output voltage or connected
together in parallel to increase the available current.
Commercially available solar panels are rated in Watts,
 which is the product of the output voltage and current
(VxI) when fully lit.

LED AS LIGHT SENSOR

An LED light sensor is a light-emitting diode used as a

photodiode. The properties of light emitting diodes (LEDs) can be
exploited to render them useful for light detection as well as
emission. This capability has been demonstrated and used in a
variety of applications including ambient light detection and
bidirectional communications.This implementation of LEDs is
important because functionality can be added to designs with
only minor modifications, usually at little or no cost

Applications

Several applications for this technology have been suggested

and/or implemented, ranging from use as simple ambient light
sensors to full bidirectional communications using a single LED.
Most of these applications benefit from this technology because
of the cost reduction or design simplicity gained by using the
same component for multiple functions.
Ambient light sensors

LEDs have been used as ambient light sensors. Dietz Et. Al.
describes an application in which a remote control keypad
backlight would be turned on by capacitive proximity sensors only
in the absence of ambient light. The LED used for the backlight
was also used as the ambient light sensor. This resulted in
increased functionality for no increase in manufacturing costs.

Bidirectional communications

LEDs can be used as both emitters and detectors of light, which

means that a device having only a single LED can be used to
achieve bidirectional communications with another device meeting
these requirements. Using this technology, any of the ubiquitous
LEDs connected to household appliances, computers and other
electronic devices can be used as a bidirectional communications
port.

One application for bidirectional communication with a single LED

is fiber optic communications. In typical plastic optical fiber
communications, a single optical fiber is used only for
communication in one direction. This is because a single LED
transmitter is placed at one end of the fiber, and a photodiode
receiver is placed at the other end. Thus, two fibers are needed
for bidirectional communication. However, If a single LED is
placed at each end of a fiber, then the optical fiber can carry
information in both directions using half the number of
components as a typical system. This reduces system weight, cost
and complexity.

Another application of this use of LEDs is a proposed alternative

to RFID tags called the iDropper, developed by Mitsubishi
Electric Research Laboratories in 2003. The iDropper is a small
device that consists of a microcontroller, a battery, an LED, and
a single push-button. The device records or transmits a small
amount of data upon command from the user. Compared to RFID
tags, the iDropper is more secure because the user must press a
button to reveal personal information, and is similar in cost.

One major limitation of this scheme is the fact that a single LED
can only operate as a half-duplex transceiver. A single LED can
either transmit or receive information at one time, not both
simultaneously. A simple way to put this is that an LED
transceiver behaves like a walkie-talkie, in contrast to a
telephone. This means that it takes a considerable amount of
time for two devices to "talk" to each other

APPLICATIONS OF LIGHT SENSORS

1.OPTICAL FIBERS

Optical fibers transmit data in the form of light or optical

signals. They are made of highly pure glass, so free of impurities
that they can transmit 95.5% of a light signal over a distance of
one kilometer. This means that, theoretically, one would still be
able to clearly view the scenery outside through a kilometer-
thick window made of such glass. When you consider that about
half of any light passing through a window a few centimeters
thick made of ordinary glass would be blocked, then you can
appreciate just how transparent the glass used in optical fibers
is. It is this very high transparency that enables optical fibers to
transmit optical signals over long distances without attenuation.

2. CMOS SENSORS

CMOS sensors are semiconductor light sensors like CCDs. They

have much the same structure as the CMOS memory chips used
in computers, but whereas memory chips use rows and rows of
transistors to record data, CMOS sensors contain rows of
photodiodes coupled with individual amplifiers to amplify the
electric signal from the photodiodes. This structure not only
enables CMOS sensors to run on less electrical power than
CCDs, but also enables speedier and easier reading of electrical
charges. This has, in turn, enabled Canon to develop full-size
35mm digital SLR cameras capable of the high-speed processing
of very high-resolution images. Moreover, unlike CCDs, the
manufacture of which involves complicated processes that make
them costly, CMOS sensors can be manufactured by modifying
the relatively low-cost processes used to turn out computer
microprocessors and other chips.
3. CCD OR CHARGED COUPLED DEVICE

In place of the film used in conventional film cameras, digital

cameras incorporate an electronic component known as an image
sensor. Most digital cameras are equipped with the image sensor
known as a CCD, a semiconductor sensor that converts light into
electrical signals. CCDs are made up of tiny elements known as
pixels. Expressions such as "2-megapixel" and "4-megapixel"
refer to the number of pixels comprising the CCD of a camera.
Each pixel is in fact a tiny photodiode that is sensitive to light
and becomes electrically charged in accordance with the strength
of light that strikes it. These electrical charges are relayed
much like buckets of water in a bucket line, to eventually be
converted into electrical signals

4. SEMICONDUCTOR EXPOSURE TOOLS

Electrical components such as computer microprocessors and

memory chips contain nanometer-level electrical circuits that
have been patterned using a semiconductor exposure tool. A
laser beam is shone on a "photomask," or an original circuit
pattern, to create an image of the circuit on a silicon wafer.
Creating such nanometer-level circuitry requires ultrahigh-
precision lenses and wafer stages, which are used to carry the
silicon wafers that serve as the foundations for semiconductor
devices. Semiconductor exposure tools have played a key role in
the remarkable advances made in semiconductor circuit
integration in recent years.
References
• Source used is internet

• The sites are:

1. www.google.com
2. www.altavista.com
3. www.answers.com
4. www.yahoo.com
5.www.rediff.com