Body of Knowledge Module 4

Airport Capacity and Delay

 2004/2005
@All Rights Reserved
American Association of Airport Executives

These modules were originally written by Stephen Quilty, A.A.E., and have been updated
by the AAAE BOE, AAAE staff, and industry experts.
 Contents
Module Objectives ............................................................................................. 1

Capacity and Delay ............................................................................................ 2

Impact of Capacity Restraints................................................................... 3
Managing Capacity .................................................................................. 6
Airfield Characteristics ...................................................................... 6
Airspace and Air Traffic Characteristics ............................................ 7
Demand Management ........................................................................ 8
Slot Management .............................................................................. 11
Modeling Airport Capacity ..................................................................... 13

Technological and Weather Solutions ............................................................. 13

National Airspace Architecture .............................................................. 14
Impact of Very Large Aircraft ................................................................ 15
Meteorological Effects and Weather Aids .............................................. 15
Wake Turbulence and Vortices ......................................................... 16
Wind Shear ....................................................................................... 17
Flight Service Stations ...................................................................... 17
Future Weather Technologies ........................................................... 20

Summary .......................................................................................................... 20

Study Questions ............................................................................................... 21

Tables
Table A AIP Priority System for Capacity Enhancement ............................................... 2
 Module Objectives
Can you....

1. describe the airport system, its different elements, and where capacity
constraints can occur within the system?

2. explain the difference between throughput and practical capacity?

3. identify what constitutes delay and explain its relation to capacity?

4. identify sources for delay data?

5. explain the central factors and characteristics that act to lower system
capacity or induce delay?

6. list and explain the ways by which demand can be managed?

7. explain the pros and cons of the different methods for managing
demand?

8. explain the purpose and rationale for airport slots, slot rules, and their
impact on capacity?

9. describe what new technologies are being developed to alleviate

capacity and delay problems at airports?

10. describe the effects of different weather phenomenon on airport

capacity?

11. explain how weather information is gathered and disseminated

throughout the aviation system?

12. classify the different levels of ASOS available?

13. explain the acronyms, terms, and common phrases used in the
modules?

1
 Capacity and Delay
The United States Congress and various courts have found that airspace is a
limited national resource and should be administered by the FAA. These findings
stated that since it is a limited national resource, the FAA should efficiently
manage the airspace in the public interest to ensure the safety of aircraft in the
system. Congress further mandated that full consideration be provided for
national defense, commercial and general aviation, and the public right of transit.
In making efficient use of the airspace, the FAA air traffic control function
focuses on the ability of the airspace system to handle the volume of traffic
desiring to use it without incurring an appreciable measure of delay. Delay results
when the demand for use of the air traffic and airport systems exceeds the ability
of the systems to handle it.

Capacity refers to the ability of a portion of airspace or an airport to handle a

given volume of traffic (demand) within a specified time period. As a result of
airline deregulation and the general strength of the U. S. economy, more people
are using the system. The resulting increased activity affects not just the capacity
of the airfield and gate areas but also the terminal buildings, public access routes,
and parking facilities.

The ACEA reauthori- Beginning with the 1987 Airport and Airway Safety and Capacity Expansion Act
zation of AIP gave the (ACEA), funding priority was given to airport projects that focused on enhancing
highest funding and developing an airport’s overall capacity to handle aircraft and ground opera-
priority to capacity-
tions. The ACEA reauthorization of AIP funds focused on objectives to increase
enhancing projects.
the capacity of the airport and airway system. It called for giving highest funding
priority to commercial service airports and maximizing the use of safety facili-
ties. This included installing, operating, and maintaining the ten items listed in
Table A.

Table A: AIP Priority System for Capacity Enhancement

1. Electronic or visual guidance on each runway;

2. Grooving or friction treatment on each primary and secondary runway;
3. Distance-to-go signs for each primary and secondary runway;
4. A precision approach, vertical guidance, and full approach light system
for each primary runway;
5. A non-precision instrument approach for each secondary runway;
6. Runway end identifier lights on each runway that does not have an
approach light system;
7. A surface movement radar (SMR) system at each CAT-III airport;
8. Taxiway lighting and sign systems;
9. Runway edge lighting, marking; and
10. Radar approach coverage for each airport terminal area.

Funding of capacity-enhancing projects will always be of major concern to

airport operators. AIP priorities tend to change with each Congressional funding
reauthorization. The key issues continue to be the amount of capital required, the
sources for the funds, and the means of financing.
2
Impact of Capacity Restraints
 Objective 1
To understand the impact of capacity restraints or improvements, airport manage-
ment must view the different areas of an airport as a set of interrelated and
interdependent physical facilities and components. For an airport to function
efficiently, the capacity of each component must be matched to the others.
Improving or restricting one part of the system has an impact on the others.

When performing a capacity analysis, airport operators must investigate four
The four distinct
distinct elements:(1) airspace, (2) airfield, (3) terminal, and (4) ground access. elements in a capacity
These can be further broken down into the major system components of run- analysis are (1)
ways, taxiways, ramps, and aprons, gate/terminal area, terminal/curbside inter- airspace, (2) airfield,
(3) terminal, and (4)
face, vehicle circulation and parking areas, and the access roadway. The larger ground access.
the airport, the more likely that further subsystems exist within each of the larger
components.

Airfield capacity is the rate at which aircraft movements on the runway/taxiway
Airfield capacity—the
system result in a given level of delay. Airfield capacity is of major concern to rate at which aircraft
the FAA and the various members of the aviation industry for different reasons. movements on the
For the FAA, the concern is the impact delay has on managing a safe and sepa- runway/taxiway
system result in a
rated airspace to operate the aircraft. For the airlines and other aircraft operators,
given level of delay
the concerns are safety and the economic cost of operating their aircraft. For the
airport operator, the focus is on safety, economic operation, public service, and
convenience.
 Objective 2
Two terms are commonly used when defining airfield capacity: throughput
capacity and practical capacity. Throughput capacity is defined as the rate at
Throughput capacity
and practical capacity
which aircraft can operate into or out of the airfield without regard to any delay. define airfield
Practical capacity is the number of operations (a takeoff, landing, or approach to capacity.
landing) that can be expressed in terms of the maximum acceptable rate incurring
Throughput is the rate
an average delay. The same two terms can be applied to capacity considerations at which aircraft can
for the other components of the airport system. operate into or out of
the airfield without
regard to any delay.
The throughput method of calculating airport capacity and average delay per
aircraft comes from computer models used by the FAA to analyze airport capac-
Practical capacity,
always less than
ity and reduce aircraft delay. The capacity of an airfield is not constant over time.
throughput capacity,
In determining average delay, analysts calculate the Practical Hourly Capacity is the number of
(PHOCAP) of an airport system. PHOCAP is the total combined capacity mea- operations that can be
sure of the runways, taxiways, and gate areas. expressed in terms of
the maximum accept-
able rate incurring an
Practical Annual Capacity (PANCAP) is a commonly used measure for evaluat-
average delay.
ing the feasibility and benefit of airport development and improvement projects.
PANCAP is defined as the level of operation that results in not more than four
PHOCAP( practical
minutes average delay per aircraft in a normal peak two-hour operating period. hourly capacity)—the
PANCAP should not be confused with airline schedule reliability, which is total combined
capacity measure of
typically identified as the ability of an aircraft to arrive at its assigned arrival the runway, taxiway,
and gate areas.

3

PANCAP( practical time within 15 minutes. That statistic may or may not be related to an airport’s
annual capacity)—the capacity limitations. However, it is reported to the Department of Transportation
level of operation that
results in not more
and is frequently cited.
than four minutes
average delay per Another capacity measurement is Airport Acceptance Rate (AAR). It is used by
aircraft in a normal Airport Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC) to calculate the desired interval
peak two-hour between successive arrival aircraft. AAR is the maximum number of aircraft that
operating period.
can land at any given airport during a one-hour time period.

AAR (Airport
Acceptance Rate)— Practical capacity, which is always less than throughput capacity, is that level of
used by airport radar
traffic control centers
operation or airfield utilization that can be attained with no more than some
to calculate the agreed-upon, or acceptable amount of delay. It is usually expressed as an aver-
desired interval age delay, with the understanding that some users will experience less and some
between successive will experience more than the average. Successive hourly demands exceeding
arrival aircraft. the hourly capacity result in unacceptable delays.

Experience shows that delay increases gradually with rising levels of traffic until
the practical capacity of an airport is reached, at which point the average delay
per aircraft operation is in the range of four to six minutes. If traffic demand
increases beyond that level, delays increase at an exponential rate.

When average delays exceed nine minutes per operation, an airport is consid-
ered severely congested. Beyond that point, delays are very dramatic with small
changes in traffic, weather conditions, or other disruptions. The result is that

An airport is consid- very lengthy delays disrupt flight schedules and impose a heavy workload on the
ered severely con- air traffic control system. A small reduction or increase in the number of hourly
gested when average operations, or improvements in airfield technology, can have a significant effect
delays exceed nine
minutes per operation.
on delay. Automation and technology can help to decrease the rate of delay as
demand approaches the throughput limit. When an operational figure is given
for airfield capacity, it usually represents an average based either on an assumed
range of conditions or on actual airport operating experience.

Unlike throughput capacity, which can be determined and calculated objectively,

practical capacity is a subjective value judgment about how much delay is
tolerable. Acceptability of delay is the key to the concept of practical capacity.

Practical capacity is a For a person on vacation, departing from or arriving at an airport fifteen minutes
subjective value
judgment about how
late may be acceptable. For a business person, fifteen minutes may be quite
much delay is unreasonable. For an airline operator desiring to get a particular flight to a gate
tolerable. so that passengers can make connections, that same fifteen minutes may not be
tolerable. The airline making a flight into a non-connecting airport may find a
similar time delay to be acceptable. Hub and spoke type of airports are more
likely to experience delays than origin and destination airports.
 Objective 3
What constitutes an acceptable level of delay is a judgment involving three
factors. First, it must be recognized that some delay is unavoidable simply
because it occurs for reasons beyond anyone’s control (i. e., wind direction,
weather, aircraft performance characteristics), and the randomness of demand

4
for service. Secondly, some delays, though avoidable, might be too expensive to
Acceptable delay is a
eliminate (i. e., the cost of constructing a second runway might well exceed the judgment that recog-
nizes that some delays
potential benefit of reducing delays occurring twice a day). Thirdly, even with are (1) unavoidable,
the most vigorous and successful effort, the random nature of delay means there (2) too expensive to
will always be some aircraft encountering delay greater than some acceptable eliminate, and (3) a
length of time. Thus, acceptable delay is essentially a policy decision about few aircraft will
tolerability, taking into account the technical feasibility and economic practical- encounter a higher
level than normal.
ity of available remedies.
 Objective 4
The FAA gathers delay data from two different sources. The first is through the
Air Traffic Operations Management System (ATOMS) in which FAA personnel
record aircraft that are delayed 15 or more minutes by a specific cause (weather,
ATOMS—Air Traffic
Operations Manage-
terminal volume, center volume, closed runways or taxiways, and National ment System
Airspace System equipment interruptions). Aircraft delayed fewer than 15
minutes are not recorded in ATOMS.

The second source of delay information is through the Airline Service Quality
Performance (ASQP) data collection. It is collected from airlines with one
ASQP—Airline
Service Quality
percent or more of the total domestic scheduled passenger revenues. The delay Performance
is represented by phase of flight (i. e., gate-hold, taxi-out, airborne, or taxi-in
delays). ASQP delays range from 0 minutes to greater than 15 minutes.

Gate capacity is of major concern to airlines because of the impact it has on

their net profit. An aircraft parked at a gate is not generating revenue, while an
aircraft waiting on the ramp for a gate to become available is incurring addi-
tional expense. Gate capacity can be affected by the gate type or size, the gate
mix (the percentage of wide versus non-wide bodied jets), and by gate occu-
pancy time (the length of time it takes to cycle an aircraft through the gate).
Delay in these and other areas are evidenced by increased congestion and usage
of the airport terminal.

The FAA has developed an Aviation System Capacity Plan, which outlines the
The FAA now
magnitude of delays at the nation’s top 100 airports for enplanements. It also cata- stipulates that AIP
logs and summarizes programs that have the potential to enhance capacity and grants can be issued
for capacity enhance-
reduce delays at each airport. A key point in analyzing airports in terms of demand
ment projects only if
and capacity is that airports are multi-modal facilities. That means that any one airport certifies that all
transport-access mode, or a combination of transport-access modes, can cause delay. of its elements can
The FAA has recognized this issue and now stipulates that AIP grants can be issued handle the increased
for capacity enhancement projects only if the airport certifies that all of its elements traffic.
can handle the increased traffic. For example, if an airport applies for a grant to
construct a parallel runway, which will increase the airport’s traffic, the airport
operator must then certify that the landside facilities (terminal, road access, and
parking lot) can also accommodate the increased traffic.

5
 Managing Capacity
A major concern in airport system planning is the adequacy of runways to
handle anticipated aircraft operations. If runway capacity is inadequate, air
traffic is delayed, which causes expense to airlines and aircraft operators,
inconvenience to passengers, and a major workload for the FAA. Most airports
tend to be uncongested because a single runway can handle over 200,000
operations annually. This is approximately the amount of activity that would be
generated by a city with a population of 350,000.
 Objective 4

Factors that lower Having more runways is one means to provide additional capacity. Another is
capacity or induce dividing the air traffic among several airports in a region. Much of the strategy
delay—airfield for successful management of an airfield involves devising ways to compensate
characteristics, for factors that lower capacity or induce delay. These factors can be grouped
airspace characteris-
tics, air traffic control,
into five categories: airfield characteristics, airspace characteristics, air traffic
meteorological control, meteorological conditions, and demand characteristics.
conditions, and
demand characteristics Airfield Characteristics
 Objective 5 Airfield capacity is affected by a number of items, such as runway configura-
tion and length, percent of arrivals versus departures, different mix of aircraft

The most critical
capacity determi- categories, percent of touch-and-go operations, location and type of exit taxi-
nant—runway use ways, type of navigational and existing approach aids, availability of radar
configuration coverage, and weather conditions. The most critical capacity determinant is the
runway use configuration. The second most critical determinant is runway
occupancy time.

Historically, the lateral distance for aircraft operations on parallel runways has
decreased in accordance with emerging technology. Currently, FAA Air Traffic
control procedures allow for simultaneous departure and arrival operations
under visual meteorological conditions (VMC) and instrument meteorological
conditions (IMC) when two parallel runways have a minimum spacing of 2,500
feet. Parallel runways having staggered thresholds can either increase or de-
crease the capacity for simultaneous operations, depending on whether the
arriving aircraft is approaching the near or the far runway threshold.

Some airports have the capability to allow triple simultaneous instrument aircraft
approaches and landings. Computerized airfield/airspace management systems at
airports are used to instantly select the highest capacity and most energy-efficient
runway use configuration for the prevailing circumstances of wind, visibility, traffic
mix, arrival-to-departure ratio, and noise abatement. Improved surveillance equip-
ment and procedures can reduce runway separation standards. The use of better
technology likely continues to reduce the current separation required for indepen-
dent IFR landing operations on parallel runways.

6
Airspace and Air Traffic Characteristics

The mission of the FAA’s Traffic Management System (TMS) is to balance the
air traffic demand for the National Air Space System (NAS) with system capac-
ity in order to ensure maximum efficiency. The result is a safe and expeditious
flow of air traffic with minimal delays. Traffic management initiatives are used
to limit the volume of traffic allowed into or out of an airport or airspace. The
most common initiatives are (1) mile-in-trail or minute-in-trail restrictions, (2)
traffic reroutes, (3) ground delay programs, and (4) ground stops.

Airspace and air traffic rules governing aircraft separation, runway occupancy,
spacing of arrivals and departures, and the use of parallel or converging runways
affect the capacity and delay characteristics of an airport. The mandatory re-
quirement for the FAA to provide adequate separation of aircraft in the terminal,
enroute, and oceanic areas is dependent upon the radar and communication
capabilities of the system. Radar vectoring, sequencing, and separation for all
IFR (instrument flight rules) and participating VFR (visual flight rules) aircraft
establish the capacity of the airspace surrounding an airport.

A major task of the air traffic controller is to manage aircraft traffic in a way that
TMS (traffic manage-
maintains a smooth flow of aircraft to and from airports with minimum delay. ment systems)—
software packages that
The FAA has developed software packages that assist the management of air-
assist the management
craft traffic at and around airports. These packages are known collectively as of a smooth flow of
traffic management systems (TMS). aircraft to and from
airports with mini-
The least disruptive traffic management initiatives, but also the least accurate, mum delay.
are the mile-in-trail or minute-in-trail restrictions that are intended to regulate

The mile-in-trail or
the distance between successive aircraft. As aircraft approach a destination minute-in-trail
airport, approach controllers meter or otherwise regulate the arrival time of restrictions are both
aircraft in the terminal area by limiting their number or by increasing the time the least disruptive
traffic management
between aircraft arrivals, departures, and/or enroute separations.
initiatives and the
least accurate.
The intent behind metering is to match the arrival of aircraft to the ability of the
airport to handle the volume (known as acceptance rate). Adjusting an aircraft’s
Metering aims to
speed or modifying its arrival flight path generally accomplishes metering. match the arrival of
Traffic reroutes may also be used to move traffic away from affected airspace or aircraft to the ability
of the airport to
to direct traffic to areas of lesser demand. This management initiative is prima-
handle the volume
rily used to avoid significant weather and/or move arrival/departure traffic to (known as acceptance
instrument approach fixes with lower demand. rate).

A significant factor affecting airport capacity is the longitudinal spacing re-

quired between aircraft landing and departing because this affects the number of
aircraft that can be delivered to or released from a runway in a given unit of
time. Before the introduction of wide-bodied jets, the landing separation stan-
dard under instrument flight rules was three miles.

7

Wake vortex—an The advent of heavy jet aircraft added new separation and spacing standards.
aerodynamic distur- Depending on the size of the aircraft trailing a heavy jet, a separation of four,
bance that originates
at the wingtips of an
five, or even six miles is necessary to reduce the effects of wake turbulence
phenomenon. This is an aerodynamic disturbance that originates at the wingtips
aircraft and trails in a
corkscrew fashion of an aircraft and trails in a corkscrew fashion behind the aircraft. An aircraft
behind the aircraft following another can encounter the turbulence if adequate spacing does not

Spacing standards allow the vortex to dissipate. The smaller the trailing aircraft compared with the
between aircraft lead aircraft, the greater the separation. Spacing standards between aircraft
taking off require ATC taking off require ATC to double departure release times from 60 seconds to 120
to double departure seconds after a heavy jet. At those airports that are the busiest and have a sub-
release times from 60
stantial percentage of heavy jets, capacity can be reduced almost 20 percent
seconds to 120
seconds after a heavy because of wake turbulence.
jet.
Sequencing entails specifying the exact order in which aircraft are to take off or
land. As aircraft arrive in the vicinity of the airport, they are sequenced into a
landing position. Standards for wake vortex separation require that adequate
spacing exist between aircraft. Spacing involves establishing and maintaining the
appropriate interval between successive aircraft. It is a variable element among
aircraft depending upon operational safety, uniformity of traffic flow, efficiency
of runway use, and weather conditions.

Traffic management unit controllers are assigned to ARTCC to coordinate the

flow of aircraft through the center’s airspace. Their information is forwarded to
the Central Flow Control Facility (CFCF) in Washington, DC. The CFCF is
responsible for monitoring aircraft traffic across the nation for the purpose of
alleviating congestion. If weather is affecting the capacity at a major high-
density airport, the CFCF may require aircraft waiting for a departure clearance
at an airport hundreds of miles away and experiencing clear sunny skies to wait
on the ground until the system can safely handle the enroute portion of the flight.
The CFCF has subsequently been renamed the Air Traffic Control System
Command Center (ATCSCC).

When capacity is expected to be reduced at the arrival airport, ground delay

programs are used to hold the traffic at the departure airport. Ground delay
programs are the primary tools for limiting the number of arrivals at an airport
that is significantly affected by bad weather or is anticipated to have limited
runway availability. Another tool used is a ground stop. This is used as a last
resort, because it holds aircraft on the ground for varying time periods. Though
they immediately reduce the number of aircraft allowed to enter the NAS, the
inconvenience and expense to the traveling public can be more disruptive.
Normally, ground stops are instituted for unusual or unforeseen situations such
as runway closures, aircraft accidents, or severe weather conditions.

Demand Management
 Objective 6
A major factor influencing a decision to proceed with an airport improvement or
other capital project is its benefit-to-cost ratio. The FAA’s historical policy has

8
been to accommodate all growth of air traffic demand. This was accomplished
Administrative or
by providing financial aid through the use of aviation trust fund revenues for economic demand
management methods
capital project development such as the building of new facilities or improving promote more
existing ones. As the benefit-to-cost ratio decreases due to rising economic effective or economi-
costs, other approaches for dealing with capacity and delay problems became cally efficient use of
more attractive. Those strategies focus on managing demand through either existing facilities
administrative or economic means, or both. Administrative or economic demand rather than addingtrue
capacity.
management methods promote more effective or economically efficient use of
existing facilities rather than adding true capacity.

One administrative method is for an airport operator to allocate or restrict airport
Allocating or restrict-
access by setting quotas on passenger enplanements or on the number and type ing airport access by
setting quotas on
of aircraft operations permitted. This is generally known as slot allocation. A passenger
slot identifies a block of time allocated to an airport user to perform an aircraft enplanements or on
operation, either a takeoff or a landing. the number and type
of aircraft operations
Other administrative management approaches used are (1) diverting of some of permitted is an
administrative method
the intended air traffic (primarily general aviation) to reliever airports, (2) of managing demand.
balancing the use of aircraft among several metropolitan air carrier airports, and
(3) rehubbing or redistributing transfer traffic from busy airports to under-
utilized airports.

Establishing quotas at airports places a limit on the number of aircraft operations

per hour. During busy hours, demand for operational slots typically exceeds the
quota. User classes such as air carriers, regional carriers, and general aviation
normally allocate operational slots. Attempting to divert certain aircraft types
helps to alleviate capacity problems by allowing for greater uniformity of
aircraft mix at an airport. The mix of aircraft (large vs. small, fast vs. slow, radar
equipped vs. basic instrument, etc.) using a runway helps to determine the
ultimate airfield capacity and potential for delay. When aircraft are of similar
size, speed, and operating characteristics, the runway acceptance rate is greater
than when performance characteristics vary.

Limiting or diverting traffic further helps to resolve capacity problems at air-

ports by reducing the need for capital improvements. The diversion of aircraft to
reliever or other airports has proven to be difficult, if not impossible. Airport
operators do not necessarily have the legal power to exclude general aviation
(GA) as a class of users at air carrier airports. Several courts have deemed such
action as being a restriction on interstate commerce, and therefore it is consid-
ered discriminatory. However, some restrictions on GA usage have been upheld.

A system-wide solution to alleviate or reduce delays at busy airports is the

redistribution of operations to other, less busy airports in other regions. The
development of transfer hubs at other than traditionally congested airports may
not necessarily provide reduced delay for major airports, but it has allowed for
growth that may not have been possible otherwise. This practice, known as
rehubbing, generally takes advantage of certain excess capacity in the airspace

9

Rehubbing—using system by making greater use of the facilities at medium airports. Another form
transfer hubs to of delay reduction in the hub environment has been with the utilization of a plan
redistribute operations
to less busy airports in
spreading the peaks over a greater time period than formerly used. This so-called
other regions as a rolling plan can increase capacity without adding pavement. It typically increases
means to alleviate or the passenger’s total travel time, but can also have a positive effect when short
reduce delays at busy delays would have caused missed connections and rerouting.
airports

 Objective 7 Administrative management of airport use—whether by restricting access for certain

types of aircraft, by balancing demand among metropolitan area airports, or by

Aviation economists establishing quotas—offers the promise of immediate and relatively low-cost airport
favor allocating
airport access by
congestion relief. Aviation economists argue for allocating airport access by demand
demand management, management, which relies on a pricing mechanism. They argue that by administra-
which relies on a tively limiting demand, an artificial market equilibrium distorts the nature, quality
pricing mechanism. and costs of air transportation. The economists suggest that by including airport
costs and demand as determinants of user fees, delay can be significantly reduced.
The two most commonly advocated methods of achieving this are differential pricing
and the auctioning of landing rights or slots.

Differential pricing Managing demand economically required the structuring of a pricing system that
and the auctioning of allowed market forces to allocate scarce airport facilities among competing
landing rights or slots
are the two most
users. The Massachusetts Port Authority (Massport) attempted to establish a
commonly favored differential pricing policy (known as PACE) that made landing at Boston’s
methods of reducing Logan International Airport unattractive to general aviation traffic. A previous
delay by including experiment at the three New York City metropolitan airports in 1968 showed that
airport costs and it was primarily general aviation operations that moved away from the peak
demand as determi-
nants of user fees.
hours having higher landing fees. In general, differential pricing established by
having peak hour surcharges represents an attempt to manage demand by charg-

By applying a peak- ing cost-based landing fees. Excess demand results when prices are below the
hour surcharge, which
value of facilities. Such demand leads to congestion and delays, which, in turn,
is one type of differen-
tial pricing, three New leads to calls for additional capacity.
York City metropoli-
tan airports managed Proponents of differential airport pricing argue that weight-based landing fees
to reduce congestion. are counterproductive because they do not vary with demand. Consequently, they
provide no incentive to use an airport’s facilities during off-peak hours. By
charging higher user fees during peak hours and lower fees during off peak
times, they argue, a more uniform demand will occur at an airport.

A major problem with any concept of peak hour surcharges is how to determine
their level. One possible method is to charge airport users the full marginal costs
of airport facilities. Another is to base the surcharges on the delay costs, which
each peak hour user imposes on other users. The end result would be a fee
system that increases as delay increases. While it may sound good in theory, the
FAA has determined that such a system would adversely affect general aviation
users more and therefore was discriminatory.

10
Slot Management  Objective 8

The term slot was originally used to identify the authority of an aircraft to
A slot identifies a
block of time allo-
conduct an IFR operation at a high-density airport. In common usage, a slot cated to an airport
identifies a block of time allocated to an airport user to perform an aircraft user to perform an
operation, either a takeoff or a landing. Slots are controlled by the FAA but can aircraft operation,
either a takeoff or a
be bought, sold, leased, or transferred within FAA limitations and approval.
landing

Slot allocation rules, first proposed in 1968, designated five airports as experiencing
Implemented in 1969,
high-density operations. They were Chicago’s O’Hare (ORD), New Jersey’s the high-density rule
Newark (EWR), New York’s John F. Kennedy (JFK), New York’s LaGuardia was formalized under
FAR Part 93.
(LGA), and Washington’s National (DCA). The high-density rule was implemented
in 1969 and formalized under Federal Aviation Regulation Part 93.

Slot rules established a maximum limit on the hourly number of allocated IFR
operations (takeoffs and landings) at each high-density traffic area (HDTA)
airport and then apportioned the number of movements that may be reserved
among the specified classes of users for each airport. Washington National has
the added capacity constraint of not allowing any aircraft to operate nonstop
from DCA beyond a specified range, which has increased over time.

Because different capacities exist for VFR and IFR operations, the high-density
rule initially carried IFR restrictions only, meaning that carriers could continue
to schedule and operate more aircraft into the restricted airports under visual
meteorological conditions. As weather deteriorates to instrument meteorologi-
When weather
cal conditions, the airlines would be required to reroute or cancel flights that deteriorates to
exceeded the capacity limit. The FAA eventually changed the rule to require all instrument meteoro-
flights to be handled as if under IFR rules, thereby eliminating the over sched- logical conditions, the
airlines were required
uling of VFR flights. At the high-density airports, slots were allocated accord- to reroute or cancel
ing to three classes of users: scheduled air carrier, scheduled commuters, and flights that exceeded
others. The HDTA rule was not intended to be a permanent rule, but operational the capacity limit.
conditions dictated otherwise. The FAA did remove EWR from the require-
ment, but it was determined that the rule would remain in effect at ORD, JFK,
LGA, and DCA indefinitely.

Slot allocation results from administrative determinations, negotiation, or
The slot reservation
assignment through a reservation system. Administrative determinations are system is used
made through the Slot Administration Office of the FAA. Negotiation is accom- primarily for allocat-
ing general aviation
plished among the airlines through joint Scheduling Committee Agreements at
and charter slots on a
each capacity controlled airport. Antitrust immunity is granted for these com- first come-first serve
mittee agreements since they are submitted to the U. S. Department of Trans- basis.
portation (DOT) for approval. The reservation system is used primarily for
allocating general aviation and charter slots on a first come-first serve basis.
Having slot allocation
and auctions is one-
The purpose for having slot allocations and auctions was to alleviate congestion way to alleviate
at high- demand or high-density airports. When first proposed, it was advocated congestion at high-
demand or high-
that if access to an airport has to be limited due to high demand, then it should density airports.

11

Advocates of slot be treated as a scarce resource and priced accordingly. In this case, a landing or
auctions have argued takeoff slot was considered to be a scarce resource and the market price was best
that access to an
airport should be
determined by the willingness of a user to pay for the right of access.
treated as a scarce
resource and priced The economic principle of supply and demand was touted as the best method to
accordingly. allocate the landing rights. Slot auctions allowed peak-hour access only to those

Slot auctions allow users willing to pay a market-determined price. While slot control did address
peak-hour access for a operational and noise complaint issues, it further allowed existing carriers with
market-determined slots to effectively block new entrants from gaining access. Slots represented one
price. of the most significant barriers to entry in the airline business.

Slots—one of the
most significant Initially, a carrier could effectively block other air carrier competition by holding
barriers to entry in the
airline business
a slot, but not using it. To combat this practice the FAA imposed a use-it-or-lose-
it requirement in the high-density rule. The rule for slot usage was that any slot

The FAA recalls any not used 80 percent of the time over a two-month period was to be recalled by
slot that is not used 80 the FAA. Other competition barriers were airline alliances, computer reservation
percent of the time
systems, frequent flier programs, and majority-in-interest agreements.
over a two-month
period.
The FAA also formally adopted a buy-sell rule in December 1985. The buy-sell
rule allowed air carriers and commuters to transfer slots and, in essence, created
a legal issue of whether slots constituted property and could have ownership. To
the detriment of some airports, the original FAA rule allowed airlines to “own”
the slots and benefit from their sale, without consideration of the community
desire for a particular type or class of service.

When the rule on buying and selling of slots was first established, the position of
the FAA had been that no proprietary rights were created by slots and that slots
were considered to be operating privileges subject to FAA control. That policy
statement, however, generated much debate among airlines, airports, economists,
and government officials. Bankruptcy court rulings favored the principle of slots
as property until such time that FAA action under the rule results in forfeiture,
reallocation, or withdrawal of the slots.

Eventually, recognizing that slots do have value in the event of a bankruptcy, the

The FAA has modified
FAR Part 93 and FAA modified FAR Part 93 and incorporated into it special rules that apply to the
incorporated into it disposition of slots. The modifications allowed slots to be purchased, sold,
special rules that traded, or leased by any party. In the event that slots become available due to
allowed slots to be capacity enhancement, use-it-or-lose-it provisions, or other FAA action, a lottery
purchased, sold,
traded or leased by
process was used to select slot beneficiaries. Slots identified as essential air
any party. service (EAS), or those suited for international service, have restrictions on being
withdrawn, sold, traded or leased.

Arguments have been made against the continuation of the high-density rule at
airports. One such argument is that capacity, delay, and congestion are no worse at
the originally named airports than at other airports in the U. S. In the 1994 FAA
Reauthorization Act, the DOT was authorized to grant exemptions to the high-density
rule to allow for more Stage 3 aircraft use if it was in the best public interest.

12
In 1999, the DOT suggested that the high density ruled had outlived its original
intent and could be eliminated without harming aviation safety. The DOT
proposed that slot restrictions at New York LaGuardia, New York Kennedy, and
Chicago O’Hare be eliminated by 2004. Since Congress established the restric-
tions at Washington Reagan Airport under separate legislation, slot rules would
continue there unless Congress determined otherwise. Those restrictions in-
cluded a perimeter rule, which restricted one-stop flights to city pairs within a
specified number of miles of Washington Reagan. The purpose of the perimeter
restriction is to manage capacity issues at Washington Reagan and to promote
the use of Washington Dulles, which has no such distance restrictions.

Modeling Airport Capacity  Objective 9

Computer simulation models exist to calculate and determine capacity, delay,

and the sensitivity of a proposed physical or operational change to an airport or
air traffic procedure. SIMMOD is the name of a simulation model used by the
FAA, airlines, airports, architects, and engineers to design improvements,
calculate travel times and flow rate for an airport or an airport component, and/
or develop procedural alternatives for domestic and international air traffic
management. It addresses both the physical and procedural aspects of all air
traffic operations, thereby allowing decision-makers to determine projected
benefits and effects in terms of airport capacity and in aircraft travel time, delay,
and fuel consumption. Since the model incorporates the FAA’s integrated noise
model, SIMMOD further allows an assessment of the impact of aircraft noise in
the planning process.

The Airport Machine Model (AMM) is a general-purpose simulation product

that provides detailed landing deceleration modeling, as well as exit selection,
runway crossing spacing intervals, and controlled departure queuing. Another
simulation model is the Airfield Delay Simulation Model (ADSIM). It is a
discrete-event model that calculates travel time, delay, and flow rate. It can also
be used to analyze the components of an airport, airport operations, and opera-
tions in adjacent airspace.

A fourth simulation model is the FAA Airfield Capacity Model. It is a computer

program that analytically calculates the maximum operational capacity of a
runway system under a wide range of conditions. One final simulation program
is the Airport Design Computer Model, which provides basic design parameters
for an airport layout plan.

Technological and Weather Solutions  Objective 10

In the search for solutions to capacity and delay problems, the value of new
technology is typically measured by its ability to achieve one or more of the
following results: (1) increased capacity, (2) higher efficiency or throughput, (3)
greater safety, (4) improved reliability, (5) greater accuracy, (6) lower cost, and
(7) greater convenience.
13
 The U. S. National Airspace System (NAS) is the largest, busiest, and most
sophisticated aviation operation in the world. It operates 24 hours a day, 365
days of the year to provide safe and essential services for domestic and interna-
tional operations. The management of that resource is guided by the NAS archi-
tecture, which is a comprehensive plan for modernizing the NAS infrastructure.

National Airspace Architechure

The NAS architecture integrates services, procedures, facilities, and technologies
into a compatible network. It does so by enhancing safety through the component
areas of communication, navigation, surveillance, decision support systems,
weather, flight service, and oceanic routes. The NAS architecture focuses on
numerous strategic decisions and is based on safety, user needs, performance,
efficiency, affordability, technology availability, transition, and integration.

One strategic decision was for air-to-ground communications systems to move

from a voice-only capability to voice and data, and for analog processing to
move to digital processing. The Next Generation Air-Ground Communications
Systems (NGAGCS) replaced the analog radio system, resulting in expanded
spectrum capacity, more consistent voice quality, increased radio security, fre-
quency interference protection, and reduced maintenance and operations costs.
 Objective 11
The FAA has stated that the Global Positioning System (GPS), augmented with

GPS (Global Position- the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) and the Local Area Augmentation
ing System), coupled
with the Wide Area System (LAAS), is intended to be the sole means of future navigation and land-
Augmentation System ing guidance. GPS/WAAS is intended to provide enroute and terminal navigation
(WAAS) and the and to be used in non-precision and Category 1 precision approaches. GPS/
Local Area Augmen- LAAS is expected to support Category II and III operations. Initially, GPS/
tation System
(LAAS), is intended
WAAS is to be available on a supplemental basis, allowing users to gain opera-
to be the sole means tional experience. It is expected that by the end of the transition period in the
of future navigation year 2005, the conventional ILS and navigational systems will be required to be
and landing guidance. GPS/WAAS equipped.

Primary radar in the terminal and enroute areas is being upgraded with new
sensors and integrated weather capability. The surveillance system is intended to
share and display weather radar data. Terminal surveillance is being integrated
through the current Airport Movement Area Safety System (AMASS).

DSS (Decision The decision support system (DSS) architecture consists of air traffic control and
Support System)— traffic flow automation management services in the enroute, terminal, tower and
provides more
control center domains. DSS is to provide more functions and information,
functions and infor-
mation, upgraded upgraded displays, and better data exchange capabilities for the air traffic con-
displays, and better trollers and traffic management coordinators. In the terminal area, the Standard
data exchange Terminal Automation Replacement System (STARS) is replacing the current
capabilities for the air multiple types of processors and displays with an all-digital, integrated system
traffic controllers and
traffic management
with modern displays and faster distribution networks. STARS supports current
coordinators. radar, traffic and weather advisory, and navigational assistance services. Unlike

14
stand-alone technology from the past, STARS is designed to be expandable and
STARS (Standard
flexible to meet future airspace needs and air traffic capabilities. Terminal Automation
Replacement Sys-
tem)—supports
Flight services allow a pilot to obtain preflight briefings and file flight plans current radar, traffic
without contacting a flight service specialist. The Operational and Supportabil- and weather advisory,
ity Implementation System (OASIS), is a commercial-based DSS. OASIS and navigational
incorporates functions currently provided by the graphic weather display, flight assistance services.
service data processing equipment, aviation weather processor, and direct user

OASIS (the opera-
access terminal service. Self-service kiosks at airports give pilots instant flight tional and supportabil-
service information. ity implementation
system)—a commer-
To handle the growing number of flights over the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, cial-based DSS,
incorporating func-
the New York, Oakland, and Anchorage oceanic centers have improved their
tions currently
DSS to take full advantage of digital data transmission between pilots, air provided by the
traffic controllers, and flight information regions. graphic weather
display, flight service
The combination of bad weather, terrain, and the absence of ground aids pose a data processing
equipment, aviation
potentially serious problem to aircraft on approach to an airport. Research in
weather processor, and
aircraft avionics equipment is attempting to provide a greater measure of safety direct user access
when pilots are faced with those types of situations. Advanced automation terminal service.
systems are expected to provide programmable video displays to replace radar
scopes. This would provide aircraft and weather information, predict and detect
potential separation problems, and offer solutions to resolve them. The systems
are to be interconnected so controllers can view the entire the nation. With
receivers in the cockpit, air traffic control towers and centers will eventually
distribute routine communication and flight information through the satellite
navigation system.

Impact of Very Large Aircraft (VLA)

Aside from technological advances in navigation capabilities, the possibility of
future very large aircraft (VLA) or super large aircraft (SLA) will impact
airport capacity. VLA and SLA will affect airport components such as the
runways, taxiways, ramps, terminal bridges, baggage rooms, and security.
Factors, which must be considered, include weight, length and wingspan (esti-
mated at up to 265 feet in width). These aircraft are expected to have seating
capacities of approximately 600 passengers. With aircraft of that size, there is a
potential for loss of airside capacity due to increased separation standards,
aircraft operational restrictions on taxiway and runways, and reduction in the
number of accessible gates. Part of the VLA intent is to reduce the number of
aircraft operations by fewer-seat aircraft having to fly multiple trips to equal the
capacity of one VLA.

Meteorological Effects and Weather Aids

Weather has significant influence on efficiency, capacity, and safety. The FAA
estimated in 1992 that 80 percent of all delays greater than 15 minutes were
15
caused by weather. Improved weather reporting systems can reduce the occur-
rence of aviation accidents related to weather and improve the economic operat-
ing conditions of the airlines and other users of the airport system. Much of the
effort to reduce delays at airports, from airfield management strategy to installa-
tion of improved technology, is aimed at minimizing the disparity between VMC
and IMC capacity. VMC are those in which the atmospheric conditions permit
pilots to approach, land or takeoff by visual reference and to see and avoid other
aircraft. IMC are those in which pilots cannot see other aircraft and safe separa-
tion must be assured solely by ATC rules and procedures. Navigation to an
airport under IMC conditions requires a pilot to rely on aircraft instruments and
electronic navigation.

Aside from improved aircraft-monitoring radar, perhaps the single greatest techno-
logical need in improving capacity and reducing airport delay, is the development of
techniques to improve weather detection and prediction. Two associated phenomena
that affect airport operations are wake turbulence and wind shear.

Wake Turbulence and Vortices

Wake vortex or turbulence is an aerodynamic disturbance that originates at the

wingtips of an aircraft and trails in a corkscrew fashion behind the aircraft. Wake
turbulence, visually similar to that of water waves trailing a speeding boat, can
last for several minutes after an aircraft has passed. Often they can be strong
enough to upset even aircraft as large as a Boeing 737.

The classification of potential wake turbulence effect is based upon the type of
aircraft making the airport approach. The aircraft classification guides controllers in
determining adequate separation in order for the wake vortices to dissipate. As the
result of several aircraft accidents involving wake turbulence from a B-757, new
separation rules for several types of airframes went into effect in 1996. A small
aircraft following a B-757 must have five-mile separation, while one following a
heavy aircraft, such as a B-747, must have six miles. Small aircraft are those weigh-
ing less than 41,000 pounds, such as the Beechcraft 1900 or Embraer 120. Heavy
aircraft are those, which weigh more than 225,000 pounds. What are termed large
aircraft are in between the two other classifications.

Previously, wake turbulence separation was based upon the aircraft’s design
classification of A, B, C, or D. The standard separation between two aircraft
approaching an airport required a two-minute wait, while three minutes of wait
were required for small aircraft departing behind large aircraft. The newer five
and six mile separation standards replace the time criteria.

Wake turbulence, or the blast from helicopters, propeller blades, or turbine

engines is generally localized and not long lasting. Nonetheless, it can be danger-
ous since the turbulence or blast from behind a jet or turbine engine is strong
enough to overturn a ground vehicle or small aircraft. They also can kick up
stone and debris and turn them into flying projectiles.

16
Wind Shear

A special type of weather phenomenon affecting airport capacity is wind shear.

Wind shear is defined as any sudden change in wind velocity or direction. It is
associated with weather conditions such as warm or cold fronts, low-level jet
streams, and mountainous terrain.

Microbursts have gained prominence in aviation safety due to several major

aircraft accidents being attributed to them. They are strong, dangerous vertical
or down drafts associated with an intense thunderstorm. The drafts result in a
strong wind shear that can make an aircraft’s airspeed marginally, if not com-
pletely, unsafe due to the sudden change in the direction and force of the air. To
help detect and combat wind shear the FAA, in conjunction with the other
governmental agencies such as NOAA and NASA, has developed a Low Level
Windshear Alert System (LLWAS), which provides controllers with information
on wind conditions on, and around the runway environment.
The LLWAS consists
of Doppler radars
positioned at different
The LLWAS consists of Doppler radars positioned at different locations on and locations on and
around an airport. They measure wind velocity and direction and are intended around an airport for
for local weather warnings. A sudden change in either the velocity or direction measuring wind
will trigger a process that alerts air traffic controllers. The LLWAS has been velocity and direction.
installed at many airports in the United States.

Flight Service Stations

The Civil Aeronautics Agency first established the Interstate Airway Communi-
cation Station (IACS) in 1942. It was designed to offer flight advisory services
to aircraft operating along the federal airways. Up to that time, the airlines had
been responsible for providing their pilots with that information. The IACS was
the precursor to today’s Flight Service Station (FSS).

The Flight Service Station is an air traffic facility that provides pilot briefing, aircraft
enroute communication, and visual flight rule (VFR) search and rescue services. In
providing pilot briefings, the FSS broadcasts aviation weather and National Airspace
System (NAS) information, receives and processes IFR flight plans, and relays ATC
clearances. The FSS has responsibility for originating and disseminating notices to
airmen (NOTAMs) and for monitoring various navaids around the country. Some
FSSs, and the more recent Automated Flight Service Stations (AFSS), have respon-
sibility for taking weather observations, issuing local airport advisories, and advis-
ing customs and immigration of transborder flights.

Flight Service Stations have existed at many airports around the country. They are
responsible for providing a wide range of services such as disseminating weather-
related information and coordinating flight planning activities to primarily general
aviation pilots. Because of concerns for operational cost increases associated with
forecasted growth in demand for flight services, a cost-conscious FAA started to
reduce the number of FSS by consolidating them into larger AFSS.

17
 In conjunction with the consolidation of FSS, hundreds of Automated Surface
Observations Stations (ASOS) and Automated Weather Observation Systems
(AWOS) have been installed at airports and other sites nationwide to provide
current and reliable weather information to pilots, the AFSS, and other aviation
users. ASOS and AWOS are 24-hour real time weather data collection and dis-
play systems that transmit computer generated voice reports about conditions at
the location of the ASOS. The reports can also be accessed by telephone. The
difference between the two is that ASOS are more expensive systems that are part
of a National Weather Service program. ASOS also have more redundancy built
in than AWOS. AWOSs appear to be the system of choice, however, for airport
operators seeking weather-reporting capabilities at a more economical price.

A typical ASOS configuration includes sensors for wind direction and speed,
temperature, dew point, altimeter, ceiling, visibility, and liquid precipitation. ASOS is
primarily located on airports near the touchdown zones of the primary instrument
runway. AWOS is found at remote non-airport locations or on smaller airports.

Initially, responsibility for ASOS was with the NWS, but that responsibility was
transferred to the FAA in 1996. The National Weather Service (NWS) is part of
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), which falls
under the Department of Commerce (DOC). The FAA is part of the Department
of Transportation. The National Flight Data Center (NFDC) is a facility estab-
lished by the FAA. Located in Washington, DC, the NFDC operates as a central
aeronautical information service for the collection, validation, and dissemination
of aeronautical data.

There are four ASOS categories that are determined by air traffic levels and the
severity of local weather. Level A stations include major hubs or airports with the
potential for severe weather. Level B stations include smaller hub airports or
airports that have worse than average weather. Tower controllers augment level C
airports or FSS specialists who report thunderstorms, hail, tornadoes, and tower
visibility. All towered airports are considered Level C airports during hours of
normal tower operation. Contract weather observers may supplement Level C
observations. Level D airports are completely automated and are not augmented.

Some aviation users have criticized the use of ASOS because it cannot replicate

Some aviation users the observations of distant phenomena, such as thunderstorms, or provide human
have criticized the use
of ASOS because observers. It has also been criticized because it doesn’t provide a trend analysis
(1) it cannot replicate of whether conditions are improving or deteriorating, and because sometimes the
the observations of information transmitted is in error.
distant phenomena,
such as thunderstorms,
(2) it doesn’t provide a These criticisms are being addressed by supplementing and augmenting ASOS
trend analysis of and AWOS observations with human observations; by providing complementary
whether conditions are data derived from other sources, such as radar lightning data; and by the use of
improving or deterio- backup sensors or data. The standard Surface Aviation Observation (SAO) report,
rating, and (3) some-
as prescribed by the FAA, contains parameters and requirements for the reporting
times the information
transmitted is in error. of such information as audible thunder, ground fog, freezing rain, drizzle, ice

18
pellets, and snow depths. Level A and B airports, augmented by controllers and
observers, include that information.

Prior to the implementation of ASOS, commercial instrument flight rules (IFR)

operation under FAR PART 121 and 135 were restricted at over 1,200 airports
having standard instrument approach procedures (STARs) because of the ab-
sence of a local weather reporting service. Another 376 airports had only part-
time service. ASOS provides information for increased IFR capabilities at those
airports. At facilities not having ASOS, IFR commercial operations are still
conducted, provided the commercial operator has established a Supplementary
Aviation Weather Reporting Station (SAWRS) to satisfy the regulations.
SAWRS observations are typically taken by the commercial operator only when
needed and are not available to other users.

Part 91 of the Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) requires all airports having
control zones to have weather observation services. All FAA-towered airports
are eligible for installation of an ASOS based upon an analysis of cost effective-
ness. Non-towered and non-federal towered airports are eligible, based on a
ratio value computed by summing the benefits provided to each user class and
dividing the sum by the life-cycle costs. If the ratio value is greater than one, the
airport is eligible for ASOS. Should the value fall below .45, an existing ASOS
facility is a candidate for discontinuance. ASOS are eligible for funding under
the Airport Improvement Program. AWOS are more popular installations for
airports because of its lower cost.

The federal aviation regulations clearly specify that pilots have ultimate respon-
sibility for the safe operation of their aircraft. Since only the pilot can make the
necessary decisions about the operation of the aircraft, airports can help pilots
reduce the adverse effects of weather on airport operations by the installation of
ASOS equipment. Safe and efficient aviation operations are partially dependent
on the degree to which airport operators can mentally formulate and visualize
the continuously evolving weather situation. The ability of the pilot to visualize
the weather will be made easier in the future as more modern weather depiction
radar becomes available.

Flight Service Stations have responsibility for disseminating Notices To Airmen

(NOTAM). NOTAMs are entered into the FAA computer system at local Flight
Service Stations (FSS) or at the Flight Data Center (FDC) in Washington, DC.
Data submitted by the FDC relates to enroute navigational aid outages, changes
to instrument approach procedures, or emergencies. That data can be of concern
to local airports and impacts safety in the airport’s vicinity. Though the FSS will
help in locating lost aircraft, the Rescue Coordination Center at Langley Air
Force Base in Hampton, VA, is primarily responsible for coordinating and
tracking overdue aircraft or emergency locator transmissions (ELT) signals.

19
Future Weather Technologies

Through their ongoing modernization, the NWS and the FAA have collaborated
to develop plans for new and enhanced capabilities, which, if implemented, will
bring about a dramatic transformation in the accuracy, timeliness, and applica-
bility of aviation weather information. Focusing on aviation-impacted variables
and decision aids, the planned system offers the potential for achieving en-
hanced safety and efficiency. An example is the Integrated Terminal Weather
System (ITWS) display. It integrates information from the Terminal Doppler
Weather Radar and the Low Level Wind Shear Alert System. The ITWS pro-
vides detailed information and situational awareness for departing or arriving
aircraft. It can also assists in the metering and spacing of both inbound and
outbound traffic at an airport as a means of improving airfield capacity.

Through the efforts of the Commerce, Defense, and Transportation Depart-

ments, Doppler and other weather reporting capabilities have improved weather
reporting and detection systems. Next-Generation Radar (NEXRAD) uses
Doppler techniques to detect not only precipitation, but also wind shear and
severe weather.

Summary
The ability of the national airspace system to serve the growing demands of the
flying public and cargo operators is dependent upon the ability of airports and
the FAA air traffic control system to handle increased traffic. Efforts to improve
airport capacity are centered on the construction and development of runways,
taxiways, terminal facilities, roadway access, and navigational aids. There are
also a number of administrative processes available to airport executives, which
can help manage the demand.

Not all capacity problems exist at the airport. Aircraft operating in the airspace
encounter restrictions as a result of other factors such as weather and separation
standards. Technological improvements in weather reporting, instrument and
global positioning systems, and automated decision support all aid in improving
overall system capability.

20
 Study Questions

1. What are the different elements of the airport system?

Where can capacity constraints occur within it?

2. What is the difference between throughput capacity and practical

capacity?

3. What constitutes delay in relation to capacity?

4. From what sources does the FAA gather delay data?

5. What central factors and characteristics contribute to lowering system

capacity or inducing delay?

6. How can demand be managed?

7. What are the benefits and drawbacks of the different methods for
managing demand?

8. Why are airport slots and their rules necessary? How do they affect
capacity?

9. What new technologies are being developed to alleviate capacity and

delay problems at airports?

10. How does the weather affect airport capacity?

11. How is weather information gathered? How is it disseminated

throughout the aviation system?

12. What different levels of ASOS are available?

13. What do AAR, AMASS, ASQP, ATOMS, DSS, GPS, LAAS, LLWAS,
NAS, NGAGCS, OASIS, PANCAP, PHOCAP, STARS, WAAS
stand for?

21