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Abstract: In this paper we analyze the Critical Chain (CC) ver since Goldratt introduced critical chain (CC) in his
approach to managing projects. Is CC as some authors book of the same name in 1997, the concept has been
assert, one of the most important breakthrough for project widely discussed in the project management literature
management since the introduction of the Critical Path concept and project management community. Some authors see CC as
(CP) or does CC merely consist of known concepts presented the most important breakthrough for project management since
in a different way? Our discourse compares systematically the introduction of the critical path method and refer to CC as
CC and CPM on three conceptual levels to reveal the the direction for project management in the 21st century (Steyn,
differences between the two approaches. We conclude that the 2002; Newbold, 1998). Others question its innovativeness and
philosophy behind the CP and CC approaches is remarkably argue that it consists of known concepts presented in a different
different resulting in a different mindset for managers and a way (Maylor, 2000; Raz et al., 2003; McKay and Morton, 1998).
different set of management practices. The main difference In the last few years, several books have been published
explaining the concepts underlying CC (Newbold, 1998; Leach,
is the application of the Theory of Constraints (TOC) in the
2000) and a number of software packages based on CC scheduling
CC case. As a result, CC focuses at improving the systems
concepts have been developed (Prochain, 1999; Scitor, 2000). Many
performance by laying out specific policies many of which are
examples of successful applications of CC have been cited in the
focused on resource management especially in multiproject literature (Leach, 1999) and on websites (Product Development
environments that are not explicitly addressed by CP. We Institute, 2005). A number of researchers have discussed the
conclude that while the application of CC is complex, many concepts underlying CC and the differences between CC and CP
of its ideas can be easily adapted by practicing managers. at a conceptual level (Raz et al., 2003; Globerson, 2000). Other
researchers have focused on the technical aspects of CC scheduling
Keywords: Critical Chain, Theory of Constraints, Buffer using simulation analyses (Herroelen and Leus, 2001; Cohen et
Management, Critical Path Method al., 2004). Although these studies are helpful, we share the view
of Herroelen and Leus (2001 and 2002) that the discussions on
both sides of the CC debate are often too general to offer guidance
EMJ Focus Areas: Program & Project Management on CC’s advantages and disadvantages relative to established CP
Theory • Systems Theory, Graph Theory • Systems Theory, Graph Theory, Theory of
Constraints (TOC)
Goals • Minimize duration of single project under • Minimize duration of single project under
resource constraints resource constraints
• Satisfy the triple constraints of time, cost, and • Maximize project throughput in multiproject
scope environments
• Satisfy the triple constraints of time, cost, and
scope with special emphasis on meeting the
due date
• Adopt a satisficing approach
Focus of Attention • Single project perspective (primarily) • Systems perspective—both single and multiple
• Set a project completion time and determine project environments
which activities require particular attention to • Set a project completion time and determine,
avoid delaying project completion under explicit consideration of uncertainty, which
• Local systems perspective activities require particular attention to avoid
delaying project completion
• Global systems perspective
Uncertainty • Contingency plans to protect against external • Contingency plans to protect against external
events based on risk analysis and Monte Carlo events based on risk analysis and Monte Carlo
simulation simulation
• Local protection against uncertainty • Global protection against uncertainty
• Tradeoffs between the triple constraints • Tradeoffs between the triple constraints are not
emphasized; CC attempts to avoid the need for
tradeoffs
Resource Management • Solve the Resource-Constrained Scheduling • Solve the RCSP to develop a baseline schedule
Problem (RCSP) to develop a baseline schedule (as for CP but including buffers)
• Maximize utilization of all resources • Maximize utilization of the bottleneck
resource(s)
Behavioral Issues • The human-side of project management only • Reduce activity times to counteract individual
implicitly addressed tendencies to delay task execution (Parkinson’s
Law and Student Syndrome)
the critical chain to ensure that work is performed efficiently and that most impact the critical chain or total systems throughput.
without delays. In the multiproject case, this means managing Alternatively, elevating system capacity might mean investing in
the deployment of the critical resources—first, by prioritizing IT infrastructure, additional management training, etc. In certain
projects and, second, by avoiding multitasking so that a bottleneck cases, elevating the system constraints may be carried out by the
resource completes all of its work on one project before moving offloading mechanism, i.e., assigning some of the CC tasks to
on to the next lower-priority project. non-CC resources/activities.
Unlike CP, CC makes a distinction between critical and non-
Subordinate: Use slack or overcapacity in non-bottleneck resources critical resources. CC puts a lot of attention on managing the
(i.e., subordinate them) in order to improve the performance of critical resources and planning mainly according to these resources.
the bottleneck resource. In CC, the emphasis is on reducing the CP treats the resources as a less important issue that should be
uncertainty in due date performance. Applied to a single project, this subordinated to the critical path planning, without an explicit
means that non-critical activities must not interfere with or delay distinction between a bottleneck and a non-bottleneck resource.
work on critical activities. Subordination in the multiproject case
means that non-critical resources may, at times, be left idle to ensure Goals. In the CP world, the initial project schedule is designed to
high utilization of the bottleneck resources across the projects. minimize project duration under resource constraints. A second
important goal is to satisfy the “triple constraints” of time, cost,
Elevate: If system performance is unsatisfactory after taking the and performance on a single project (Umble and Umble, 2000). It
above steps, increase the capacity of the total system focusing first is recognized that tradeoffs between these three project objectives
on the bottleneck constraint. In both the single and multiproject are often made—for example, on-time performance might be
cases, this might mean investment in additional resources. achieved by reducing the scope of a project. It is noteworthy that
Naturally, the focus will be on increasing the capacity of resources more general objective functions that take into account the net
Uncertainty • Activity estimates might contain safety margins • Remove safety margins from activity estimates
• No project buffer • Aggregate safety margins on the critical chain into
• CP protected to some extend by float a project buffer
• Schedule activities at their early start time • Add feeding buffers where non-critical paths join
the critical chain
• Schedule activities at their latest start times to
reduce WIP
Resource Management • Determine a precedence and resource feasible • Determine a precedence and resource feasible
baseline schedule baseline schedule
Scheduling • Solve the RCSP problem to resolve resource • Solve the RCSP problem to resolve resource
conflicts and estimate the Critical Path conflicts and estimate the critical chain
• Use as late as possible start dates for the activities
• Introduce project buffers and feeding buffers
Behavioral Issues • Activity estimates might contain safety margins • Avoid the student syndrome and Parkinson’s law
Exhibit 5. Differences Between CP and CC: Single Project Execution and Controlling
Focus of Attention • Manage to the calendar dates of the critical • Keep the baseline schedule and critical chain
path activities fixed during execution
• Meet project milestones
Resource Management • Coordinate resources along the CP • Coordinate resources by heeding buffer
• No explicit position on multitasking warnings
• Avoid multitasking
Execution and Rescheduling • No single guideline—many heuristics • Use road-runner paradigm—execute activities
as soon as feasible—except for gating activities
Monitoring Metrics • Monitor and report activity start and finish times • No activity due dates
• Monitor progress towards project milestones • Report penetration of buffers
• Earned value (EV) reporting • No project milestones except where externally
imposed
• EV reporting difficult but not excluded
Behavioral Issues • Activity performers are held responsible for • Responsibility for activity delays not clarified
timely activity completion
Focus of Attention • Performance of individual projects • Performance of multiple project system constraint
resource
• Reduce WIP
Resource Management • Maximize resource utilization of all resources • Maximize resource utilization of constraint resources
• Multitasking not explicitly addressed • Do not allow multitasking
Scheduling • Several project prioritization rules • Stagger projects along the systems constraint
using drum and capacity buffers
• Prioritize projects
• Resolve resource conflicts on the systems level
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Focus of Attention • Avoid variation on critical path • Support the bottleneck resource
Resource Management • Maximize utilization of all available resources • Maximize utilization of bottleneck resource
Execution and Rescheduling • Different prioritization rules • Manage the total system using drum buffers
• Drum buffer rope to control for new entering
projects
Execution and Rescheduling. In situations where projects are dates to definite calendar dates. This helps assign accountability
continuously being completed and replaced by new projects, to the activity performers. In the CC schedule, accountabilities
the prioritization and staggering (scheduling) must be done are not clearly regulated. Which activity owner is responsible if
dynamically. This gives rise to a higher order scheduling problem buffer time is exhausted?
involving projects rather than activities within projects. It is
common practice to re-order projects in case of delays. Changes Conclusions and Future Directions
in the project priorities are critical and can lead to even further We have analyzed and compared the traditional CP with the
delays and lower systems throughput. In CP, incoming projects newer CC approach to project management. In this analysis,
may be prioritized by different rules. Herroelen et al. (1998) we viewed each approach as an internally consistent set of
showed that continuous rescheduling of the projects within the management practices and beliefs. The philosophy behind the
system maximizes systems performance. The problem is that CP and CC approaches is remarkably different resulting in a
rescheduling on a systems level requires the effort and input of different mindset for managers and a different set of management
many resources. The transaction costs for these rescheduling practices. The main difference is the application of TOC in the
efforts could easily overcome the benefits of the adaptations. CC case. TOC focuses at improving the system’s performance by
Furthermore, these costs could increase dramatically if the laying out specific policies many of which are focused on resource
priority rules are changed. management (Shou and Yeo, 2000).
Project prioritization in CC uses the first-in, first-served rule. Perhaps the greatest advantage of the CP approach is that
All evolving resource conflicts are solved under this rule. Also, the it is well established. The training and infrastructure investment
number of incoming new projects is regulated using a concept costs needed to change to a CC approach are considerable. On
called the drum buffer rope. This control mechanism basically the other hand, numerous successful applications of CC testify
connects the available capacity of the constraint resource with to its value. To maintain a balanced perspective, however, we
a stage gate controlling for the entrance of new projects. A new must also point out that a number of firms failed to implement
project is only entered if the constraint resource has or will have CC and complained about the complexity of the CC approach
free capacity. In practice these coordination decisions are made in changing behaviors and expectations and managing the extra
by committees. complexity of buffer management. In particular, users point
to the difficulty of convincing managers of the efficacy of the
Monitoring Metrics. As stated earlier, the CP concept does not really approach and getting them to impose the necessary management
address the multiproject level, and the EV method does not make discipline—for example, to insist on activity times with no
any assertion about the performance of a multi-project system. safety margin, to impose priorities on projects, and to develop
In CC, individual projects are monitored and controlled using an environment that eliminates bad multitasking. Furthermore,
the feeding and project buffers as discussed for the single project our case studies suggest that project managers find it difficult to
case. The drum buffers are not really monitored in the same way manage multiple buffers. For this reason we suggest elsewhere a
as the project completion buffers. To control system performance, simplified version of CC that we call CC-Lite, in which the feeding
the basic metrics are WIP and throughput. Deviations in these buffers are eliminated (Lechler et al., 2005).
metrics could require rescheduling the multiproject system. The From the analysis in this article and case studies conducted
CC concept does not give any guidelines as to what percentage of by the authors (Lechler et al., 2005), it seems that a number of
WIP should be allowed. TOC ideas are highly beneficial for managing projects and can be
used without implementing the whole concept of CC. These are
Behavioral Issues. As discussed above in the planning section, summarized in Exhibit 9.
a major difference between CP and CC is that the latter clearly Finally, we agree with McKay and Morton (1998) who state
restricts multitasking of resources. A CP schedule ties activity due that a series of empirical studies are needed to clearly identify the
Engineering Management Journal Vol. 17 No. 4 December 2005
56
Exhibit 9. Simple Management Practices Implied by CC
Manage constraint resources to avoid or solve resource conflicts Monitor closely the constraint resource and solve resource conflicts
dependent on the constraint resource
Reduce multitasking Hold regular project meetings, prioritize activities and ensure that
no person has more than (say) three or four concurrent tasks. Avoid
preemption of active tasks
Focus on total systems throughput rather than individual projects Prioritize projects. Recognize the bottleneck resource and synchronize
its use by different projects based on their priority
necessary and sufficient conditions for the TOC concept to work Goldratt, E.M., “Critical Chain, IIE Transactions, 30 (1998),
in project management and to test its robustness. In the discussion pp. 759–763.
we identified a number of specific questions for future research: Goldratt, E.M., Goldratt Satellite Program, North River Press
• Is it reasonable to ask that activity durations be estimated with (1990).
no included safety margin? Can this practice be sustained? Gutierrez, G., and P. Kouvelis, “Parkinson’s Law and its
• Can the tendency for people to multitask be controlled? Implications for Project Management,” Management Science,
• Can project managers handle the complexity of buffer 37:8 (1991), pp. 990–1001.
management? Heroelen, W., R. Leus, and E. Demeulemeester, “Critical
• Can the additional discipline and knowledge required to Chain Project Scheduling: Do Not Oversimplify,” Project
successfully implement CC be found in the majority of Management Journal, 33:4 (2002), pp. 48–60.
organizations? Herroelen, W., and R. Leus, “On the Merits and Pitfalls of Critical
• Is the critical chain more stable than the critical path? Chain Scheduling,” Journal of Operations Management, 19
• What is the best method for rescheduling projects in dynamic (2001), pp. 559–577.
environments? Herroelen, W., B.D. Reyck, et al., “Resource-Constrained Project
• What is the best way to identify the bottleneck resource in Scheduling: A Survey of Recent Developments,” Computers
multiproject environments? and Operations Research, 25:4 (1998), pp. 279–302.
• Can the implementation of CC be simplified by eliminating House, R.S., The Human Side of Project Management, Addison-
the feeding buffers? Wesley (1998).
Leach, L.P., “Critical Chain Project Management Improves Project
Of course, the broader and more important question is Performance,” Project Management Journal, 30:2 (1999),
whether or not CC concepts and practices will eventually replace pp. 39–51.
CP as the main paradigm for project management. Because it Leach, L.P., Critical Chain Project Management, Artech House
is difficult to change longstanding management practices, this Proffessional Developement Library (2000).
question may take years to answer. Lechler, T., B. Ronen, and E.A. Stohr, Final Report, “NASA
Strategic Multi-project Resource Management ‘CC-Lite’,”
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