Contents

Articles
User:Rajah2770 1
Bihu 5
Magh Bihu 9
Dhol 10
Bihu dance 12
Pepa (musical instrument) 13
Culture of Assam 13
Kamarupa 19
Ahom kingdom 23
Supaatphaa 29

References
Article Sources and Contributors 32
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 33

Article Licenses
License 34
User:Rajah2770 1

User:Rajah2770
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika

Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika
[[File:File:Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika & his two kids.jpg||alt=]]
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika with Laquit(son) and Danisha(daughter)

Born Azad Bin Rajib HazarikaJuly 2, 1970Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Residence Nagaon, Assam, India

Nationality Indian

Ethnicity AssameseMuslim

Citizenship India

Education PhD, PDF, FRAS

Alma mater University of Jodhpur

Jai Narayan Vyas University
[1]
Institute of Advanced Study in Science & Technology
[2]
Kendriya Vidyalaya
[3]
Poona College of Arts, Science &Commerce

Occupation Assistant Professor(Lecturer), Diphu Govt. College , Diphu,Assam,India

Years active 2004- onwards

Employer Diphu Government College

Government of Assam,Assam Education Service

Known for Lecturer ,Assistant Professor,Mathematician,Academician,Fusion,Astronomy

Home town Nagaon, Assam, India

Salary Rs 40000 per month

Height 6 feet and 2 inches

Weight 100 kg

Title Doctorate, Dr., FRAS (London), Assam Education Service, AES

Board Member of Scientific and Technical committee & Editorial review board of Natuaral and Applied sciences World Academy of
member of [4]
Science ,Engineering & Technology

Religion Sunni Islam,

Spouse Helmin Begum Hazarika

Children Laquit Ali Hazarika(son), Danisha Begum Hazarika(daughter)

Parents Rosmat Ali Hazarika@Rostam Ali Hazarika@Roufat Ali Hazarika and Anjena Begum Hazarika

Call-sign Drabrh or Raja

Website

[5]
[6] [7] [8] [9]
User:Rajah2770 2

Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika with Laquit (son) and Danisha(daughter)

Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika (born July 02, 1970, in Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India) is Assistant
Professor(Lecturer) Diphu Government College ,Diphu in Karbi Anglong district , Government of Assam [10] , [11] ,
Karbi Anglong,Assam's largest conglomerate by Government of Assam . He is also the Fellow of Royal
Astronomical Society[12] ,London ,Member of International Association of Mathematical Physics, World Academy
of Science ,Engineering & Technology, Focus Fusion Society, Dense Plasma Focus, Plasma Science Society of
India, Assam Science Society, Assam academy of mathematics,International Atomic Energy Agency,Nuclear and
Plasma Sciences Society,Society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics,German Academy of Mathematics and
Mechanics,Fusion Science & Technology Society,Indian National Science Academy,Indian Science Congress
Association,Advisory Committee of Mathematical Education,Royal Society,International Biographical Centre.

Early life
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika was born into the famous Hazarika family, a prominent family belonging to Dhing's wealthy
Muslim Assamese community of Nagaon district. He was born to Anjena Begum Hazarika and Rusmat Ali
Hazarika. He is eldest of two childrens of his parents younger one is a Shamim Ara Rahman(nee Hazarika)daughter .

Early career
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika completed his PhD degree in Mathematics from J N Vyas University of Jodhpur in 1995 with
specialization in Plasma instability, the thesis was awarded “best thesis” by Association of Indian Universities in
1998 and the Post-Doctoral Fellow Program from Institute of Advanced Study in Science & Technology [13] in
Guwahati Assam in 1998 as Research Associate in Plasma Physics Division in theory group studying the Sheath
phenomenon. As a Part-time Lecturer in Nowgong college, Assam before joining the present position in Diphu
Government College ,Diphu in Karbi Anglong district[14] ,[15] He is a member of the wikipedia[16] , [17] . He is
Fellow of Royal Astronomical Society[18] ,member of International Association Mathematical Physics[19] , member
of World Academy of Science,Engineering & Technology [20] ,[21] , member of Plasma science Society of India [22] ,
[23]
,member of Focus Fusion Society forum [24] ,member of Dense Plasma Focus [25] , Member of Assam Science
Society [26] , Member of Assam Academy of Mathematics [27]
User:Rajah2770 3

He joined the Diphu Government College in July2004 as Lecturer in Mathematics (Gazetted officer), through Assam
Public Service commission [28] in Assam Education Service [29] , AES-I. [30] now redesignated as Assistant
Professor.

Career
In May 1993, Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika was awarded Junior Research Fellowship,University Grants Commission,
National Eligibility Test and eligibility for Lecturership ,Govt. of India and worked as JRF(UGC,NET) in
Department of Mathematics and Statistics of J N Vyas University in Jodhpur. Later on in May 1995 got Senior
Research Fellowship(UGC,NET) and continued research for completion of PhD on 27th Dec 1995 .From 1993
onwards taught in Kamala Nehru College for women, Jodhpur and in Faculty of Science in J N Vyas University in
Jodhpur up to the completion of PhD .In 1998 May joined Plasma Physics Division of Institute of Advanced Study
in Science & Technology in Guwahati as Research Associate for PDF in theory group to study the sheath
phenomena of National Fusion Programme [31] of Govt. of India . Then joined Nowgong College as a part-time
Lecturer after which in 2004, July joined the present position of Lecturer in Diphu Government College which is
redesignated as Assistant Professor.

Research
During PhD [32] [33] [34] [35] [36]
The research was based on Astronomy,Astrophysics, Geophysics , for plasma instability with the title of thesis as
“Some Problems of instabilities in partially ionized and fully ionized plasmas” which later on in 1998 was assessed
as best thesis of the year by Association of Indian Universities in New Delhi. He is known for Bhatia-Hazarika
limitResearch at Diphu Govt. College [37] , [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] Applied for patent in US patent and
trademarks office [45] [46]
Research guidance is given to students in Mathematics for MPhil. He has written six books entitled Inventions of
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika on future devices and Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's Pattern recognition on fusion
,Application of Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's conceptual devices , Green tecnology for next genration , Invention of
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's devices ,VASIMR DANISHA:A Hall Thruster Space Odyssey ,[47] , [48] , [49]
He has derived a formula Hazarika's constant for VASIMR DANISHA as Hazarika constant Ch=1+4sin3φ sin θ-2sin
φ-2sin θ the value is 2.646

Personal life
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika has a metallic Scarlet red Tata Indigo CS of Tata motors make and loves to drive himself.He
is married to Helmin Begum Hazarika and have two chidrens Laquit(son) and Danisha(daughter).

Quotes
• "Fakir(saint) and lakir(line) stops at nothing but at destination"
• "Expert criticizes the wrong but demonstrates the right thing"
• “Intellectuals are measured by their brain not by their age and experience”
• “Two type of persons are happy in life one who knows everything another who doesn’t know anything”
• “Implosion in device to prove every notion wrong for fusion”
• “Meditation gives fakir(saint) long life and fusion devices the long lasting confinement”
User:Rajah2770 4

Awards and recognition

Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika got Junior Research Fellowship,Government of India
Senior Research Fellowship,Government of India
Research AssociateshipDSTGovernment of India
Fellowof Royal Astronomical Society [50]
Member of Advisory committee of Mathematical Education Royal Society London
Member of Scientific and Technical committee & editorial review board on Natural and applied sciences of World
Academy of Science ,Engineering &Technology [51]
Leading professional of the world-2010 as noted and eminent professional from International Biographical Centre
Cambridge

References
[1] http:/ / www. iasst. in
[2] http:/ / www. kvafsdigaru. org
[3] http:/ / www. akipoonacollege. com
[4] http:/ / www. waset. org/ NaturalandAppliedSciences. php?page=45
[5] http:/ / www. facebook. com/ Drabrajib
[6] http:/ / in. linkedin. com/ pub/ dr-a-b-rajib-hazarika/ 25/ 506/ 549
[7] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special:Contributions/ Drabrh
[8] http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org
[9] http:/ / www. karbianglong. nic. in/ diphugovtcollege. org/ teaching. html
[10] http:/ / www. karbianglong. nic. in/ diphugovtcollege/ teaching. html
[11] http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org/ DGC%20prospectus%2008-09. pdf
[12] http:/ / www. ras. org. uk/ member?recid==5531
[13] http:/ / www. iasst. in
[14] {{cite web|url=http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org/ DGC%20prospectus%2008-09. pdf
[15] http:/ / karbianglong. nic. in/ diphugovtcollege/ teaching. html
[16] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ User:Drabrh
[17] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special:Contributions/ Drabrh
[18] http:/ / www. ras. org. uk/ member?recid=5531,
[19] http:/ / www. iamp. org/ bulletins/ old-bulletins/ 201001. pdf
[20] http:/ / www. waset. org/ NaturalandAppliedSciences. php?page=45
[21] http:/ / www. waset. org/ Search. php?page=68& search=
[22] http:/ / www. plasma. ernet. in/ ~pssi/ member/ pssi_new04. doc
[23] http:/ / www. ipr. res. in/ ~pssi/ member/ pssidir_new-04. doc
[24] http:/ / www. focusfusion. org/ index. php/ forums/ member/ 4165
[25] http:/ / www. denseplasmafocus. org/ index. php/ forum/ member/ 4165
[26] http:/ / www. assamsciencesociety. org/ member
[27] http:/ / www. aam. org. in/ member/ 982004
[28] http:/ / apsc. nic. in
[29] http:/ / aasc. nic. in/ . . . / Education%20Department/ The%20Assam%20Education%20Service%20Rules%201982. pdf
[30] (http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org/ DGC prospests 08-09. pdf)
[31] http:/ / nfp. pssi. in
[32] http:/ / www. iopscience. iop. org/ 1402-4896/ 51/ 6/ 012/ pdf/ physcr_51_6_012. pdf
[33] http:/ / www. iopsciences. iop. org/ 1402-4896/ 53/ 1/ 011/ pdf/ 1402-4896_53_1_011. pdf,
[34] http:/ / www. niscair. res. in/ sciencecommunication/ abstractingjournals/ isa_1jul08. asp
[35] http:/ / en. wiktionary. org/ wiki/ Wikitionary%3ASandbox
[36] http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1996PhyS. . 53. . . 578
[37] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special:Contributions/ Drabrh/ File:Drabrhdouble_trios_saiph_star01. pdf
[38] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_bayer_rti. pdf
[39] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Columb_drabrh. pdf
[40] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_double_trios. pdf
[41] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrhiterparabolic2007. pdf
[42] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_mctc_feedbackloop. pdf
[43] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_tasso_07. pdf
User:Rajah2770 5

[44] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Abstracts. pdf?page=2

[45] http:/ / upload. wikimedia. org/ wikipedia/ en/ 5/ 50/ EfilingAck5530228. pdf
[46] http:/ / upload. wikimedia. org/ wikipedia/ en/ c/ c4/ EfilingAck3442787. pdf
[47] http:/ / www. pothi. com
[48] http:/ / i-proclaimbookstore. com
[49] http:/ / ipppserver. homelinux. org:8080/ view/ creators/ Hazarika=3ADr=2EA=2EB=2ERajib=3A=3A. html
[50] http:/ / www. ras. org. uk/ members?recid=5531
[51] http:/ / www. waset. org/ NaturalandAppliedSciences. php?page=46

External links
• (http://www.diphugovtcollege.org/)
• Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's profile on the Linkedin Website (http://in.linkedin.com/pub/dr-a-b-rajib-hazarika/25/
506/549=)
• (http://www.facebook.com/Drabrajib)
Rajah2770 (talk) 18:12, 7 February 2011 (UTC)

Bihu
Bihu (Assamese: বিহু, Hindi: बिहू) denotes a set of three different cultural festivals of Assam. Though they owe their
origins to ancient rites and practices they have taken definite urban features and have become popular festivals in
urban and commercialized milieus in the recent decades. Bihu is also used to imply Bihu dance and Bihu folk songs.
The Bihus are the national festivals of Assam. The most important festivals of Assam are the Bihus, celebrated with
fun and abundance by all Assamese people irrespective of caste, creed, religion, faith and belief.
The word Bihu is derived from Dimasa kachari word. Dimasa kachari is from the beginning of ancient time lived in
agragrian. Their supreme god is Brai Shibrai or Father Shibrai. The First crops of the season of the month have been
usued to offer to supreme god brai Shibrai and ask for peace and prosperity from them. In this way Bi means ask and
Shu means peace and prosperity in the world. This is means gradually change the word in this way BISHU-Bihu like
this.In Assam, the Rongali Bihu draws from many different traditions— Austro-Asiatic, Sino-Burmese and
Indo-Aryan—and is celebrated with particular fervor. Celebrations begin in the middle of April and generally
continue for a month. In addition there are two other Bihus: Kongali Bihu in October (associated with the September
equinox) and Bhogali Bihu in January (associated with the January solstice). Like most other Indian festivals, Bihu
(all three) are associated with farming; as the traditional Assamese society is predominantly dependent on farming.
In fact, similar festivals are also celebrated around the same time elsewhere in India.
The Three Bihus of Assam
In a year there are three Bihu festivals in Assam - in the months of Bohaag (Baisakh, the middle of April), Maagh
(the middle of January), and Kaati (Kartik, the middle of October). The Bihus have been celebrated in Assam since
ancient times. Each Bihu coincides with a distinctive phase in the farming calendar. The most important and
colourful of the three Bihu festival is the Spring festival "Bohag Bihu" or Rongali Bihu celebrated in the middle of
April. This is also the beginning of the agricultural season.

Rongali Bihu
Rongali Bihu (mid-April, also called Bohag Bihu), the most popular Bihu celebrates the onset of the Assamese New
Year (around April 15) and the coming of Spring. This marks the first day of the Hindu solar calendar and is also
observed in Bengal, Manipur, Nepal, Orissa, Punjab, Kerala and Tamil Nadu though called by different names. It's a
time of merriment and feasting and continues, in general, for seven days. The farmers prepare the fields for
cultivation of paddy and there is a feeling of joy around. The ladies make pitha, larus (traditional food made of rice
Bihu 6

and coconut) and Jolpan which gives the real essence of the season. The first day of the bihu is called goru bihu or
cow bihu, where the cows are washed and worshipped, which falls on the last day of the previous year, usually on
April 14. This is followed by manuh (human) bihu on April 15, the New Year Day. This is the day of getting cleaned
up, wearing new cloths and celebrating and getting ready for the new year with fresh vigor. The third day is Gosai
(Gods) bihu; statues of Gods, worshiped in all households are cleaned and worshiped asking for a smooth new year.
The folk songs associated with the Bohag Bihu are called Bihugeets
or Bihu songs. The form of celebration and rites vary among
different demographic groups.
Goru Bihu
The goru bihu or cattle worship rites are observed on the last day
of the year. The cattle are washed, smeared with ground turmeric
and other pastes, struck with sprigs of dighalati and makhiyati
and endeared to be healthy and productive (lao kha, bengena
kha, bosore bosore barhi ja/maar xoru, baper xoru, toi hobi bor
bor goru—eat gourd, eat brinjal, grow from year to year/your
mother is small, your father is small, but you be a large one).
The old cattle ropes are cast away through the legs and new
ropes are tied to them, and they are allowed to roam anywhere
they wished for the entire day.[1] Bihu dancer playing a 'pepa' (horn)

Manuh Bihu
The New Year day, the day after the goru bihu, is called the manuh bihu. Elders are shown respect, with gifts
of bihuwan (a gamosa), a hachoti (kerchief), a cheleng etc., and their blessings are sought. Children are given
new clothes, and Husori singing begins on this day, and people visit their relatives and friends.[2]
Husori
Village elders move from household to households singing carols, also in the style of bihu geets, called
husoris. It possibly derives from the Dimasa Kachari word formation ha (land) and char (move over):
hachari.[3] Villages could have more than one Husori band, and they would visit households in a village
non-contiguous to itself, first singing carols at the Naamghar. The husari singers then visit individual
households, by first announcing their arrival at the gate (podulimukh) with drum beats. The singers are
traditionally welcomed into the courtyard where they sing the husori songs and perform a ring dance. At the
end of the performance they are thanked with an offering of tamul in a xorai, whereupon the singers bless the
household for the coming year. If there is a bereavement in the family, or the family does not invite the husori
singers due to an illness, the husori band offers blessings from podulimukh and move on. Generally the singers
are all male.[4]
Fat Bihu
This is a very old form of Bihu, characterized by spontaneity, popular in the Lakhimpur area of Assam.
According to legend, the first Ahom king, Sukaphaa, traveled to the region to watch it in the early 13th
century.[5]
Beshma
This is celebrated by koches , in this festival 'bhurbhura','shak' are marrimaking and festing,
Mukoli Bihu
Young unmarried men and women attired in traditional golden silk muga dance the bihu and sing bihu songs
in the open fields. The songs have themes of romance and sexual love, requited or unrequited. Sometimes the
songs describe tragic events too, but treated very lightly. The dance celebrates female sexuality.
Bihu 7

Jeng Bihu
This is Bihu dance and song performed and watched only by women. The name "jeng" comes from the fact
that in earlier days women in the villages used to surround the place of their performance with sticks dug into
the ground called jeng in Assamese.
Baisago
The Bodo-Kachari people celebrate for seven days—the first day for cattle (Magou), the second day for man
(Mansoi) and ancestor worship, feasting, singing and merriment. Songs follow the same themes as the Bihu
songs.[6]
Bihutoli Bihu
The rural festival made its transition to urban life when it was first time brought to the stage in Lataxil field in
Guwahati by the Guwahati Bihu Sanmilani in 1962, promoted by leading citizens like Radha Govinda Baruah
and others. Bihu to a great extent has been popularized by the Bihu 'Samrat'( king ), of Assam, Khagen
Mahanta. Unlike the rural version, the dancers danced on a makeshift elevated stage in an open area that came
to be known as a Bihutoli. Many such Bihutolis have sprouted since then in Guwahati and other urban areas.
The performances are not confined to the bihu dance form, but may incorporate all forms of theatrical
performances to keep the audience enthralled well into the early hours. Performances could include standup
comedy, to concerts by solo singers. The stage form of bihu has become so popular, that organizers have
begun extending the celebrations to bohagi bidai, or farewell to the Bohag month, which are similar
performances held a month later.
Rongali Bihu is also a fertility festival, where the bihu dance with its sensous movements using the hips, arms, etc.,
by the young women call out to celebrate their fertility. In this aspect, the bihu dance can also be called a mating
ritual by the young men and women.

Kongali Bihu
Kongali Bihu (mid-October, also called Kati-Bihu) has a different flavour as there is less merriment and the
atmosphere has a sense of constrain and solemnity. During this time of the year, the paddy in the fields are in the
growing stage and the granaries of the farmers are almost empty. On this day, earthen lamps (saki) are lit at the foot
of the household tulashi plant, the granary, the garden (bari) and the paddy fields. To protect the maturing paddy,
cultivators whirl a piece of bamboo and recite rowa-khowa chants and spells to ward off pests and the evil eye. The
Bodo people light lamps at the foot of the siju (Euphorbia) tree. This Bihu is also associated with the lighting of
akaxi gonga or akaxbonti, lamps at the tip of a tall bamboo pole, to show the souls of the dead the way to heaven, a
practice that is common to many communities in India, as well as Asia and Europe.Edited by Parikshit Roy [7]

Bhogali Bihu
Bhogali Bihu (mid-January, also called Magh Bihu) comes from the word Bhog that is eating and enjoyment. It is a
harvest festival and marks the end of harvesting season. Since the granaries are full, there is a lot of feasting and
eating during this period. On the eve of the day called uruka, i.e., the last day of pausa, menfolk, more particularly
young men go to the field, preferably near a river, build a makeshift cottage called Bhelaghar with the hay of the
harvest fields and the Meji, the most important thing for the night. During the night, they prepare food and there is
community feasting everywhere.There is also exchange of sweets and greetings at this time. The entire night (called
Uruka) is spent around a Meji with people singing bihu songs, beating Dhol, a typical kind of drums or playing
games. Boys roam about in the dark stealing firewood and vegetables for fun. The next morning they take a bath and
burn the main Meji. People gather around the Meji and throw Pithas (rice cakes) and betel nuts to it while burning it
at the same time. They offer their prayers to the God of Fire and mark the end of the harvesting year. Thereafter they
come back home carrying pieces of half burnt firewood for being thrown among fruit trees for favourable results. All
Bihu 8

the trees in the compound are tied to bamboo strips or paddy stems. Different types of sports like Buffalo-fight,
Egg-fight, Cock-fight, Nightingale-fight etc. are held throughout the day. There are other conventional festivals
observed by various ‘enthno-cultural’ groups. Me-dam-me-phi , Ali-aye-ligang , Porag, Garja, Hapsa Hatarnai,
Kherai are few among them.The koch celebrates this bihu as pushna [8]

Instruments used in Bihu

• Dhol (Drum)
• Taal
• Pepa (An instrument made of buffalo horn)
• Toka
• Baanhi (Flute)
• Xutuli
• Gogona

Others
The Kadi-Khel (a game, somewhat similar to present-day Ludo) is closely associated with all the forms of bihu.
Earlier, it was mostly played in the afternoon, specially during the days of bihu, by men and women, separately, by
making a temporary dice on the earthen floor, and using the dry hard coverings of small snails. However,
now-a-days, it is mostly extinct.

Bihu elsewhere
Bihu is also seen to be celebrated abroad. Many Bihu associations / committees exist elsewhere where this festival is
celebrated with enthusiasm. The London Bihu Committee (LBC), UK is one of them amongst others.

Notes and references

[1] Goswami 1988, p12-14
[2] Goswami 1988, p14
[3] Goswami 1988, p34.
[4] Tamuli, Babul Huchori: A Must for the Masses (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20091027150630/ http:/ / www. geocities. com/ bipuljyoti/
music/ huchori. html), The Assam Tribune, 2002
[5] Rahman, Daulat Assam initiates project to revive & popularise the festival’s oldest form (http:/ / www. telegraphindia. com/ 1070623/ asp/
northeast/ story_7959506. asp), The Telegraph, June 23, 2007
[6] Goswami 1988, pp26-27.
[7] Goswami 1988, pp7-8
[8] http:/ / sankalpindia. net/ drupal/ ?q=bihu-a-celebration-assamese-culture

• Das, Debendra Prasad Rongali Bihu through the ages (http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/details.

asp?id=apr1407\edit3), The Assam Tribune, April 14, 2007.
• Dowerah, Sawpon Rongali Bihu-the spring festival of Assam (http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/details.
asp?id=apr1407\edit2), The Assam Tribune, April 14, 2007.
• Goswami, Prafulladatta (1988) Bohag Bihu of Assam and Bihu songs, Publication Board, Assam.
Bihu 9

External links
• Bihu photos (http://www.assamtribune.com/apr1608/Photo.html)
• Bihu Astrology (http://www.decisioncare.org/festival/bihu-assamese-new-year/)

Magh Bihu
Magh Bihu (also called Bhogali Bihu (Bihu of enjoyment) or Maghar Domahi) is a harvest festival celebrated in
Assam, India, which marks the end of harvesting season in the month of Maagha (January–February).[1] It is the
Assam celebration of Sankranthi, with feasting lasting for a week.[2]
The festival is marked by feasts and bonfires.[3] Young people erect makeshift huts, known as meji, from bamboo,
leaves and thatch, in which they eat the food prepared for the feast, and then burn the huts the next morning.[4] The
celebrations also feature traditional Assamese games such as tekeli bhonga (pot-breaking) and buffalo fighting.[5]

References
[1] Bhatt, S. C.; Land and people of Indian states and union territories (2005). Land and people of Indian states and union territories. Gyan
Publishing House. p. 305. ISBN 9788178353562.
[2] Sharma, S. P.; Seema Gupta (2006). Fairs & Festivals Of India. Pustak Mahal. p. 25. ISBN 9788122309515.
[3] The New Encyclopædia Britannica. 21. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 1987. p. 137. ISBN 9780852295717.
[4] "Bihu being celebrated with joy across Assam" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2005/ 01/ 14/ stories/ 2005011410220300. htm). The Hindu.
January 14, 2005. . Retrieved 2009-05-02.
[5] "Bonfire, feast & lots more - Jorhat celebrations promise traditional joy this Magh Bihu" (http:/ / www. telegraphindia. com/ 1080112/ jsp/
northeast/ story_8771062. jsp). The Telegraph. January 12, 2008. . Retrieved 2009-05-02.
Dhol 10

Dhol
For Armenian Dhol and Georgian Doli, see Nagara (drum)

Dhol

Other names ਢੋਲ,‫ لوھڈ‬, ढोल, ঢোল, Դհոլ, ‫لهد‬

Classification Percussion instrument

Playing range

Bolt tuned

Related instruments

dholak, Armenian dhol, also curiously similar to the pan-american tambora

More articles

Bhangra, Bihu, Qawwali

The dhol (Punjabi: ਢੋਲ IPA: [ʈòl]; Hindi: ढोल Urdu: ‫ ;لوھڈ‬ɖʰol, Assamese: ঢোল, Pashto: ‫ ;لوهډ‬Armenian: դհոլ;
Georgian:დოლი) and also dohol (Persian: ‫)لهد‬, is a drum (a percussion musical instrument) widely used in the
Indian subcontinent, especially the Punjab region, and especially among the Sikhs of East Punjab. Apart from
Punjab, Dhol has been adapted into the music of other regions throughout South Asia and abroad including the
Assam Valley (during Assam's Bihu festival), Gujarat, Rajasthan, Sindh and Maharashtra. It is very popular in
modern Punjabi music.

History
The dhol is a drum that dates back to the 15th century. It was probably introduced to the Indian subcontinent via the
Persian drum type dohol (duhul).[1] The evidence for this is found in Ain-i-Akbari, which describes the use of duhul
in the orchestra of the Mogul emperor Akbar.[2] The Indo-Aryan word "dhol" appears in print around 1800 in the
treatise Sangitasara.[3]
The dhol is most commonly associated with Punjabi music and dance. It was used in war by the Sikhs and later to
celebrate successful harvests by Jatt landowners. This drum became the ground roots of modern Bhangra music.
From North India, the Dhol spread to other parts of the Indian subcontinent as well.

Description
The dhol is a double-sided barrel drum (straight barrels also exist) played mostly as an accompanying instrument in
regional music forms. In Qawwali music, the term dhol is used to describe a similar, but smaller drum used with the
smaller tabla, as a replacement for the left hand tabla drum. The typical sizes of the drum vary slightly from region to
region. In Punjab, the dhol remains large and bulky to produce the preferred loud bass. In other regions, dhols can be
found in varying shapes and sizes and made with different woods and materials (fiberglass, Steel, Plastic). The drum
Dhol 11

consists of a wooden barrel with animal hide or synthetic skin stretched over its open ends, covering them
completely. These skins can be stretched or loosened with a tightening mechanism made up of either interwoven
ropes, or nuts and bolts. Tightening or loosening the skins subtly alters the pitch of the drum sound. The stretched
skin on one of the ends is thicker and produces a deep, low frequency (higher bass) sound and the other thinner one
produces a higher frequency sound. Dhols with synthetic, or plastic, treble skins are very common.

Playing
The drum is played using two wooden sticks, usually made out of bamboo and cane wood. The most common
rhythm played on the dhol is the Chaal, which consists of 8 beats per measure. The stick used to play the bass side of
the drum is a bit thicker (roughly about 10 mm in diameter) and is bent in a quarter-circular arc on the end that
strikes the drum, the dagga. The other stick is much thinner and flexible and used to play the higher note end of the
drum, the thili. The drum is slung over the neck of the player with a strap usually made up of ropes or woven cloth.
The surface of the wooden barrel is in some cases decorated with engraved or painted patterns.

Importance
From North India, the Dhol spread to other parts of the Indian subcontinent as well. Apart from Punjabi music, it is
also used in music of regions like Assam (Bihu dance), Maharashtra, Gujarat, Bengal (including Bangladesh), Goa
(during the Shigmo/Holi festival), South India etc. It has also become popular in other parts of the world due to
South Asian diaspora. Dhol was a popular musical instrument in both formal and informal dance performances for
decades. The introduction of electronic devices such as tape recorders has led to a decline in the importance of dhol
players in celebratory events. Nevertheless, dhol music still figures in the studio recordings of present day
Raas/Garba and Bhangra music artists. A related instrument is the dholak or dholki.
In Maharashtra, Dhol is a primary instrument used in Ganesh Festivals. In the city of Pune students, working
professionals, businessmen come together to form Dhol Pathaks or troups. Pune supposedly has the largest number
dhols in India.
When doing Attan, the cultural Pathan/Pashtun dance, Dhol is the main musical instrument. Attan is done in
accordance to the sound of the Dhol.
In Assam, Dhol is widely used in Rongali Bihu (Bohag Bihu), the most beloved festival of the Assamese people.
Rongali Bihu is celebrated in the mid of April every year.

References
[1] Thakur 1996; Nabha 1998
[2] DHOL KING OF THE PUNJABI INSTRUMENTS (http:/ / www. uweb. ucsb. edu/ ~hcritz/ dholpages/ dholhome. html). Gibb Schreffler.
[3] Tarlekar 1972: 74
Bihu dance 12

Bihu dance
The Bihu dance (Assamese: বিহু নৃত্য, Hindi: बिहू नृत्य) is a folk dance
from the Indian state of Assam related to the festival of Bihu. This
joyous dance is performed by both young men and women, and is
characterized by brisk dance steps,and rapid hand movement. Dancers
wear traditionally colorful Assamese clothing.
The Bihu dance (Assamese: বিহু নৃত্য, Hindi: बिहू नृत्य) is performed in
conjunction with traditional Bihu folk music, played with: the "dhol",
similar to a drum; the mohor singor pepa, a pipe instrument made from
a buffalo horn; the tala, a cymbal; the gogona, a reed and bamboo
instrument; and the toka, a bamboo clapper. The songs (bihu geet) that
accompany the dance have been handed down for many generations.
The subject of the lyrics ranges from welcoming the Assamese new
year to describing the daily life of a farmer, from historical references
of invasions to Assam to contemporary socio-political commentary in a Bihu dancer with a horn
satirical way.

The dance takes several forms among the different northeast Indian tribes, e.g., the "Garo Bihu dance" and the
"Khasi Bihu dance." However, the underlying goal of the dance remains the same: to express the desire to feel both
pain and happiness.
Below is the image of popular assamese actresses dancing to the tunes of Bihu

Rongali Bihu competitions

In mid April, along with the onset of spring, falls the new year in the local calendar with the month of Bohag.
Nowadays, during this period, there are Bihu competitions all over the Assam (as well as throughout the major
locations with Assamese diaspora. These competitions attract visitors and locals alike in huge throngs. Apart from
Bihu dance, there are competitions held to select the Bihu Konwori (Bihu Princess) and various singing talents.
At the end of the month of Bohag there is also the farewell to the month commemorated by numerous Bohagi Bidai
functions.
Pepa (musical instrument) 13

Pepa (musical instrument)

'Pepa' is a flute-like musical instrument that is used in traditional
music in Assam.
It is usually with a very short stem made from small diameter
bamboo/cane/reed with the end away from the mouth capped with the
horn of a buffalo.
It is an integral part of the culture of Assam.

A Bihu dancer blowing a Pepa

Culture of Assam
The culture of Assam is traditionally a hybrid one, developed due to cultural assimilation of different ethno-cultural
groups under various politico-economic systems in different periods of pre-history and history.

Evolution
Culture of Assam 14

The roots of the culture go back to

almost two thousand years when the
first cultural assimilation took place
with Austro-Asiatic and
Tibeto-Burman as the major
components. With reference from the
great epics Mahabharata and on the
basis of the local folk lore it is also
hypothised that there was probably a
strong kingdom of these mixed
population (of Austro-Asiatic and
Tibeto-Burman origin) in the era
before Christ, which led to an early
assimilation at a greater scale. Typical
naming of the rivers and spatial
distribution of related ethno-cultural
groups also support that. Thereafter,
western migrations such as those of
various branches of Mediterraneans,
Inrano-skythians and Nordics along
Development of Hybrid Culture in Assam
with (or in the form of) the mixed
northern Indians (the ancient cultural
mix already present in northern Indian states such as Magadha) have enriched the aboriginal culture and under
certain stronger politico-economic systems, Sanskritisation and Hinduisation intensified and became prominent.
Such an assimilated culture therefore carries many elements of source cultures, of which exact roots are difficult to
trace and are matter of research. However, in each of the elements of Assamese culture, i.e. language, traditional
crafts, performing arts, festivity and beliefs either local elements or the local elements in a Hinduised / Sanskritised
forms are always present.

It is believed that under the great dynasties of Pragjyotisha-Kamrupa (Varman dynasty for 300 years, Xalostombho
dynasty for 200 years and the Pala dynasty for another 200 years) during the first millennium AD, Assamese culture
in its original form got developed. The records of many aspects of the language, traditional crafts (silk, lac, gold,
bronze, etc), etc are available in different forms. When the Tai-Shans entered the region in 1228 under the leadership
of Sukaphaa to form one of the strongest politico-economic systems (Ahom kingdom) in Assam for the next 600
years, again a new chapter of cultural assimilation was written. The original Tai-Shans assimilated with the local
culture, adopted the language on one hand and on the other also influenced the main-stream culture with the
elements from their own. Similarly the Koch kingdom in the western Assam and the medieval Kachari kingdoms
(Kocary) and Jaintia kingdoms in the southern Assam provided stages for assimilation at different intensities and
with different cultural-mix.
Culture of Assam 15

Vaishanav Movement, the 15th century religio-cultural

movement under the leadership of great Srimanta
Sankardeva (Xonkordeu) and his disciples have provided
another dimension to Assamese culture. A renewed
Hinduisation in local forms took place, which was
initially greatly supported by the Koch and later by the
Ahom Kingdoms. The resultant social institutions such as
namghar and sattra (the Vaishnav Monasteries) have
become part of Assamese way life. The movement
contributed greatly towards language, literature and
Kamalabari Satra in Majuli performing and fine arts. It is also noticed that many a
times, Vaishnav Movement attempted to introduce alien
cultural attributes and modify the way of life of common people. Brajavali a language specially created by
introducing words from other Indian languages had failed as a language but left its traces on the Assamese language.
Moreover, new alien rules were also introduced changing people's food habits and other aspects of cultural life. This
had a greater impact on alienation of many local ethno-cultural and political groups in the later periods.

Historically, it is not difficult to understand that on one hand, during the strong politico-economic systems under
stronger dynasties, greater cultural assimilations created common attributes of Assamese culture, while on the other
during smaller politico-economic systems or during political disintegration, more localised attributes were created
with spatial differentiation. Time-factor for such integrations and differentiations has also played extremely
important role along with the position of individual events in the entire series of sequential events.
With a strong base of tradition and history, the modern Assamese culture is greatly influenced by various events
those took place in the British Assam and in the Post-British Era. The language was standardised by the American
Missionaries with the form available in the Sibsagar (Xiwoxagor) District (the nerve centre of the Ahom
politico-economic system). A renewed Sanskritisation was increasingly adopted for developing Assamese language
and grammar. A new wave of Western and northern Indian influence was apparent in the performing arts and
literature.
Due to increasing efforts of standardisation in the 19th and 20th century, the localised forms present in different
districts and also among the remaining source-cultures with the less-assimilated ethno-cultural groups have seen
greater alienation. However, Assamese culture in its hybrid form and nature is one of the richest and is still under
development.

Composition and characteristics

Assamese culture in its true sense today is a 'cultural system' composed of different sub-systems. It is more
interesting to note that even many of the source-cultures of Assamese culture are still surviving either as sub-systems
or as sister entities. In broader sense, therefore, the Assamese cultural system incorporates its source-cultures.
However, it is also important to keep the broader system closer to its roots.
Some of the common cultural traits available across these systems are:
• Respect towards areca-nut and betel leaves
• Respect towards particular symbolic cloth types such as Gamosa, Arnai, etc
• Respect towards traditional silk and cotton garments
• Respect towards forefathers and elderly
• Great hospitality
• Bamboo culture
Culture of Assam 16

Elements

Symbolism
Symbolism is an important part of Assamese culture. Various elements are being used to represent beliefs, feelings,
pride, identity, etc. Symbolism is an ancient cultural practice in Assam, which is still very important for the people.
Tamulpan, Xorai and Gamosa are three important symbolic elements in Assamese culture.
Tamulpan (the areca nut and betel leaves) or guapan (gua from kwa) are considered as the offers of devotion, respect
and friendship. It is an ancient tradition and is being followed since time-immemorial with roots in the aboriginal
Austro-Asiatic culture.
Xorai being a traditional symbol of Assam is a manufactured bell-metal object and an article of great respect and is
used as a container-medium while performing respectful offers.It simplistic term,it is an offering tray with a stand at
the bottom.There are xorais with or without a cover on the top. Traditionally xorais were made of bell metal although
nowadays they can be made from brass and/or silver.Hajo and Sarthebari are the most important centres of
traditional bell-metal and brass crafts including xorais.Xorais are used: As an offering tray for tamul-pan(betel nuts
and betel leaves) to guests as a sign of welcome and thanks. As an offering tray for food and other items placed in
front of the altar(naamghar)for blessing by the Lord. As a decorative symbol in traditional functions such as during
Bihu dances. As a gift to a person of honour during felicitations.
The Gamosa is an article of great significance for the people of Assam. Literally translated, it means 'something to
wipe the body with' (Ga=body, mosa=to wipe); interpreting the word “gamosa” as the body-wiping towel is
misleading. It is generally a white rectangular piece of cloth with primarily a red border on three sides and red woven
motifs on the fourth (in addition to red, other colors are also used). Though it is used daily to wipe the body after a
bath (an act of purification), the use is not restricted to this. It is used by the farmer as a waistcloth (tongali) or a
loincloth (suriya); a Bihu dancer wraps it around the head with a fluffy knot. It is hung around the neck at the prayer
hall and was thrown over the shoulder in the past to signify social status. Guests are welcomed with the offering of a
gamosa and tamul (betel nut) and elders are offered gamosas (bihuwaan) during Bihu. It is used to cover the altar at
the prayer hall or cover the scriptures. An object of reverence is never placed on the bare ground, but always on a
gamosa. One can therefore, very well say, that the gamosa symbolizes the life and culture of Assam.
The word gamosa is derived from the Kamrupi word gaamasa (gaama+chadar), the cloth used to cover the
Bhagavad Purana at the altar.
Significantly the gamosa is used equally by all irrespective of religious and ethnic backgrounds.
At par with Gamosa, there are beautifully woven symbolic clothes with attractive graphic designs being used by
different cultural sub-systems and ethno-cultural groups as well.
There were various other symbolic elements and designs traditionally in used, which are now only found in
literature, art, sculpture, architecture, etc or used for only religious purposes (in particular occasions only). The
typical designs of assamese-lion, dragon, flying-lion, etc were used for symbolising various purposes and occasions.
Culture of Assam 17

Festivals
There are several important traditional festivals in Assam. Bihu is the most important and common and celebrated all
over Assam. However, there are other important traditional festivals being celebrated every year for different
occasions at different places. Many of these are celebrated by different ethno-cultural groups (sub and sister
cultures).

Bihu

Bihu is a series of three prominent festivals of Assam. Primarily a

festival celebrated to mark the seasons and the significant points of a
cultivator's life over a yearly cycle, in recent times the form and nature
of celebration has changed with the growth of urban centers. A
non-religious festival, all communities---religious or ethnic---take part
in it. Three Bihus are celebrated: rongali, celebrated with the coming
of spring and the beginning of the sowing season; kongali, the barren
bihu when the fields are lush but the barns are empty; and the bhogali,
the thanksgiving when the crops have been harvested and the barns are
full. Rongali, kongali & bhogali bihu are also known as 'bohag bihu',
'kati bihu' & 'magh bihu' respectively. The day before the each bihu is
known as 'uruka'. There are unique features of each bihu. The first day
of 'rongali bihu' is called 'Goru bihu' (the bihu of the cows). On this
day the cows are taken to the nearby rivers or ponds to be bathed with
A Bihu dancer with a horn
special care. Traditionally, cows are respected as sacred animals by the
people of Assam. Bihu songs and Bihu dance are associated to rongali
bihu.

Music
Assam, being the home to many ethnic groups and different cultures, is
very rich in folk music. The indigenous folk music has in turn
influenced the growth of a modern idiom, that finds expression in the
music of such artists like Jyoti Prasad Agarwala, Bishnuprasad Rabha,
Bhupen Hazarika, Nirmalendu Choudhury & Utpalendu Choudhury,
Pratima Barua Pandey, Luit Konwar Rudra Baruah, Parvati Prasad
Baruva, Jayanta Hazarika, Khagen Mahanta among many others.
Among the new generation, Zubeen Garg, Angaraag Mahanta, Debojit
Saha, Joi Barua and Jitul Sonowal have a great fan following.

Traditional crafts
Assam has maintained a rich tradition of various traditional crafts for
more than two thousand years. Presently, Cane and bamboo craft, bell
metal and brass craft, silk and cotton weaving, toy and mask making,
pottery and terracotta work, wood craft, jewellery making, musical An Assamese women in Pat Silk performing
instruments making, etc are remained as major traditions. Historically, Sattriya dance.

Assam also excelled in making boats, traditional guns and gunpowder,

colours and paints, articles of lac, traditional building materials, utilities from iron, etc.
Culture of Assam 18

Cane and bamboo craft provide the most commonly used utilities in daily life, ranging from household utilities,
weaving accessories, fishing accessories, furniture, musical instruments to building construction materials.
Traditional utilities and symbolic articles made from bell metal and brass are found in every Assamese household.
The Xorai and bota have been in use for centuries to offer gifts to respected persons and are two prominent symbolic
elements. Hajo and Sarthebari / Xorthebaary are the most important centres of traditional bell-metal and brass crafts.
Assam is the home of several types of silks, the most prominent and prestigious being Muga, the natural golden silk
is exclusive only to Assam. Apart from Muga, there are other two varieties called Pat, a creamy-bright-silver
coloured silk and Eri, a variety used for manufacturing warm clothes for winter. Apart from Sualkuchi / Xualkuchi,
the centre for the traditional silk industry, in almost every parts of the Brahmaputra Valley, rural households produce
silk and silk garments with excellent embroidery designs. Moreover, various ethno-cultural groups in Assam make
different types of cotton garments with unique embroidery designs and wonderful colour combinations.
Moreover, Assam possesses unique crafts of toy and mask making mostly concentrated in the Vaishnav Monasteries,
pottery and terracotta work in lower Assam districts and wood craft, iron craft, jewellery, etc in many places across
the region.

List of Assamese traditional jewellery

• Dugdugi
• Kerumoni
• Thuriya
• Gaam Kharu
• Muthi Kharu
• Jonbiri
• Dholbiri

Paintings
Painting is an ancient tradition of Assam. The ancient practices can be known from the accounts of the Chinese
traveller Xuanzang (7th century CE). The account mentions that Bhaskaravarma, the king of Kamarupa has gifted
several items to Harshavardhana, the king of Magadha including paintings and painted objects, some of which were
on Assamese silk. Many of the manuscripts available from the Middle Ages bear excellent examples of traditional
paintings. The most famous of such medieval works are available in the Hastividyarnava (A Treatise on Elephants),
the Chitra Bhagawata and in the Gita Govinda. The medieval painters used locally manufactured painting materials
such as the colours of hangool and haital. The medieval Assamese literature also refers to chitrakars and patuas.
Traditional Assamese paintings have been influenced by the motifs and designs in the medieval works such as the
Chitra Bhagawata.
There are several renowned contemporary painters in Assam. The Guwahati Art College in Guwahati is the only
government institution for tertiary education. Moreover, there are several art-societies and non-government
initiatives across the state and the Guwahati Artists Guild is a front-runner organisation based in Guwahati.
along with the Guwahati art college there is a Department of Fine Arts in Assam University Silchar;a central
government organization, and its thrust area concentrates on the art and craft of north east India with special
reference to Assam
Kamarupa 19

Kamarupa
Kamarupa, also called Pragjyotisha, was the first
historical kingdom in Assam that existed between the
4th to the 12th century CE. Ruled by three dynasties
from their capitals in present-day Guwahati and
Tezpur, it covered the entire Brahmaputra river valley
and, at times, North Bengal and parts of Bangladesh.[2]

Though the historical kingdom disappeared by 12th

century to be replaced by smaller political entities, the
notion of Kamarupa persisted and ancient and medieval
chroniclers continued to call this region by this name.[3]
Coins of Alauddin Hussain Shah, who invaded the [1]
The findspots of inscriptions associated with the Kamarupa
Kamata Kingdom in the late 15th century, called the kingdom give an estimate of its geographical location and extent.
region Kamru or Kamrud. In the 16th century the
Ahom kingdom came into prominence and assumed for itself the political and territorial legacy of the Kamarupa
kingdom.[4]

The name of this kingdom survives in Kamrup, a present-day district in Assam.

Sources for Kamarupa

The region is mentioned as Pragjyotisha in the
Mahabharata (see references) and the Ramayana. The
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century) and
Ptolemy's Geographia (2nd century) calls the region
Kirrhadia after the Kirata population.[5] The first
epigraphic mention of Kamarupa comes from the
Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta from the 4th
century, which marks the beginning of the historical
period. The Chinese traveler Xuanzang visited the
kingdom in the 7th century, then ruled by
Bhaskaravarman. Inscriptions left by the rulers of
Kamarupa, including Bhaskaravarman, at various
places in Assam and present-day Bangladesh are
important sources of information.

Boundaries Detail of Asia in Ptolemy's world map, with Kamarupa marked as

Cirrhadia
According to the Kalika Purana and Xuanzang, the
western boundary was the historical Karatoya[6] river.
The eastern border is given by the temple of the goddess Tamreshvari (Pūrvāte Kāmarūpasya devī Dikkaravasini in
Kalika Purana) near present-day Sadiya[7] in the eastern most corner of Assam. The southern boundary was near the
border between the Dhaka and Mymensingh districts in Bangladesh. Thus it spanned the entire Brahmaputra valley
and at various times included present-day Bhutan and parts of Bangladesh. This is supported by the various
Kamarupa 20

epigraphic records found scattered over these regions. The kingdom appears to have broken up entirely by the 13th
century into smaller kingdoms and from among them rose the Kamata kingdom in the west and the Ahom kingdom
in the east as the main successor kingdoms. In 1581, Naranarayana the Koch king who ruled Kamata divided his
kingdom along the Sankosh river retaining the western portion and gifting the eastern portion to Raghudeb, the son
of his brother Chilarai.[8] The present West Bengal-Assam border follows this division closely. In the period after
Naranarayana, from 1602 onwards, the eastern Koch kingdom came under repeated attacks from the Mughals and in
1615 it became the battleground of the Mughals and the Ahoms till late 17th century when the Ahoms pushed back
the Mughals for the last time and took control of the region till the advent of the British in 1826.

Kamarupa state
The extent of state structures can be culled from the numerous copper plate grants left behind by the Kamarupa kings
as well as accounts left by travellers such as those from Xuanzang.[9]
Kings and courts: The king was considered to be of divine origin. Succession was primogeniture, but two major
breaks resulted in different dynasties. In the second, the high officials of the state elected a king, Brahmapala, after
the previous king died without leaving an heir. The royal court consisted of a Rajaguru, poets, learned men and
physicians. Different epigraphic records mention different officials of the palace: Mahavaradhipati, Mahapratihara,
Mahallakapraudhika, etc.
Council of Ministers: The king was advised by a council of ministers (Mantriparisada), and Xuanzang mentions a
meeting Bhaskaravarman had with his ministers. According to the Kamauli grant, these positions were filled by
Brahmanas and were hereditary. State functions were specialized and there were different groups of officers looking
after different departments.
Revenue: Land revenue (kara) was collected by special tax-collectors from cultivators. Cultivators who had no
propreitary rights on the lands they tilled paid uparikara. Duties (sulka) were collected by toll collectors (kaivarta)
from merchants who plied keeled boats. The state maintained a monopoly on copper mines (kamalakara). The state
maintained its stores and treasury via officials: Bhandagaradhikrita and Koshthagarika.
Grants: The king occasionally gave Brahmanas grants (brahmadeya) , which consisted generally of villages, water
resources, wastelands etc (agraharas). Such grants conferred on the donee the right to collect revenue and the right
to be free of any regular tax himself and immunity from other harassments. Sometimes, the Brahmanas were
relocated from North India, with a view to establish varnashramdharma. Nevertheless, the existence of donees
indicate the existence of a feudal class. Grants made to temples and religious institutions were called dharmottara
and devottara respectively.
Land survey: The land was surveyed and classified. Arable lands (kshetra) were held individually or by families,
whereas wastelands (khila) and forests were held collectively. There were lands called bhucchidranyaya that were
left unsurveyed by the state on which no tax was levied.
Administration: The entire kingdom was divided into a hierarchy of administrative divisions. From the highest to
the lowest, they were bhukti, mandala, vishaya, pura (towns) and agrahara (collection of villages).
These units were administered by officials such as nyayakaranika, vyavaharika, kayastha etc., led by the adhikara.
They dispensed judicial duties too, though the ultimate authority lay with the king. Law enforcement and
punishments were made by officers called dandika, (magistrate) and dandapashika (one who executed the orders of
a dandika).
Kamarupa 21

Political history
Kamarupa, first mentioned on Samudragupta's Allahabad rock pillar as a frontier kingdom, began as a subordinate
but sovereign ally of the Gupta empire around present-day Guwahati in the 4th century. It finds mention along with
Davaka, a kingdom to the east of Kamarupa in the Kapili river valley in present-day Nagaon district, but which is
never mentioned again as an independent political entity in later historical records. Kamarupa, which was probably
one among many such state structures, grew territorially to encompass the entire Brahmaputra valley and beyond.
The kingdom was ruled by three major dynasties, all of which drew their lineage from the legendary king Naraka,
who is said to have established his line by defeating the aboriginal king Ghatakasura of the Danava dynasty.

Varman dynasty
See: Varman dynasty
Pushyavarman (350-374) established the Varman dynasty, by fighting many enemies from within and without his
kingdom; but his son Samudravarman (374-398), named after Samudragupta, was accepted as an overlord by many
local rulers.[10] Nevertheless, subsequent kings continued their attempts to stabilize and expand the kingdom.[11]
Narayanavarma (494-518) and his son Bhutivarman (518-542) offered the ashwamedha (horse sacrifice);[12] and as
the Nidhanpur inscription of Bhaskarvarman avers, these expansions included the region of Chandrapuri visaya,
identified with present-day Sylhet division. Thus, the small but powerful kingdom that Pushyavarman established
grew in fits and starts over many generations of kings and expanded to include adjoining possibly smaller kingdoms
and parts of Bangladesh.
After the initial expansion till the beginning of Bhutivarman's reign, the kingdom came under attack from
Yasodharman (525-535) of Malwa, the first major assault from the west.[13] Though it is unclear what the effect of
this invasion was on the kingdom; that Bhutivarman's grandson, Sthitavarman (566-590), enjoyed victories over the
Gauda of Karnasuvarna and performed two aswamedha ceremonies suggests that the Kamarupa kingdom had
recovered nearly in full. His son, Susthitavarman (590-600) came under the attack of Mahasenagupta of East Malwa.
These back and forth invasions were a result of a system of alliances that pitted the Kamarupa kings (allied to the
Maukharis) against the Gaur kings (allied with the East Malwa kings).[14] Susthitavarman died as the Gaur invasion
was on, and his two sons, Suprathisthitavarman and Bhaskarvarman fought against an elephant force and were
captured and taken to Gaur. They were able to regain their kingdom due probably to a promise of allegiance.[15]
Suprathisthitavarman's regin is given as 595-600, a very short period, at the end of which he died without an heir.
Supratisthitavarman was succeeded by his brother, Bhaskarvarman (600-650), the most illustrious of the Varman
kings who succeeded in turning his kingdom and invading the very kingdom that had taken him captive.
Bhaskarvarman had become strong enough to offer his alliance with Harshavardhana just as the Thanesar king
ascended the throne in 606 after the murder of his brother, the previous king, by Shashanka of Gaur. Harshavardhana
finally took control over the kingless Maukhari kingdom and moved his capital to Kanauj.[16] The alliance between
Harshavardhana and Bhaskarvarman squeezed Shashanka from either side and reduced his kingdom, though it is
unclear whether this alliance resulted in his complete defeat. Nevertheless, Bhaskarvarman did issue the Nidhanpur
copper-plate inscription from his victory camp in the Gaur capital Karnasuvarna (present-day Murshidabad, West
Bengal) to replace a grant issued earlier by Bhutivarman.[17]
In about 643, the Xuanzang visited Bhaskarvarman's court. Xuangzang confirms that the western border of the
Kamarupa kingdom was the Karatoya river. At the end of this visit, Bhaskarvarman accompanied Xuanzang to
Kanauj, and participated in a religious assembly and a festival at Prayaga (Allahabad) with Harshavardhana,
spending more than a year away from his own kingdom. It seems Bhaskaravarman maintained relations with China.
He recounted to Xuanzang a Chinese song about the Jin dynasty which became very popular in his kingdom. After
the death of Harsha, he helped a mission from China led by Wang Hiuen-ts'oe according to a Chinese account.
Bhaskarvarman, also called Kumar, or Shri Kumar, was a bachelor king and died without an heir.
Kamarupa 22

Mlechchha dynasty
See: Mlechchha dynasty
After Bhaskaravarman's death without an heir, the kingdom passed into the hands of Salasthambha(655-670), a
member of an aboriginal group called Mlechchha (or Mech) after a period of civil and political strife. The capital of
this dynasty was Hadapeshvara, now identified with modern Dah Parbatiya near Tezpur. Not much is known of this
dynasty. The last ruler in this line was Tyāga Singha (890-900).

Pala dynasty
See: Pala dynasty
After the death of Tyāgasimha without an heir, a member of the Bhauma family, Brahmapala (900-920), was elected
as king by the ruling chieftains, just as Gopala of the Pala dynasty of Bengal was elected. The original capital of this
dynasty was Hadapeshvara, and was shifted to Durjaya built by Ratnapala, near modern Guwahati. The greatest of
the Pala kings, Dharmapala had his capital at Kamarupanagara, now identified with North Guwahati. The last Pala
king was Jayapala (1075-1100). Around this time, Kamarupa was attacked and the western portion was conquered
by the Pala king of Gaur Ramapala.
The Gaur king could not hold Kamarupa for long, and Timgyadeva (1110-1126) ruled Kamarupa independently for
sometime. The period saw a waning of the Kamarupa kingdom, and in 1205 the Turkish Muhammad-i-Bakhtiyar
passed through Kamarupa against Tibet which ended in a disaster. Yuzbak attacked and defeated an unknown ruler
of Kamarupa in 1257. But Yuzbak could not hold on to the capital as he was weakened by the Monsoon rains that
led to his defeat and death by the local population.
At this time, western Kamarupa was being ruled by the chiefs of the Bodo people, Koch and Mech tribes. In central
Assam the Kachari kingdom was growing, and further east, the Chutiya kingdom. The Ahoms, who would establish
a strong and independent kingdom later, began building their state structures in the region between the Kachari and
the Chutiya kingdoms.

Notes
[1] (Lahiri 1991:26–28)
[2] (Sircar 1990:63–68)
[3] In the medieval times the region between the Sankosh river and the Barnadi river on the northern bank of the Brahmaputra river was defined
as Kamrup (or Koch Hajo in Persian chronicles) (Sarkar 1990:95).
[4] (Guha 1983:24), and notes. Guha writes that from the 1530s when Tonkham, an Ahom general, pursued the defeated Turko-Afghan
adventurers of Turbak to the Karatoya river, the traditional western boundary of the Kamarupa kingdom, '"the washing of the sword in the
Karatoya" became a symbol of the Assamese aspiration, repeatedly evoked in the Bar-mels and mentioned in the chronicles."
[5] Sircar, D. C., (1990) Chapter 5: Epico-Puranic Myths and Legends, pp 81
[6] Historical Karatoya River (http:/ / banglapedia. search. com. bd/ HT/ K_0086. htm) from Banglapedia (http:/ / banglapedia. search. com. bd)
[7] Sircar (1990) pp 63-64
[8] Bhuyan, S. K. (1949) Anglo-Assamese Relations 1771-1826, Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies in Assam, Gauhati, pp 260
and map.
[9] Choudhury, P. C., (1959) The History of Civilization of the People of Assam, Guwahati
[10] (Lahiri 1991:68)
[11] (Lahiri 1990:72) The Nagajari Khanikargaon rock inscription of 5th century found in Golaghat adduces the fact that the kingdom spread to
the east very quickly.
[12] (Sircar 1990:101)
[13] (Lahiri 1991:70). Though the first evidence is from the Mansador stone pillar inscription of Yasodharman, there is no reference to this
invasion in the Kamarupa inscriptions.
[14] (Sircar 1990:106–107)
[15] (Sircar 1990:109)
[16] (Sircar 1990:113)
[17] (Sircar 1990:115)
Kamarupa 23

References
• Guha, Amalendu (December 1983), "The Ahom Political System: An Enquiry into the State Formation Process in
Medieval Assam (1228-1714)", Social Scientist 11 (12): 3–34, doi:10.2307/3516963
• Lahiri, Nayanjot (1991). Pre-Ahom Assam: Studies in the Inscriptions of Assam between the Fifth and the
Thirteenth Centuries AD. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt Ltd.
• Sarkar, J N (1990), "Koch Bihar, Kamrup and the Mughals, 1576-1613", in Barpujari, H K, The Comprehensive
History of Assam: Mediebal Period, Political, II, Guwahati: Publication Board, Assam, pp. 92–103
• Sircar, D C (1990), "Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa", in Barpujari, H K, The Comprehensive History of Assam, I,
Guwahati: Publication Board, Assam, pp. 59–78
• Sircar, D C (1990), "Political History", in Barpujari, H K, The Comprehensive History of Assam, I, Guwahati:
Publication Board, Assam, pp. 94–171

Ahom kingdom
The Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826,
called Kingdom of Assam in medieval
times) was a medieval kingdom in the
Brahmaputra valley in Assam that
maintained its sovereignty for nearly
600 years and successfully resisted
Mughal expansion in North-East India.
It was able to establish its suzerainty
over the Brahmaputra valley and had a
profound effect on the political and
social life in the region. The kingdom
was established by Sukaphaa, a Tai
prince from Mong Mao, in the upper
reaches of the Brahmaputra river
between the extant Chutiya kingdom in
The Ahom Kingdom, c1826. The kingdom was founded by Sukaphaa between the Dikhau
the north and the Kachari kingdom in and the Dihing rivers in the 13th century, and by the end of the 19th century, the western
the south. The kingdom expanded outpost was the Assam Choki, or Hadira Choki, contiguous with British territories. The
north, south and the west in succession southern boundaries was defined by Doboka and Dimapur. The eastern portion around
Bengmara, the Matak regions, was under the autonomous control of the Barsenapati.
and evolved into a multi-ethnic polity,
Jorhat became the capital of the kingdom after the Moamoria rebellion.
beginning especially under
Suhungmung Dihingia Raja in the 16th
century. It made major advances under Susenghphaa Pratap Singha, under whom the administration was revamped
and the first military and diplomatic contact with the Mughals were made. Mughal influence was completely
removed from much of the Brahmaputra valley under Gadadhar Singha and the Ahom kingdom
Ahom kingdom 24

reached its zenith under his son, Rudra

Singha. The kingdom became weaker with
the rise of the Moamoria rebellion, and
subsequently fell to a succession of Burmese
invasions. With the defeat of the Burmese
after the First Anglo-Burmese War and the
Treaty of Yandabo in 1826, control of the
kingdom passed into British (East India
Company) hands.

Though it came to be called the Ahom

kingdom in the colonial and subsequent
times, it was largely multi-ethnic, with the
ethnic Ahom people constituting less than
The insignia of the Ahom Dynasty.
10% of the population toward the end.[1]
The Ahoms called their kingdom Mong Dun
Shun Kham, (Assamese: xunor-xophura; English: casket of gold) while others called it Assam. The British-controlled
province after 1838 and later the Indian state of Assam came to be known by this name.

History
See: Ahom Dynasty, Ahom-Mughal conflicts, Battle of Saraighat.
The Ahom kingdom was established in 1228 when Sukaphaa entered the Brahmaputra valley. Sukaphaa did not
battle any established kingdom and seem to have occupied a depopulated region on the south bank with the
Burhidihing river in the north, the Dikhau river in the south and the Patkai mountains in the east.[2] He befriended the
local groups, the Barahi and the Marans, finally settled his capital at Charaideo and established the offices of the
Dangarias—the Burhagohain and the Borgohain. In the 1280s, these two offices were given independent regions of
control, and the check and balance that these three main offices accorded each other was established.
The Ahoms brought with them the technology of wet rice cultivation that they shared with other groups. The peoples
that took to the Ahom way of life and polity were incorporated into their fold in a process of Ahomization.[3] As a
result of this process the Barahi people, for instance, were completely subsumed, and some of other groups like some
Nagas and the Maran peoples became Ahoms, thus enhancing the Ahom numbers significantly. This process of
Ahomization was particularly significant till the 16th century, when under Suhungmung, the kingdom made large
territorial expansions at the cost of the Chutiya and the Kachari kingdoms.
Ahom kingdom 25

The expansion was so large and so rapid that the Ahomization process
could not keep pace and the Ahoms became a minority in their
kingdom. This resulted in a change in the character of the kingdom and
it became multi-ethnic and inclusive. Hindu influences, which were
first felt under Bamuni Konwar at the end of the 14th century, became
significant. The Assamese language entered the Ahom court and
co-existed with the Tai language. The rapid expansion of the state was
accompanied by the installation of a new high office, the
Borpatrogohain, at par with the other two high offices and not without
Rang Ghar, a pavilion built by Pramatta Singha
opposition from the them. Two special offices, the Sadiakhowa Gohain
(also Sunenpha; 1744–1751) in Ahom capital
and the Marangikowa Gohain were created to oversee the regions won Rongpur, now Sibsagar; the Rang Ghar is one of
over from the Chutiya and the Kachari kingdoms respectively. The the earliest pavilions of outdoor stadia in South
subjects of the kingdom were organized under the Paik system, initially Asia.

based on the phoid or kinship relations, which formed the militia. The
kingdom came under attack from Turkic and Afghan rulers of Bengal, but it withstood them. On one occasion, the
Ahoms under Tankham Borgohain pursued the invaders and reached the Karatoya river, and the Ahoms began to see
themselves as the rightful heir of the erstwhile Kamarupa Kingdom.[4]

The Ahom kingdom took many features of its mature form under Pratap Singha. The Paik system was reorganized
under the professional khel system, replacing the kinship based phoid system. Under the same king, the offices of the
Borphukan, and the Borbarua were established along with other smaller offices. No more major restructuring of the
state structure was attempted till the end of the kingdom.
The kingdom came under repeated Mughal attacks in the 17th century, and on one occasion in 1662, the Mughals
under Mir Jumla occupied the capital, Garhgaon. The Mughals were unable to keep it, and in at the end of the Battle
of Saraighat, the Ahoms not only fended off a major Mughal invasion, but extended their boundaries west, up to the
Manas river. Following a period of confusion, the kingdom got itself the last set of kings, the Tungkhungia kings,
established by Gadadhar Singha.
The rule of Tungkhungia kings was marked by peace and achievements in the Arts and engineering constructions.
The later phase of the rule was also marked by increasing social conflicts, leading to the Moamoria rebellion. The
rebels were able to capture and maintain power at the capital Rangpur for some years, but were finally removed with
the help of the British under Captain Welsh. The following repression led to a large depopulation due to emigration
as well as execution, but the conflicts were never resolved. A much weakened kingdom fell to repeated Burmese
attacks and finally after the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826, the control of the kingdom passed into British hands.

Ahom economic system

The Ahom kingdom was based on the Paik system, a type of corvee labor that is neither feudal nor Asiatic. The
Ahoms introduced wet rice cultivation in upper Assam that was largely a marshy and thinly populated land. With a
superior technology of rice cultivation, as well as reclamation of land using dykes, embankments and irrigation
systems, the Ahoms established the initial state structures. The first coins were introduced by Suklenmung in the
16th century, though the system of personal service under the Paik system persisted. In the 17th century when the
Ahom kingdom expanded to include erstwhile Koch and Mughal areas, it came into contact with their revenue
systems and adapted accordingly.
Ahom kingdom 26

Ahom administration
See: Swargadeo, Burhagohain, Borgohain, Borpatrogohain, Borbarua, Borphukan.

Swargadeo and Patra Mantris

The Ahom kingdom was ruled by a king, called Swargadeo (Ahom language: Chao-Pha), who had to be a
descendant of the first king Sukaphaa. Succession was generally by primogeniture but occasionally the great
Gohains (Dangarias) could elect another descendant of Sukaphaa from a different line or even depose an enthroned
one.
Dangarias: Sukaphaa had two great Gohains to aid him in administration: Burhagohain and the Borgohain. In the
1280s, they were given independent territories, they were veritable sovereigns in their given territories called bilat or
rajya. The Burhagohain's territory was between Sadiya and Gerelua river in the north bank of the Brahmaputra river
and the Borgohain's terrotory was to the west upto the Burai river.[5] They were given total command over the paiks
that they controlled. These positions were generally filled from specific families. Princes who were eligible for the
position of Swargadeo were not considered for these positions and vice versa. In the 16th century Suhungmung
added a third Gohain, Borpatrogohain. The Borpatrogohain's territory was located between the territories of the other
two Gohains.
Royal officers: Pratap Singha added two offices, Borbarua and Borphukan, that were directly under the king. The
Borbarua, who acted as the military as well as the judicial head, was in command of the region east of Kaliabor not
under the command of the Dangarias. He could use only a section of the paiks at his command for his personal use
(as opposed to the Dangariyas), the rest rendering service to the Ahom state. The Borphukan was in military and
civil command over the region west of Kaliabor, and acted as the Swargadeo's viceroy in the west.
Patra Mantris: The five positions constituted the patra mantris (council of ministers). From the time of Supimphaa
(1492–1497), one of the patra mantris was made the Rajmantri (prime minister, also Borpatro; Ahom language:
Shenglung) who enjoyed additional powers and the service of a thousand additional paiks from the Jakaichuk village.

Other officials
The Borbarua and the Borphukan had military and judicial responsibilities, and they were aided by two separate
councils (sora) of Phukans. The Borphukan's sora sat at Guwahati and the Borbarua's sora at the capital.
Superintending officers were called Baruas. Among the officers the highest in rank were the Phukans. Six of them
formed the council of the Borbarua, but each had also his separate duties. The Naubaicha Phukan, who had an
allotment of thousand men managed the royal boats, the Bhitarula Phukan, the Na Phukan, the Dihingia Phukan, the
Deka Phukan and the Neog Phukan formed the council of Phukan. The Borphukan also had a similar council of six
subordinate Phukans whom he was bound to consult in all matters of importance, this council included Pani Phukan,
who commanded six thousand paiks, Deka Phukan who commanded four thousand paiks, the Dihingia Phukan, Nek
Phukan and two Chutiya Phukans.
The Baruas of whom there were twenty or more included Bhandari Barua or treasurer; the Duliya Barua, who was in
charge of the royal palanquins; the Chaudang Barua who superintended executions; Khanikar Barua was the chief
artificer; Sonadar Barua was the mint master and chief jeweler; the Bez Barua was the physician to the Royal family,
Hati Barua, Ghora Barua, etc. Other official included twelve Rajkhowas, and a number of Katakis, Kakatis and
Dolais. The Rajkhowas were governors of given territories and commanders of three thousand paiks. They were
arbitrator who settled local disputes and supervised public works. The Katakis were envoys who dealt with foreign
countries and hill tribes. The Kakatis were writers of official documents, and the Dolais expounded astrology and
determined auspicious time and dates for any important event and undertaking.
Ahom kingdom 27

Governors
Members of the royal families ruled certain areas, and they were called Raja.
• Charing Raja, the heir apparent to the Swargadeo, administered the tracts around Joypur on the right bank of the
Burhidihing river.
• Tipam Raja is the second in line.
• Namrup Raja is the third in line
Members of the royal families who occupy lower positions are given regions called mels, and were called meldangia
or melkhowa raja. Meldangia gohains were princes of an even lesser grade, of which there were two: Majumelia
gohain and Sarumelia gohain.[6]
Royal ladies were given individual mels, and by the time of Rajeshwar Singha, there were twelve of them. The most
important of these was the Raidangia mel given to the chief queen.[7]
Forward governors, who were military commanders, ruled and administered forward territories. The officers were
usually filled from the families that were eligible for the three great Gohains.
• Sadiya Khowa Gohain based in Sadiya, administered the regions that were acquired after the conquest of the
Chutiya kingdom in 1523.
• Marangi khowa Gohain administered the region that were contiguous to the Naga groups west of the Dhansiri
river.
• Solal Gohain administered a great part of Nagaon and a portion of Chariduar after the headquarters of the
Borphukan was transferred to Gauhati.
• Kajalimukhiya Gohain served under the Borphukan, administered Kajalimukh and maintained relations with
Jaintia and Dimarua.[8]
• Jagiyal Gohain served under Borbarua, administered Jagi at Nagoan and maintained relations with seven tribal
chiefs, called Sat Raja.[9]
Lesser governors were called Rajkhowas, and some of them were:
• Bacha
• Darrang
• Solaguri
• Abhaypur
The dependent kings or vassals were also called Raja. Except for the Raja of Rani, all paid an annual tribute. These
Rajas were required to meet the needs for resources and paiks when the need arose, as during the time of war.
• Darrang Raja ruled the later-day Darrang district, and were the descendants of Sundar Narayan, a great-grandson
of Chilarai of the Koch dynasty
• Rani
• Beltola ruled the tracts southwest of Guwahati, and were the descendants of Gaj Narayan, a grandson of Chilarai
of the Koch dynasty
• Luki
• Barduar
• Dimarua
• Tapakuchi
Ahom kingdom 28

Paik officials
The Ahom kingdom was dependent on the Paik system, a form of corvee labor. Every common subject was a paik,
and four paiks formed a got. At any time of the year, one of the paiks in the got rendered direct service to the king, as
the others in his got tended to his fields. The Paik system was administered by the Paik officials: Bora was in charge
of 20 paiks, a Saikia of 100 and a Hazarika of 1000.

Land survey
Gadadhar Singha became acquainted with the land measurement system of Mughals during the time he was hiding in
Kamrup, before he succeeded to the throne. As soon as the wars with Mughals were over he issued orders for the
introduction of a similar system throughout his dominions. Surveyors were imported from Koch Behar and Bengal
for the work. It was commenced in Sibsagar and was pushed on vigorously, but it was not completed until after his
death. Nowgaon was next surveyed; and the settlement which followed was supervised by Rudra Singha himself.
According to historians, the method of survey included measuring the four sides of each field with a nal, or bamboo
pole of 12 feet (3.7 m) length and calculating the area, the unit was the "lucha" or 144 square feet (13.4 m2) and
14400 sq ft (1340 m2). is one "Bigha". Four 'bigha' makes one 'Pura'. A similar land measurement system is still
being followed in modern Assam.

Classes of people
Subinphaa, the third Ahom king, dilineated the Satgharia Ahom ("Ahom of the seven houses") aristocracy: the royal
family, the Burhagohain and the Borgohain families, and four priestly lineages—the Deodhai, the Mohan, the
Bailung and the Chiring. This set was expanded later. The king could belong to only the first family whereas the
Burhagohain and the Borgohain only to the second and the third families. Most of the Borphukans belonged to the
Chutiya ethnic group, whereas the Borbaruas belonged to the Moran, Kachari, Chiring and Khamti groups.[10] Later
on Naga, Mising and Nara (Mogaung) oracles became a part of the Bailung group. The extended nobility consisted
of the landed aristocracy and the spiritual class that did not pay any form of tax.
The apaikan chamua was the gentry that were freed from the khels and paid only money-tax. The paikan chamua
consisted of artisans, the literati and skilled people that did non-manual work and rendered service as tax. The kanri
paik rendered manual labor. The lowest were the licchous, bandi-beti and other serfs and bondsmen. There was some
degree of movement between the classes. Momai Tamuli Borbarua rose from a bondsman through the ranks to
become the first Borbarua under Prataap Singha.

Notes
[1] The Ahoms constituted less than 10% of the population in the region that was the erstwhile kingdom in 1872 and 1881 census(Guha 1983:9).
[2] (Gogoi 1968:266)
[3] (Guha 1983:12)
[4] (Guha 1983:24), and notes.
[5] (Gogoi 2002:42)
[6] (Gogoi 2002:43)
[7] (Gogoi 2002:43)
[8] (Gogoi 2002:44)
[9] (Gogoi 2002:44)
[10] (Gogoi 2006:9)
Ahom kingdom 29

References
• Gogoi, Jahnabi (2002), Agrarian system of medieval Assam, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi
• Gogoi, Lila (1991), The History of the system of Ahom administration, Punthi Pustak, Calcutta
• Gogoi, Nitul Kumar (2006), Continuity and Change among the Ahoms, Concept Publishing Company, Delhi
• Gogoi, Padmeshwar (1968), The Tai and the Tai kingdoms, Gauhati University, Guwahati
• Guha, Amalendu (1991), Medieval and Early Colonial Assam: Society, Polity and Economy, K.P. Bagchi & Co,
Calcutta
• Guha, Amalendu (December 1983), "The Ahom Political System: An Enquiry into the State Formation Process in
Medieval Assam (1228-1714)" (http://jstor.org/stable/3516963), Social Scientist 11 (12): 3–34,
doi:10.2307/3516963
• Kakoty, Sanjeeb (2003), Technology, Production and Social Formation in the Evolution of the Ahom State,
Regency Publications, New Delhi

Supaatphaa
Ahom Dynasty

1 Sukaphaa 1228–1268

2 Sutephaa 1268–1281

3 Subinphaa 1281–1293

4 Sukhaangphaa 1293–1332

5 Sukhrampha 1332–1364

Interregnum 1364–1369

6 Sutuphaa 1369–1376

Interregnum 1376–1380

7 Tyao Khamti 1380–1389

Interregnum 1389–1397

8 Sudangphaa 1397–1407

9 Sujangphaa 1407–1422

10 Suphakphaa 1422–1439

11 Susenphaa 1439–1488

12 Suhenphaa 1488–1493

13 Supimphaa 1493–1497

14 Suhungmung 1497–1539

15 Suklenmung 1539–1552

16 Sukhaamphaa 1552–1603

17 Susenghphaa 1603–1641

18 Suramphaa 1641–1644
Supaatphaa 30

19 Sutingphaa 1644–1648

20 Sutamla 1648–1663

21 Supangmung 1663–1670

22 Sunyatphaa 1670–1672

23 Suklamphaa 1672–1674

24 Suhunga 1674–1675

25 Gobar 1675–1675

26 Sujinphaa 1675–1677

27 Sudoiphaa 1677–1679

28 Sulikphaa 1679–1681

29 Supaatphaa 1681–1696

30 Sukhrungphaa 1696–1714

31 Sutanphaa 1714–1744

32 Sunenphaa 1744–1751

33 Suremphaa 1751–1769

34 Sunyeophaa 1769–1780

35 Suhitpangphaa 1780–1795

36 Suklingphaa 1795–1811

37 Sudingphaa 1811–1818

38 Purandar Singha 1818–1819

39 Sudingphaa 1819–1821

40 Jogeshwar Singha 1821–1822

41 Purandar Singha 1833–1838

Supaatpha (reign 1681-1696) or Gadadhar Singha established the rule of the Tungkhungia clan of the Ahom kings
that ruled the Ahom kingdom till its climactic end. He was the son of Gobar Raja, a descendant of Suhungmung, and
who had become the king for a mere 20 days. Previously known as Gadapani, Gadadhar Singha was able to stabilize
the kingdom after the decade long turmoil following the Ahom victory in the Battle of Saraighat. This period saw the
ruthless power grab of Debera Borbarua and Laluk Sola Borphukan's abandonment of Guwahati and oppression via
Sulikphaa Lora Roja. Gadadhar Singha retook Guwahati from the Mughals for good, and established a strong rule of
'blood and iron'. He came into conflict with the Vaishnava sattra and made way for Rudra Singha, his son and
succeeding king, to take the kingdom to its zenith.
Gadadhar Singha made his capital at Barkola.

Reign
Gadadhar Singha, known as Langi Gadapani, was the son of Gobar Gohain who was made the king by Debera
Borbarua in 1675. Gobar Raja was the king for only 20 days and was executed after the fall of Debera Borbarua at
the hands of the forces of Atan Burhagohain. After Laluk Sola Borphukan had Atan Burhagohain murdered in 1679,
he installed Sulikphaa Lora Roja as the king and tried to become the de jure ruler of the Ahom kingdom. He began a
campaign to inflict wounds on Ahom princes who were eligible for the throne. To escape this, Gadapani had to
become a fugitive hiding in the Naga hills and his wife Sati Joymati, was tortured and killed by the henchmen of
Sulikphaa and Laluk Sola Borphukan.
Supaatphaa 31

Political/Military
At the time of Gadadhar Singha's accession to the throne, the Ahom kingdom was being sapped by internal
dissensions, and patriotic feeling had become so weakened that many deserted to the Mughal side, who had
re-occupied Gauhati, and were gradually pushing their frontier eastwards. The hill tribes too became emboldened
and raided villages in the plains. Before he died he had quelled all internal disputes, revived the waning national
spirit, driven the Mughals beyond Manas and, by prompt punitive measures, put a stop to the raiding and restored the
prestige of the Ahoms among the turbulent tribes on the frontier.
His first act after becoming the King was to equip an army to oust the Mughal from Gauhati. He appears to have met
with very little opposition. The forts at Bansbari and Kajali fell at the first assault, and a great naval victory was
gained near the mouth of Bar Nadi, the whole enemy fleet falling into the hands of Ahoms. In 1682 Gadadhar Singha
waged the Itakhulir Rann (War of Itakhuli) and captured Guwahati back from the Mughals and brought an end to the
eighty years of Ahom-Mughal conflicts. The Fauzdar of Guwahati fled and the Ahom army pursued the Mughals as
far as Manas river. A vast amount of booty was taken in Guwahati, including gold and silver; elephants, horses and
buffaloes, cannon of all sizes and guns, swords and spears. This was the last war with the Mughals. Henceforth both
sides accepted the Manas as the boundary.

Administrative
He was a Shaivite, as were his succeeding kings, and his reign saw the beginning of the conflict between the Sattra
and the Ahom kings. To help propagate this form of Hindu worship he built the Shiva temple Uma Nanda
Temple(Devaloi) at the Peacock island in middle of river Brahmaputra at Guwahati. Gadadhar Singha was keenly
alive to the importance of public works. He built the Dhodar Ali a 211 km. long road from Kamargaon to Joypur
touching Mariani using the lazy (dhod means lazy in Assamese) opium addicts, Aka Ali and many other roads. Two
stone bridges were built and a number of tanks were evacuated. The earliest known copper-plate grant recording
grants of land by Ahom Kings to Brahmins or Hindu temples, date from his reign.
A noteworthy measure of this monarch was the commencement of a detailed survey of the country. Gadadhar Singha
became acquainted with the land measurement system of Mughals during the time he was hiding in Lower Assam,
before he succeeded to the throne. As soon as the wars were over he issued orders for the introduction of a similar
system throughout his dominions. Surveyors were imported from Koch Behar and Bengal for the work. It was
commenced in Sibsagar and was pushed on vigorously, but it was not completed until after his death. According to
historians, the method of survey included measuring the four sides of each field with a nal, or bamboo pole of 12 feet
(3.7 m) length and calculating the area, the unit was the "pura" or 144 square feet (13.4 m2) and 14400 sq ft
(1340 m2). is one "Bigha". A similar land measurement system is still being followed in modern Assam-- 144 sq ft
(13.4 m2). is one Lecha, 20 Lecha or 2880 sq ft (268 m2). is one "Katha", and 5 Katha or 14400 sq ft (1340 m2). is
one Bigha.

Death
Gadadhar Singha died in February, 1696, after a reign of fourteen and a half years. Gadadhar Singha left two sons,
Lai and Lechai, and his elder son Lai succeeded him. Under Lai, who took the name Sukhrungphaa (Hindu name
Rudra Singha), the Ahom kingdom reached its zenith. The royal robes of Swargadeo Gadadhar Singha made of gold
and a gold umbrella are preserved in the Bengenaati Satra of Majuli, Assam.
Article Sources and Contributors 32

Article Sources and Contributors

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 33

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

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License 34

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
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