Circular motion Mechanics p1/10

Circular motion

6.1 Kinematics

When a body is traveling in along the circumference of a circle, it has

r
s θ

θ = Angle moved = Angular displacement ( 角位移 ) in radians

s = Length of arc subtending angle θ
r = Radius of the circular path
t = Time taken to move s and θ
They are related by
s =rθ

Linear speed/velocity
ds
v=
dt

Angular speed/velocity
dθ
ω=
dt

Angular acceleration
dω d 2θ
α= = 2
dt dt

If it is a uniform circular motion i.e. constant speed,

s
v=
t

θ
ω=
t

v =rω

f = Frequency = Number of revolutions per unit time

T = Period = Time for one complete revolution
1
f =
T

2π
ω= = 2πf
T
Circular motion Mechanics p2/10
 EXAMPLE 6−1
An object is fixed at a point in HK. Is the Earth center SOLUTION
coincides with the center of rotation of the object? Find the No, the center of rotation o of the object is drawn below.

linear speed of the object.

Given the radius of the Earth is 6380 km and the latitude of o

HK is 22.5o N. 22.5o
ω

v = rω = (REcos22.5o)ω = 6380× 1000(cos22.5o)ω

22.5o
ω = 2π /(24× 3600)
v = 428 m s−1


6.2 Centripetal acceleration

Uniform circular motion = moving with constant speed along the

circumference of a circle ≠ constant speed in a straight line.

Mathematical derivation
vB

B
r
∆ vA
ω O
θ
A

Let v be the uniform speed of the point mass moving around the
circle. ∆ θ is the angle of the mass turned from point A to point B
within a small time ∆ t. Then arc length s = r∆ θ so v = rω .
Vectors vA and vB are the velocity of mass at point A and B
respectively.
The change in velocity ∆ v = vB − vA. in vector form.
Graphically, since the angle between OA and OB is ∆ θ . The angle
between vA and vB is also ∆ θ .

−vA ∆ vB

As ∆ t → 0, ∆ θ → 0, ∆ v ⊥ vA. and ∆ v∆ v ⊥ v .
B

The direction of ∆ v is towards centre, i.e. centripetal.

Circular motion Mechanics p3/10
The magnitude of ∆ v, written as ∆ v, will be

v ∆ v
θ
As ∆ t → 0, ∆ θ → 0,
∆v
∆ v=v ∆ θ
∆v v∆θ
a= =
∆t ∆t
As ∆ t → 0,
v2
a = vω = rω 2 =
r

 EXAMPLE 6−2
(a) Is the centripetal acceleration constant for a point mass
performing a uniform circular motion ?
(b) Is the centripetal acceleration directly or inversely
proportional to the radius of the circle ? Illustrate your
answer by an example.
SOLUTION
(a) No, although its magnitude is constant, its direction is
always changing with time. Indeed, displacement, velocity
and acceleration are all rotating with constant magnitude.
(b) If ω is constant, a will be directly proportional to r.
For instance, objects at different latitudes of the earth.
However, if v is constant, a will be inversely proportional
to r. For instance, a car turns around at a corner.


6.3 Centripetal force

To maintain the circular motion, a resultant force is required to

accelerate the object i.e. to change the direction of the velocity of the
object. Therefore Σ F ≠ 0 (not in equilibrium).
Also, the net force must be always perpendicular to the velocity of the
object; otherwise, the speed of the object will be increased.
Hence, this force must be radial out or in.
However, as the momentum of the object is changed its direction
inwards continually so the force (acceleration) is centripetal.
The centripetal force required to produce a is
2
mv
ΣF = = mr ω2
r

The centripetal force is the net force F acting on an object of mass m,

which performs uniform circular motion with speed v and radius of
curvature r.
Experiment to verify F = mrω 2
Circular motion Mechanics p4/10

L
Thin
Small
glass
cork of
tube
mass m
marker
Light string

Weight W

Set up the experiment as shown.

Measure the mass m of the cork by electronic weighing machine.
Measure the length of the string L from the top of the glass tube to the
centre of mass of cork with the help of the paper marker.
Swing the cork to move in a horizontal circle until the marker is close
to the bottom of the glass tube.
When the angular speed ω of the cork is steady, measure the time P
for 50 revolutions of the cork. Then find the angular speed by ω =
100π /P.
The tension T of the string is given by the known weight hanged.
Repeat the experiment by using changing the known weight.
Sets of values of T and mLω 2 are compared.
It is found that T ≈ mLω 2 with errors

Theory
Free body diagram of the cork

T
θ

mg
Resolve components or Vectors diagram
y-component:
In equilibrium, Σ F = 0
Tcosθ = mg
T
x-component: mg θ
Σ F = ma =
Uniform circular motion, Σ F = ma
mrω 2
Tsinθ = mrω 2
Also, (a lot of students miss this step)
r = Lsinθ
Then
T = mLω 2
Circular motion Mechanics p5/10
 EXAMPLE 6−2
What are the major sources of error of the above experiment SOLUTION
? The friction between the glass tube and the string.
It is difficult to keep the cork performing a horizontal
uniform circular motion.


 EXAMPLE 6−3
Compare the velocity of a body having uniform accelerated
linear motion and a body having uniform circular motion.
SOLUTION
The body moves in a straight line. The magnitude of
velocity is always changing but the direction of velocity is
either unchanged or changed once only.
The body moves in a circle. The magnitude of velocity is
constant but its direction is always changing.


There is no centrifugal force acting on the body having circular

motion. It is a fictitious force felt by body in accelerated ref. frame.

6.4 Uniform circular motion

Satellites or moon moving around the earth are examples of uniform

circular motion (studied in Gravitation). Also, object performing
horizontal circular motion can be a uniform circular motion.
Consider an object performing horizontal uniform circular motion, the
net force acting on it should be pointed towards the centre of the
circle horizontally. Hence, its force diagram must be of the form

θ
r Q
Σ F

centre of Σ F
θ mg
the circle mg Q

As seen from the diagram, the point mass moving into paper, at least
one more force Q must be acted on the object in order to balance the
weight vertically and provide centripetal force horizontally.
Vertically, Σ F = 0
Q cos θ = mg
Horizontally, Σ F = ma
Q sinθ = mv2/r = mrω 2
Circular motion Mechanics p6/10
 EXAMPLE 6−4
Car turning on a level road A car of mass 1600 kg SOLUTION
travelling at a constant speed 20 m s−1 around a flat, circular Force diagram of the car (as a point mass)

track of radius 190 m. Name the force which provides the

normal force
necessary centripetal force for turning and find it value.
The diagram shows the car running out of the paper and
friction
turning right.

weight
The centripetal force is provided by the friction between
the car and the ground.
Vertically, Σ F = 0
N=W
Horizontally, Σ F = ma
f = mv2/r = 1600× 202/190 = 3368 N


 EXAMPLE 6−5
This question is the extension of the example 6−4. SOLUTION
What is the work done by the friction which provides the The work done by the friction is zero because there is no
necessary centripetal force for turning ? Explain your sliding when the car turns around so the friction for turning
answer. is a static friction.


 EXAMPLE 6−6
Car turning on a banked road It is not safe to turn using SOLUTION
friction because the friction may be lowered for different Force diagram of the car (as a point mass)

road conditions. A banked road can be ideal for a car to normal force
turn without using friction as shown.

weight
The centripetal force is provided by the horizontal
β
component of the normal force.
Find the value for the ideal angle β if the speed of the car Vertically, Σ F = 0
of mass m is v and the radius of the bend is r. Ncosβ = W = mg
Horizontally, Σ F = ma
Nsinβ = mv2/r
Hence, tanβ = v2/gr.
However, one ideal angle is for one speed only.

Circular motion Mechanics p7/10
 EXAMPLE 6−7
Turning of aeroplane An aircraft in straight, level flight SOLUTION
experiences a lifting force U at right angles to its wings, and The aircraft must tilt to an angle so the horizontal

the force balances its weight W as shown. This lifting force component of the lifting force provides the centripetal

increases with increasing the speed of the aircraft. force. The weight is now supported by the vertical
How can the aircraft turn ? What is the relationship component of the lifting force, which must be increased by
between the speed v of the aircraft and the radius r of the increasing the speed of the aircraft.
circle ? The aircraft turns right as shown. U2
θ
U
Vertically, Σ F = 0
W
W U2cosθ = W = mg
U2
The aircraft is moving out of the paper. Horizontally, Σ F = ma
W
U2sinθ = mv2/r Σ
Hence, tanθ = v2/gr. F

(FPI 94) Examples 10, 11, 12

If the force acting towards the center of circle is not equal to the
required centripetal force (mrω 2), the body will fail to perform
circular motion.

 EXAMPLE 6−8
The figure shows the path of a car turns a corner. Draw on SOLUTION
the same diagram the expected paths of the car if the
resultant force towards the center is now
(a) greater than the centripetal force required, and corner
(b) less than the centripetal force required.
centre
path
of circle


6.5 Non-uniform circular motion

For non-uniform circular motion, the formula for centripetal force can
still be applied to the centripetal component of the net force.
However, there is a tangential component of the net force to change
the speed of the object.
Object performing vertical circular motion is a non-uniform circular
motion except at its highest and lowest positions.
Only the highest and lowest positions are considered in AL course.
Circular motion Mechanics p8/10
Consider an object performing vertical uniform circular motion, the
net force acting on it should be pointed towards the centre of the
circle vertically when the object are at A or B.
B

A
Positive direction should be chosen as the direction towards centre.

At A, as the centre of circular motion is above the object, there must

exist an extra upward force P such that
centre of the motion

r P

A
mg

since Σ F = ma
mv 2
P − mg =
r
The upward force P must be greater than mg, so the net force provides
the necessary centripetal force. The body can perform uniform
circular motion momentarily at the lowest position.
For instance, the tension of a swinging pendulum is the greatest when
it reaches its lowest position.

At B, the weight can help providing centripetal force.

R B
v
Q

r mg

centre of the motion

Downward force Q or Upward force R may or may not exist in the

force diagram.
Circular motion Mechanics p9/10
There are three cases for the circular motion:
1 Weight equals the centripetal force required.
2 Weight is less than the centripetal force required. Q exists.
3 Weight is greater than the centripetal force required. R exists.

For case one, Σ F = ma

mv 2
mg =
r
It happens only when the speed of the object is v = √(gr) at B.
The object is just able to move through the top of the vertical circle
using its own weight without the aid of other forces.

For case two, Σ F = ma

mv 2
Q + mg =
r
It happens when the speed of the object is greater than v = √(gr) at B.
For instance, an ‘up-side-down’ cart moves through the top of a loop,
for which the normal force of the track acts on the cart in downwards
direction.
If there is no Q, such as a very fast moving car on the convex part of a
road, the car will jump off the road!

For case three, Σ F = ma

mv 2
mg − R =
r
It happens when the speed of the object is slower than v = √(gr) at B.
For instance, on the convex part of a road, a car moves through it
safely. However, as the normal force acting on the car is less than
mg, the passengers inside the car feels themselves lighter.
If there were no R, such as swinging a bucket of water slowly, the
water inside the bucket falls down. The necessary centripetal force is
small and equals to the weight of part of the water so the other part of
the water falls down.

 EXAMPLE 6−9
Looping the loop The passengers on a cart of a roller SOLUTION
coaster can loop the loop without falling downwards at the Force diagram of the cart.

top of the loop. If the radius of the loop is 10 m, find the Minimum speed happens when N = 0 N

minimum speed of the cart when it is at the top of the loop. mg = mv2/r
mg
v = √(gr) = 10 m s−1.

Circular motion Mechanics p10/10
6.6 Centrifuges

A machine uses for separating solids suspended in liquids or liquids

of different densities. It is also applied in the operation of the spin-
dry portion of many washers.

The mixture is in tubes and when it is rotated in high speed in a

horizontal circle the less dense matter moves towards the centre of
rotation. On stopping the rotation, the tubes return to the vertical
positions with the less dense matter at the top.

Liquid pressure gradient

Consider a liquid inside a test tube, a pressure gradient is set up from
the surface of the liquid to the bottom of the test tube. The force due
to excess pressure ∆ P = P2 − P1 on any part of the liquid ∆ m
balances its weight as shown.

P1
∆

P2 m

Theory of centrifuges (qualitatively only)

As the tube rotates, a pressure gradient is set up increasing from A to
B. It is because the closed end B provides the necessary centripetal
force on the liquid for rotation, while liquid surface A does not.
∆
center of P1 m P
2
rotation A B

Therefore, the force due to excess pressure ∆ P on any part of the

liquid ∆ m supplies exactly the centripetal force required.
However, if this part of the liquid is replaced by a matter of smaller
density ( hence of smaller mass ), the force due to excess pressure will
be greater than the centripetal force required for the smaller mass..
Then less dense matter will be pushed inwards in a spiral path.
Circular motion Mechanics p11/10