Action Algebra

A Model for Math
and a Handbook for
Arithmetic to Algebra
Royal Lyon Publications

Klamath Falls, Oregon
Action Algebra
A Model for Math and a Handbook for Arithmetic to Algebra
Copyright ©2010 by Ed Lyons
All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the author.
Printed in the United States of America
ISBN: 1453612122
First printing, June 2010

Second printing, September 2010
Corrections and additions are posted at our website:

ActionAlgebra.com
Table of Contents
Introduction Arithmetic: Divide
Arithmetic to Algebra In Just Ten Minutes! . . . 8 27) Dividing on a Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
28) Learning How to Shift . . . . . . . . . . 59
Basic Principles 29) Dividing and Bigger-Smaller . . . . . . . 62
Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
30) Speed Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Value Change Needs Counterchange . . . . 12
31) Long Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Priority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
32) Long Division with Decimals . . . . . . . 64
First Calculate the Complicated . . . . . . . 13
33) Factoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Insight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
34) Prime Factoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Changing Looks does not Change Value . . . 15
35) Finding Common Factors . . . . . . . . 67
Action Chart 36) Reducing Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
37) Dividing Fractions Using Reciprocals . . . 70
Zoom Levels 38) Making Like Fractions . . . . . . . . . . 71
39) Combining Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Arithmetic: Numbers
40) Canceling Tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1) Benefits of a Number System Line . . . . 20
2) Translating Numbers and Words . . . . . 21 Pre-Algebra: Exponents
3) Numbers are arrows . . . . . . . . . . . 21 41) Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4) Comparing numbers . . . . . . . . . . . 23 42) Negative Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5) Kinds of numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 43) Multiplying Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6) Parts of compound numbers . . . . . . . 26 44) Dividing Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
45) Zoom Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Arithmetic: Combine
46) Groups with exponents . . . . . . . . . 84
7) Adding on a Number Line . . . . . . . . 30
47) Exponents in Fractions . . . . . . . . . . 84
8) Subtracting on a Number Line . . . . . . 31
48) Scientific Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9) Adding Stacked Numbers . . . . . . . . . 32
49) Adjust Scientifics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
10) Subtracting Stacked Numbers . . . . . . 33
50) Multiply Scientifics . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
11) Combining Stacked Integers . . . . . . . 34
51) Powers of Scientifics . . . . . . . . . . . 89
12) Series of Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
52) Dividing Scientifics . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
13) Combining Series of Signs . . . . . . . . 37
53) Combining Scientifics . . . . . . . . . . 90
14) Combining Big Integers . . . . . . . . . 38
15) Combining Decimals . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Pre-Algebra: Morphs
16) Combining Tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 54) Fractions and Mixed Numbers . . . . . . 92
55) Rounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Arithmetic: Multiply
56) Fractions and Decimals . . . . . . . . . 94
17) Multiplying on a Grid . . . . . . . . . . 42
57) Fractions and Percents . . . . . . . . . . 95
18) Learning the Times Table . . . . . . . . 45
58) Decimals and Percents . . . . . . . . . . 96
19) Learning Multiples . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
59) Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
20) Negative Numbers on a Grid . . . . . . 47
60) Metric Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
21) Multiplying Big Numbers . . . . . . . . . 51
22) Multiplying Bigger-Smaller . . . . . . . 53 Pre-Algebra: Calculate
23) Multiplying Decimals . . . . . . . . . . . 53 61) MUD before COLT . . . . . . . . . . . 104
24) Multiplying Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . 54 62) FUN before MUD . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
25) Multiplying Tags by Merging . . . . . . . 55 63) IN before FUN . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
26) Finding Common Multiples . . . . . . . 56 64) Order with fractions . . . . . . . . . . 107
65) Nesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 104) Figure functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
66) Absolute Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 105) Proportions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
67) Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
68) Units in Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Algebra: Quadratic Equations
106) Fill, Flip, or Figure . . . . . . . . . . . 156
69) 2D Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
107) Eliminate fractions or decimals . . . . 157
70) 3D Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
108) Descending order = 0 . . . . . . . . . 158
71) Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
109) Common factor . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
72) Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
110) Bifactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
73) Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
111) Answer formula . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Pre-Algebra: Roots
74) What is a Root? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Algebra: Other Equations
112) Linear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
75) Reducing Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
113) Rational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
76) Combining Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
114) Multi-variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
77) Multiplying Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
115) Exponential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
78) Fractional Exponents . . . . . . . . . . 122
116) Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
79) Rationalize Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
117) Radical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
80) Roots with Same Base . . . . . . . . . 124
System of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Algebra: Polynomials 118) Systems by Substitution . . . . . . . . 169
Thinking in Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 119) Systems by Elimination . . . . . . . . 172
As Few Variables as Possible . . . . . . . . 129 120) Systems of Three . . . . . . . . . . . 175
81) Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
82) FOIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Actions Explained
83) Rationalize with conjugates . . . . . . . 132 Rule Sheet
84) Common Factoring . . . . . . . . . . . 133
85) Bifactoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Goals & Methods
86) Bifactor when a>1 . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Encrypted Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
87) Bifactor- other . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 What Is Understanding? . . . . . . . . . . 195
88) Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Readiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
89) Double factoring . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
90) Quadratic Formula . . . . . . . . . . . 138 My Student Is Stuck! . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
91) Reduce fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Pre-Formal Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
92) Multiply fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
93) Combine fractions . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Whiteboards and Vinyl . . . . . . . . . . . 202
94) Long Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Grade Sheets
Algebra: Linear Equations
95) Recognize equation types . . . . . . . . 144
96) Answer! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
97) Break variable term . . . . . . . . . . . 147
98) Combine like terms . . . . . . . . . . . 148
99) Decouple like terms . . . . . . . . . . . 149
100) Eliminate decimals . . . . . . . . . . 150
101) Eliminate fractions . . . . . . . . . . 151
102) Fill Parentheses . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
103) Flip complex fractions . . . . . . . . . 153
8 Action Algebra
Introduction
This book is written for teachers and parents who want to understand the big picture
of arithmetic to algebra so they can intelligently explain it to students in a connected
framework. At the end of the book I show that a connected framework is understanding.
The only assumptions I bring to this book is that you have a desire to see math in
a new way and you have the ability to reason. I also assume that you took standard
arithmetic and algebra courses sometime in the distant, hazy past and you may or may
not have passed those classes. Some of you are teaching math whether you like it or not.
Action Algebra covers the foundation or core of math from beginning numbers to
advanced equations. I proceed in a logical, step-by-step manner in the same order of
lessons 1-120 as with the students. Therefore, I leave some topics incomplete at their
first presentation and finish them later after the additional principles are introduced. For
example, in the second chapter on combining, only fractions with common denominators
are used. Later, in the divison chapter, fractions with different denominators are covered.
Some of you are in a position to teach your students from the very beginning, such as
homeschoolers with young children. Others of you have some flexibility, but your student(s)
already have years of habits (for better or for worse) ingrained in them. Still others of
you are in a classroom with many students and a fixed curriculum. Understanding the
common thinking processes connecting the huge variety of problems in the textbooks will
be of help to any teacher in any situation. For example, many parents teaching Saxon are
lost when trying to explain previous concepts more than a few lessons back.
This handbook covers arithmetic, pre-algebra, and algebra in 40 lessons each. The
focus is on the math, but with the worksheets and videos, many word problems are also
covered. Topics that are applications or electives of math, such as statistics, geometry,
trigonometry, and science are planned to be covered in future classes. Action Algebra lays
a solid, complete system of understanding that will fully prepare a student for all their other
courses. If possible, have your student(s) master these lessons before any other math.
Believe it or not, every essential topic from arithmetic to algebra is covered in this
book. The only thing "lacking" is the duplication of topics that the teach-reteach textbooks
have made popular by their grossly inefficient methods.
Years ago I figuratively started with grade 2 math and worked my way up to Algebra
2. I kept every new topic, but ripped out the pages dealing with a repeat or slight revision
of the topic. At the end I had enough pages left to make two textbooks. That discovery
spawned the development of this curriculum.
Introduction 9
The Action Algebra worksheets can be used as a supplement to any curriculum, but
the full power and time-savings will be realized when they are used as the curriculum
itself. Because of their almost limitless variety and ability to be customized, students can
study a topic in an organized, focused context, then practice it until it becomes automatic,
then they can return to it for review as needed and at scheduled review points. There is a
lot of time wasted in "gear changing" and the mind loses focus. (See the section at the end
of the book on how to use the grade sheets.)
So the full Action Algebra approach combines the best of both worlds. Repetitive
drillwork is combined with a constructivist approach that results in students really knowing
why and what they are doing. Students are not left to randomly discover principles, but
neither are they engaged in almost mindless drill. They are guided to understand concepts
and procedures in connection with each other.
If American high school math students are ever to regain the top spot in the world,
we must combine both approaches that are fighting with each other in the education
arena. American ingenuity and American hard work are compatible, resulting in American
excellence, quality, and performance.
The 40 lessons (roughly one per week) in each class are not magic numbers. They
could easily increase or decrease as time goes on. The point I am making with them
now is that it is possible to cut the usual seat time in half or in third. For a student to
accomplish this seemingly miraculous feat only means that they understand and review as
they proceed. The consequences of this is that there will be more time to apply math both
in math and science classes. It also means that schools will not only raise their graduation
rates, but their average levels of achievement will raise much higher. Homeschoolers, of
course, will cut down their time even further.
But now the present lies nearer than the glorious future. For lower grade teachers
I recommend reading the arithmetic and pre-algebra chapters. This will give you an
understanding of the next level for which you are preparing your students. Just like with
them, understanding the next level “seals in” the current level. For you, understanding
the process of combining with negative numbers is crucial. If you feel you need more
examples, please look at the worksheets and videos.
For middle and high school teachers, the whole book is necessary, especially
understanding how the Shift Action is involved in so many problems and steps. This is
the single biggest concept that students need so they can tie together so many seemingly
random steps. Also, the FA method of solving equations is very simple to teach as a unit
outside of any textbook, then your curriculum can proceed with much greater ease. As
with the elementary teachers, you may need more examples, so look at the worksheets
(many of which have step by step solutions) and videos.
One last note before launching into the math. You may want to look at the last chapters
10 Action Algebra
of the book on Goals and Methods, and on Pre-Formal education. Math is the most
abstract of all classes and we must realize who the young students are that we teach as
much as knowing how to teach a topic. Also, if you are thinking of using Action Algebra as
your main curriculum, the Grade Sheet section will give you a good introduction.
Now that we have addressed some technicalities, I hope you will find many Aha!
moments as you begin studying this book. To help us get started with the big picture,
Einstein will semi-seriously take us from arithmetic to algebra in ten minutes.
Arithmetic to Algebra In Just Ten Minutes!
Once upon a time little Einstein stuck his finger in an olive and then in another olive
and another and another until he had an olive on each finger.
“Hmmm,” he thought, “There is something similar between the olives and my fingers.
I have the same (what shall I call it?) number in both groups. As I was sticking my fingers
in them I was counting.”
Then he thought again. “What if I want to count more olives than I have fingers? I
guess I should invent a symbol for each number and a way of re-using those symbols
when I run out of fingers.”
So little Einstein invented the number system with ten digits and place value. He was
pretty clever about it, because his first digit, 0, represented having no olives on his fingers.
Ten, 10, represented having his fingers completely full without any extra and ready to start
putting olives on his mother’s fingers. The budding scientist was too smart to put them on
his toes because he knew he would get them dirty and squish them sooner or later.
Some days later, little Einstein started to get bored with his number system. He had
counted all the olives in his father’s orchard, his neighbor’s orchard, and his uncle’s
orchard across town. In fact, Einstein knew the number of olives in all the orchards around
town. He also knew the numbers of cats, dogs, and horses. Yet little Einstein wanted to
something more, something new. He sat down in the dirt road and thought and thought.
Then it came to him! What if he could find out the number of all the olives in all the
orchards together! Why not do something with the numbers he had already collected so
that he could figure the answer without recounting?!
Of course, that was a brilliant idea. He came up with a process of putting numbers
together that he called adding. In no time flat, little Einstein knew the total of all the olives,
animals, houses, and people in the town. Not long after that, he invented something called
subtraction so he could accurately change his total when olives were eaten or exported.
Sometimes, an animal died and he needed to take that into account as well.
Introduction 11
Little Einstein was starting to catch on to the power of numbers and so it wasn’t long
before he discovered he could multiply and divide the rows and columns of trees in the
orchards to quickly find out how many were in each.
As he shared his knowledge with the townspeople, they soon began to ask him questions
and wanted to learn what he was doing. This forced little Einstein to invent symbols for
each of his ideas so it could be written down and made permanent. So, in addition to his
ten digits, he made symbols for his four operations that he could do with those numbers.
One day at supper time he was struck with a puzzle. One of the olives he put on his
finger split into pieces. He could not count them as 1, 2, 3 because they were not whole
olives like the others. That’s when he realized he needed a way to keep track of partial
things. Thus, fractions were born. He used a slash or a horizontal line because it reminded
him of a cut. The top number represented how many pieces he ate and the bottom number
represented the total number of pieces the olive had broken into. The number on top was
usually smaller than the number on the bottom because some pieces fell on the floor.
To save himself some time, little Einstein put a decimal at the end of the whole number
of olives, then started counting tenths and tenths of tenths on the right side. That way he
did not have draw a slash and put a bunch of zeroes below it. It was a special, convenient
fraction that always meant tenths.
Then, because he had whole numbers and tenths in a decimal number, he put a whole
number in front of a fraction and called it a mixed number. Then, because people used
dollars so much and were always figuring prices as some part of 100 pennies, he invented
the percent symbol to make everybody’s life just a little bit easier.
But it was his friend, Sherlock, who prompted Einstein to make some of his bigger
discoveries. One day, Sherlock asked Einstein if he had any idea how many olives
there might be in the whole world. Einstein replied that his friend’s question was not
elementary. He would need to invent another kind of number to handle the enormous
task of multiplying all the olives on all the trees in all the orchards of all the towns of all the
countries of the world. So he made scientific numbers with a handy little device called an
exponent, which compressed the multiplying of many numbers down into one.
After all their research and calculations, Einstein and Sherlock discovered that some
pieces of their data never changed and other data changed a lot.
Einstein called the data pieces that stayed constant--get this--
constants. Sherlock thought that bit of naming was too elementary,
but could not argue with the logic.
One of Einstein’s first constants was something he called “pie.”
Actually, he spelled it “pi” because he did not want to offend any of
his Greek neighbors. Pi was the ratio of the diameter of an olive to its
circumference, which was always just about 3.14. Curious, eh?
12 Action Algebra
Right after eating pie and discovering pi, Einstein discovered “c.” This was the speed
of light that he and Sherlock measured every time they took a flash picture of olives at
night. Shortly thereafter, Einstein muttered E=mc2 as he tried to think of creative ways to
destroy all the olives in a country in a very short time.
But Einstein’s greatest number was still waiting to be discovered.
In the laboratory, Sherlock was deep in calculations and very frustrated when Einstein
walked in. “What’s the matter, old boy?” Einstein asked.
Sherlock replied, “I go through the same long process over and over again as new
numbers come in from the orchards. There must be a better way of solving these mysteries
that are really just a repeat of the same kind of problem.”
“Well now,” Einstein exclaimed, “Isn’t solving mysteries your cup of tea? Why should
some unknown numbers stop you--.”
Just at that moment, Einstein had an incredible insight.
“Unknown numbers!” he cried.“They are not totally unknown. After all, we know they
are numbers, we just don’t know exactly which one. The numbers just vary from time to
time. Let’s call them variables and learn how to do adding, subtracting, multiplying, and
dividing with variables!”
Sherlock looked at the
scientist with his mouth
agape and jaw dropped.
After a bit, he raised his
index finger like he was
checking the wind, and
declared, “I think you’ve
got an idea!”
“If you could do that,
we could make formulas
and equations that hold
the spots for our numbers
before we get them from
the orchards. We could do
some of the calculations
only once and never have
to do them again! Instead of re-inventing the wheel and figuring out what to do with each
number every time, we would have a template we could use over and over again. That’s
just as good as recycling all the olive boxes!”
Einstein raised his hand in the air as if he was posing on the steps of the Acropolis and
pronounced, “We shall call doing math with variables, Algebra.”
Basic Principles 13
Basic Principles
Three basic principles upon which math is founded are equality, priority, and insight.
Applying them to math gives us: value change needs counterchange; first calculate the
complicated; and, changing looks does not change value.
Equality
Life is a constant balancing act. We have to balance work and play with rest and sleep.
We need to get enough time alone to think for ourselves and do our own things, but we
also need time with family and friends. We can’t be alone and with a group at the same
time, so we have to balance our time between the two. Sometimes we might split our
time between two different activities, like watching TV and doing homework. Yet, one
still affects the other. We can’t do whatever we want whenever we want. Humans require
balance or else we get sick or get a hangover. One way or another our lives demand, and
get, balance.
Balance is necessary because of limits. Unless the parents are infinitely wealthy, if sister
gets more allowance, then brother gets less. If there are more eagles above the river, then
there are less fish in the river. If you have driven more miles down the road, then there is
less gas in the tank. These are
like the Law of Conservation
of Energy: Energy can neither
be created nor destroyed, it
just changes form. Cause
matches effect. Action equals
reaction. Input equals output.
In other words, the pot of soup
never grows, it just gets stirred.
A math problem is the
same. The answer must equal
the problem. It is no different
in value, just in format. For
example 5 truckloads of 10
14 Action Algebra
crates of 200 boxes of cereal is a problem, not an answer to my question. I want to know
how many boxes of cereal are coming to my store. 10,000 is an acceptable answer. 5 ^
10 ^ 200 is accurate, but not acceptably simple enough. Now in my attempts to solve the
problem, I cannot arbitrarily inflate a number or remove a number. I can do many things,
but one thing I can never do is create or destroy value. Before must equal after at every
step from beginning to end.
Imagine a math problem taking place on a balance scale. (A very simple one can be
a hanger with clothes pins holding different items in balance.) You can do whatever you
want to items on one or both sides as long as your actions leave the hanger in balance.
Folding a hanging sock doesn’t upset the balance so it is fine. However, removing a sock
on one side requires the same kind of sock to be removed from the other side. Balance
before = balance after.
This principle of equality and balance seems to be telling us what we can’t do and
therefore limits our options. However, it actually opens the door to two powerful Actions.
Value Change Needs Counterchange

Because I cannot create or destroy but must maintain equality, I must make a
counterchange for every change of value that I introduce. (Notice that I said, “I introduce.”
I am not talking about the calculations that the problem tells me I must do.) For example,
if I subtract 3 from one side, then I must subtract 3 from the other side. If I multiply the left
by 28, then I need to multiply the right by 28. These are examples of the Sync Action. My
change tips the scale out of balance, but my counterchange brings it back into balance, so
that is perfectly “legal.” In other words, it really works.
Another Action based on the principle of balance is Shift. It is used when I am dealing
with only one side of an equation, or with an expression, which is a problem that is only
one side of an equation. For example, if I have two water balloons hanging from the left
side of my hanger and I want to take 6 oz. of water from one, then I must add 6 oz. of
water to the other. In math this looks like 10 + 15 becoming 4 + 21.
If I squeeze a balloon so that the top has less water the bottom automatically has more
water. (Popping balloons not allowed!) In math this happens when we reduce fractions.
6/8 becomes 3/4. There are less pieces of the pie on top, but the size of the pieces got
bigger on the bottom. This may not be readily apparent to you, but we will look at this
Action many times with fractions and other examples. It is used a lot!
Another example of Shift happens with units. When I change a 1 dollar bill I get 10
dimes in return. I have more things, but each item has less value.
Another example from real life is air conditioning. To cool off my house I must heat
Basic Principles 15
up the outside. Think of this Action as the principle of the Up and Down. My house goes
down in temperature, while the outside goes up in temperature. If you don’t believe this,
go stick your hand over the exchanger!
Priority
Years ago I saw a simple demonstration that I have never forgotten. A lady had a jar
with several large rocks beside it. There was also a pile of gravel and sand. She put the
sand in the jar, followed by the gravel, but only one rock would fit. Then she emptied the
jar and started over from scratch. This time she put the rocks in first, and poured the gravel
around them. Then she poured the sand in and shook the jar until it all fit. She succeeded
by starting with the biggest stuff.
Likewise, life is filled with order. You build a house from the foundation up and then
from the outside in. Order matters or else the house will be ruined by the weather or
collapse under a load. Life is filled with priorities. Starting the day with a good breakfast
makes us healthier. To eat a good breakfast we have to wake up early, which means we
need to go to bed on time. Getting our homework done on time gives us privileges like
going outside to play and getting good grades. This gives us feelings of accomplishment
and happiness. That makes us better, kinder people. Paying our bills before blowing our
money on extras is another priority that wise people adhere to. Keeping one priority often
helps us keep other priorities straight. As we figure out our priorities and follow them, that
helps us achieve a balanced life.
First Calculate the Complicated

Math also has its priorities. The important things must be calculated first, and that
which is most complicated is most important. Why? You cannot count that which you do
not know.
Very loosely speaking, the simple goal of much of math is to count. We want a number,
a value, which is a count of miles, hours, dollars, items, or other things. Before I can count,
I must add, because adding is counting two or more groups of things. Before I can add,
I must multiply, because multiplying is repetitive adding. Before I can multiply, I must
calculate functions, because then I will know the final number to multiply. And in the
midst of all that, I must pay attention to parentheses, because they can override anything
at anytime.
A pretty good rule of thumb is to first calculate the things you learned last. In other
16 Action Algebra
words, solve a problem in reverse order of when you learned the parts of it. For example,
everyone learns adding before multiplying, but we should multiply before adding in a
problem. Next comes exponents and other functions like roots and trigonometry. The
order of learning these things will vary a little depending on the textbook, but all of these
are on the same level of importance which is above multiplication.
A simple real-life situation will illustrate the meaning. Let’s say it is your task to count
the total production of toy blocks on a certain day. There is a pile of blocks waiting to be
packaged. There are boxes of blocks stacked on pallets, and there is a machine cranking
out blocks constantly.
You can count the blocks in the pile easy enough, but to count the blocks in the boxes
you must first count how many are in one box, then multiply by the number of boxes,
then multiply by the number of pallets. You must go inside a box and count because you
cannot count that which you do not know.
Now you have a choice. You can wait for the machine to stop making blocks and let
them get boxed up to do your count, or you can count what is available and keep them
completely separate from the output of the machine while you wait. Either way you are
giving priority to the machine before calculating your total.
This simple illustration shows that functions (machines that, in professorial terms, map
a set of numbers to another set) must be considered before boxes before loose items or
you must have a way of separating them. Likewise, roots and
logs come before multiplication which comes before addition,
or you must have some way of completely separating them.
Four Actions- In, Fun, MuD, COLT-
in that order- help us to calculate
correctly. (IN FUNny MUD is a
COLT)
In, or Inbox, means I should
work inside parentheses first.
Parentheses ( ) and brackets
[ ] and braces { } all act like
mathematical boxes to group
what is inside them. We must find
a single value for the whole group
before we can add or times it
by what else is there.
Fun is short for function.
Exponents, logarithms,
and trig functions are the
Basic Principles 17
common functions to be encountered in pre-algebra and algebra. They are little mysteries
that must be unraveled before we know the final value we have to work with.
MuD is short for Multiply and Divide. They are of equal importance because division is
basically multiplication in reverse. So almost all rules that apply to multiplication apply to
division, also. When talking about multiplication, keep division in mind. The NOPE trick
of figuring negative and positive signs applies to both.
COLT is short for Combine Only Like Terms (or Tags or Things). Combining is the
all-in-one method of adding and subtracting that is covered in the second chapter. It is
the one way that works for all of arithmetic and all of algebra. SSADDL is the how-to
principle that goes with COLT, because every colt needs a saddle!
Insight
We hope to raise our children with enough insight to know that changing costumes
does not really change the actor. It is still the same person behind the mask. Similarly, we
try to teach them that beauty is more than skin deep and that the value of persons does
not depend on the color of their skin. Also, an old dollar is worth as much as a new dollar.
Changing Looks does not Change Value

Most math steps depend on the Balance and Priority Actions, but the Insight Actions
are nice helper tools. They are easy to use, but not needed as often. (So they tend to get
forgotten.) This group of Actions are called Insight because it takes looking at the problem
and your options in a slightly different way to figure out that if you used one of these, you
could make things easier.
None of these Actions changes the value of numbers, so counterchanges are not
needed. The Show Action hides or unhides what is already there. Sort re-arranges what
is there. Morph changes the form of a number into another equal form. Sub trades one
value with another equal value. All of these Actions change only the looks of a number,
but do not change the value of the number. It is like putting a new paint job on a car
without changing the car itself.
So that is a real quick introduction and overview of the 3 basic principles and the
10 Actions. As we proceed through the lessons I will amplify the Actions at appropriate
points, then use them to explain the current problem.
Actions
Action Chart
First calculate the complicated
IN

You must first work inside the boxes
( ) [ ] { } and fraction bars to figure
the answer you need to work with. Think of
unwrapping a present from the inside out.
FUN

Then you must feed raw numbers
into the mouth of the function
(funnel, get it?!) to figure the answer you need to
work with. Function processes input, you use only
the output.
MUD

Then you can MUltiply and
Divide all kinds by merging tags.
Figure the sign by using NOPE- Negative Odd
Positive Even. (MUD can get on all things, but do
we like it? NOPE!)
COLT

Then Combine Only Like
Things (Terms, Tags) by using
SSADDL- Same Signs Add, Differents Destroy,
Largest sign is answer sign. (SSADDL your COLT)
Value change must have counterchange
SYNC

You may do the same thing
once to each whole side of an
equation. 1 effect, 2 opposite sides.
SHIFT

You may change the value of
an object at any time if you
counter it with an equal, opposite change within
that object. 2 opposite effects, 1 side.
SORT
Changing looks does not change values

You may re-arrange the
objects in a level at any time,
but never change a division part.
SHOW

You may show or hide
invisible objects at any time.
MORPH

You may convert an
object from one format
to another at any time.
SUB

You may replace object A with
object B at any time, if A=B.
20 Action Algebra
Zoom Levels
Zoom levels are not needed to teach or learn arithmetic, but these next two pages
are inserted as an overview for teachers and they show what I meant by “objects” on the
Action pages. Even teachers of basic math will benefit from this because they can see
equation
where their topics fit into the big picture.
expression = expression
term + term term + term
factor ^ factor factor ^ factor factor ^ factor factor ^ factor
Zoom levels is a phrase I coined to describe the varying levels of focus in a math
problem. Sometimes we are working on the factors within a term, while at other times
we are working with the terms in an expression. As we advance through math it becomes
increasingly important to be aware on what level we are on. Any given step of any problem
takes place on only one level. The level can change from step to step, but it will never
change within a step. For example, we don’t do something on the term level, then try to
balance it on the factor level.
As you can see in the diagram, factors multiply (or divide) to make a term (called
“compound number” in arithmetic). Terms add (or subtract) to make up an expression.
Expressions are linked with an equal sign to make an equation. So we have four levels
where Actions happen.
Groups, ( ) and [ ] and {} and fraction bars, can be used at any level. They can group
factors into “superfactors” and terms into “superterms.” That is when our abstracting
abilities really get tested. It happens a little bit in pre-algebra, but mostly in algebra.
(Arithmetic teachers, you can breathe a sigh of relief!)
Zoom Levels 21
6^9 8xy -2(5+6x)

factor factor factor factor factor factor f a c t o r
Now let’s see what these things look like in real life.
Any two things that multiply each other are factors. (Division is included, because
division is reverse multiplication.) So all the different kinds of numbers and groups of
numbers can be factors. It all depends on how they are connected.
In the above examples you can see how the numbers and letters have a dual role. Not
only are they numbers or variables, but they are also factors because they multiply each
other. Also, as factors, they “bond” themselves into packages called, terms.
The example on the right is interesting because of the grouping. The whole example is
one big term made of -2 ^ ( ). However, inside the ( ) factor are two “subterms” of 5 and
6x. The 6x term has its own factors of 6 and x. Do you see why I call this “zoom levels?”
You zoom in from the problem as a whole until you get down to the individual parts.
One more note about the above examples: Each one is an expression, because an
expression can be made of 1 term, just as a term can be made of only 1 factor. This means
that a single number can be a single factor (times an invisible 1) making a single term
making an expression. It all depends from which zoom level you choose to look at it.
3*8-5*7 6x+0-24y 9-7(4+9y)

3*8¤-5*7 6x¤+0¤-24y 9¤-7(4+9y)
4 ¤ + 9 y
A useful, and often challenging, exercise I do with algebra students is to give them
random algebra expressions to be split into terms. I use a double slash or squiggly line
so that it is not confused with some other symbol. The point is that students must “see”
algebra.
What helps me visualize this is I think of expressions like railroad trains. The terms
are the cars coupled together with + and - signs. Inside the cars are boxes of stuff called
factors. We can split trains apart at the couplings between the cars, but we never split the
cars themselves because that would make a mess on the tracks.
So the summary of the matter is that there are four zoom levels we need to be aware
of as we progress through math. We will work with the objects in only one level at a
time. That means factors are the objects in terms. Terms are the objects in expressions.
Expressions are the objects in an equation.
22 Action Algebra
Arithmetic: Numbers
This chapter covers numbers and the number system. It shows how numbers are
arrows from the number line, which is an infinite arrow. We then compare numbers to
each other. Finally, we identify the types of numbers and the parts of compound numbers.
All of this is approached from a concrete, rather than abstract, perspective to make it clear
on a child’s level.
1) Benefits of a Number System Line

Of course, we just call it “number line,” but I am trying to capture the complete wisdom
of the idea by saying, number system line. Without a number system, which requires
the idea of place value, numbers would just be an endless invention of names. Not
too helpful.
If we did not organize numbers into an orderly sequence on a line, we would
think of numbers in random order and places. Like counting the pennies in a jar, it
would be too hard to precisely compare piles (sets) of things. Lining things up and
comparing the lengths of the lines at a glance is the easiest way.
If we are comparing two numbers and the number line is horizontal, then the
number farthest to the right is greater. If the number line is turned vertically, then the
highest number is greatest.
The worksheet about locating numbers is a good time to point out that the
number line starts at 0 and goes endlessly in both directions. It should also be pointed
out that all counting begins at 0 and we count steps. Adults sometimes make the
mistake of counting the starting point. Instead, we start at 0 and count the first step
to 1, the second step to 2, and so on. This is like counting on our fingers and we
already have 3 fingers up. We don’t start at 3 and count 1. We start at 3, move over
...,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...
0
Arithmetic: Numbers 23
to the fourth finger, then count 1. We are counting steps, not marks on the line.
If the number is negative, we go down or to the left. This is just like a thermometer
getting colder, or going down the stairs to the basement.
(If you have anxieties about negative numbers, don’t show them. Children have not
seen them before and so they have no hang-ups about them. Six year old children can
easily do this even if they don’t have our abstract understanding of them. More details will
be covered in lesson 3.)
2) Translating Numbers and Words

From pre-formal activities, the student should already be familiar with both the idea
and the wording of place value. Orally s/he should be able to count to 100, but now the
transition to the written form needs to take place. This is one lesson where writing large
may make a critical difference.
3) Numbers are arrows

What was implied in lesson 1 is now clearly stated.
A number is an arrow. It has both size and direction. It is a piece of a number line.
To exactly describe the size of an arrow we use the digits 0 through 9 to “spell” numbers.
The digit part of a number tells us the size of the number, which is the length of the arrow.
Like an arrow, a number always has direction. In math, there are two basic
directions: positive or negative. Arrows always have direction so numbers always have
signs. Sign + digits = number. If you do not see a sign that means there is an invisible
positive. You will never be wrong if you want to write it yourself. 8=+8 3=+3 +6=6
Numbers are not just bars. They are arrows. Think of their size AND direction. Think,
I have $5 or I owe $5. I walk up 8 stairs or I walk down 8 stairs. The temperature is 15
degrees above zero or 15 degrees below zero. Some things may not be negative, but the
numbers used to describe them can be. For example, can you eat -3 pieces of cake?! Can
you be -5 feet tall? Of course not. My height can’t be negative. But I am always 5 feet tall
whether I am climbing up a cliff or hanging upside down. Numbers always have size and
direction.
24 Action Algebra
6 feet above
the floor=+6
6 feet tall
floor = 0
6 feet tall
6 feet below
the floor=-6
What is an arrow?
An arrow is a line with a pointer on one end to tell us what direction it is going. The
pointer end is called the head. The end without the pointer is the tail. This is where the
arrow begins. Every arrow starts at 0 length and stretches out to its end where the pointer is.
This is exactly what numbers do. They start at 0 on the number line and stretch
a certain distance. The digits part of the number tells us the size, and the sign part of
the number tells us the direction. + is up or to the right, and - is down or to the left.
Just like an arrow is a line with a pointer, a number is a digit part with a sign part.
We often leave out the sign which gives a number direction. Forgetting about it causes
us to misunderstand adding and subtracting, which then causes us more problems when
it comes time for pre-algebra. Even when we don’t see a sign in front of the digits, that
just means there is an invisible + sign there. All “plain” numbers are positive. A number is
negative only if there is a - sign in front.
Negatives are normal
Let’s look at the numbers that strike fear in the hearts
of many. A negative number (or, a minus number, as some
call them) is just a regular number that goes left on the
number line instead of right. If the number line is in the
vertical position then negatives go down. This is just like
a thermometer that is minus 5 degrees below 0 when it is
really cold outside. It is also like being 1200 feet below sea level in Death Valley. There is
nothing bad or different about negative numbers. In fact, they are really good when you
are keeping score in golf!
The real source of our anxiety about negative numbers comes from trying to add and
subtract them. The typical way adding and subtracting is explained breaks down when it
comes time to introduce negative numbers and it is this breakdown that is the real cause
of confusion. The next chapter on combining will fix this problem.
4) Comparing numbers
This lesson is not mathematically hard, but the language can be a little subtle. In
normal life we use bigger, larger, and greater in similar ways to mean the same thing.
However, in math we make a definite distinction between them. Bigger and larger mean
the same thing: the size of the number, which is the length of the arrow. Greater, however,
means position on the number line. Let me explain.
Bigger, larger, smaller only want to know the size of the number, not the sign. Bigger
and larger want to know which of two arrows stretches furthest from 0. The direction in
which they stretch does not matter. Smaller does not care about direction either. It just
want to know which arrow stretches the least from 0.
These distinctions are useful when we subtract, because we want to make sure the
bigger number is on top. We don’t care if it is positive or negative, only the size of the
number determines if it is bigger, or larger.
26 Action Algebra
If you are familiar with absolute value, bigger/smaller is exactly the same idea.
When we wonder if a number is greater than another, we are wondering if it is higher
on the number line. As in the picture below, the greater number may actually be smaller,
but because it ends at a higher spot, it is greater. So greater than and less than mean
higher and lower. When you see these symbols < and > they are referring to greater/less
than, not bigger/smaller.
+4 is greater than -8,

because it is higher, but -8
is bigger than +4 because
its arrow is longer
+4 Bigger, smaller, larger
only see the length of the
arrow, not its direction
Greater than and less than
include size and direction
which gives a final position
on the number line
-8
When doing the worksheets it may help to put your finger over the signs when using
bigger, larger, smaller. Now it is like both numbers are positive and pointing upward. That
is exactly what absolute value will do later on, so this is not wrong or a “get by” trick.
When working with greater/less than use a number line in the vertical position. Now it
is easier to see that any positive number, no matter how small, is greater than any negative
number, no matter how large. Also, any negative number is less than (lower) than any
positive number.
You should find students readily grasping the concepts separately, but may get mixed
up when all the words are used on the all comparisons sheet. I wish I knew of an easy,
obvious memory device here, but I don’t.
5) Kinds of numbers
This is another memory lesson. All the students need to do is recognize the types of
numbers. They do not need to do any comparison or math with them. This is like bird
identification. The student does not need to know how they fly, just recognize what they
look like.
There are 8 basic kinds of numbers we use in arithmetic and algebra:
1) Integer. I use the more technical word instead of “whole number.” Whole number is
not used consistently. Integers are simply positive and negative whole numbers, including
0. Integers are a subset of decimals.
+5 -2 16 -39 +8
2) Decimal. Anytime a number has a visible decimal point, I consider it a decimal.
Technically, a number like 3.0 could also be considered an integer, so you can override the
answer keys and give credit for that answer as well. For further study you could look up
rational and irrational numbers in Wikipedia in case you come across it on standardized
tests or textbooks, but the distinction is not central to arithmetic and algebra.
7.25 1.33... 0.09 .1

3) Percent. Usually it is the integers and decimals that have a % tacked on them, but
any number type can be made into a percent. So I consider the % symbol trumps all else.
8.9% 6% 9 1/5% 30.18%

4) Fraction. Any kind of number can appear in a fraction on either the top or the
bottom, or before or after the slash. However, we try to convert (Morph) the fraction into
having only integers as soon as possible.
1
1/2 4/
13 -3/7 23
5) Mixed number, or simply, mixed. A visible integer next a fraction with only integers
is a mixed. I rarely work with mixed numbers. Instead, I turn them into fractions, solve the
problem, then re-convert back to a mixed.
1
5 1/2 -94/13 -11 3/7 62
6) Scientific. A decimal times 10 to a power is the basic form of a scientific number.
28 Action Algebra
Technically, the decimal must be between 1.0 and 9.99999... so that there is only a ones
digit followed by decimal places. However, at this point, if any decimal followed by ^10N
is called scientific, that is good enough.
2.7^104 9.003^10-15
7) Variable. Just an introduction is necessary here. Variables are letters that wrap
mystery numbers within them. Algebra will tell us how to solve mystery numbers, but for
arithmetic all we need to know is that they are shorthand numbers for things like apples,
boxes, and miles. We need to know a little bit about the things so we know whether to
add or not.
x y apple a
8) Constant. There are just two special decimals that we abbreviate to letters in standard
elementary math. They are & and e. A calculator will give you the long decimal values if
you want them, but for now all the student needs to know is that & and e are constantly
the same value in every problem.
& e i
6) Parts of compound numbers

As I am sure you have already noticed, this first chapter on numbers has not been
standard. While I have not relied on a young child’s inability to comprehend deep concepts,
nevertheless a complete foundation has been laid for all the rest of arithmetic and algebra.
There will be no need to teach, unteach, and then reteach. Starting with the very next
chapter you will see the advantages of introducing all the details of numbers right up front.
One continuous system and framework can be built that cuts out a tremendous amount
of duplication and work arounds. Using the endless supply of Action Algebra worksheets,
the student can progress at his or her own pace in a simple, straightforward fashion and
still finish algebra years early. This leaves plenty of time for side topics, applications, and
other investigations!
I needed to say that to prepare you for wording new to you.
Just like we have compound words, we have compound numbers. Fractions are good
examples because they are numbers within numbers. The top (numerator) and the bottom
(denominator) are individual numbers, but stepping back and looking at the numbers with
a bar in between we see a fraction. Thus, we have a compound number.
A compound number is made up of a simple number (integer, decimal) followed by
a tag.
Tag
“Tag” is not a regular math word. It is a word I made up to help you see the parts of
a number and what they do. The tag always comes after the regular number and tells us
what kind of compound number we are looking at. This is important because we must
have matching tags before we can add or subtract two numbers, and we must know what
is in the tag so we know what to multiply.
5 players
.3
-1 xy
2 /3&
8 7 /9
Regular numbers like 2 or 7.4 have blank tags. Sometimes the tag can be a variable,
like x, or it can be an item from daily life, like shoes or books.
Since fractions are compound numbers, they have tags you can see. The bottom
number (or the right hand number if written sideways) is the tag. The fraction bar is
included.
(Algebra teachers: A tag is all factors in a term except the coefficient and/or numerator.)
Compound Number
Very simply put, a compound number, like a compound word, is made up of more than
one part. Be mindful that one of the parts might be invisible. All compound numbers have
at least two parts called the Front Number (frontnum, for short) and the Tag. An optional
third part is attached to some numbers called the Unit (miles, feet, meters, pounds, etc...),
but it is really part of the tag, also.
30 Action Algebra
Compound Number
Frontnum Tag Unit

The algebra word for compound number is TERM.
In short, the front number is the first part of every compound number and is the
quantity part. It tells us how many tags we have. The frontnum is always an integer,
decimal, or top of a fraction. Once in a while it is invisible, but we will talk about that later.
The tag is everything after the frontnum that is attached by multiplication or division.
This includes other numbers and all letters. Multiplication and division signs are included.
These labels, “compound number” “frontnum” and “tag,” should seem new and
strange to you because they are not standard vocabulary. However, they are labels for
standard math items that you learned when you were in school that were left unnamed in
the lower grades or not named at all.
Young children can easily identify the parts of a compound number, even if they don’t
yet understand everything those parts do. Rather than use a strange word like “coefficient”
that still makes no real sense to me (a math teacher), they can easily and visually relate to
“front number.” Term vs. compound number is a toss-up. If you want to skip the baby
word and go right to “term” that would make sense to me, also. Tag labels the unlabeled
so we have nothing to lose there. The main point is that children learning math for the first
time will accept whatever words you use. What might feel strange to you will be accepted
as normal by them.
32 Action Algebra
Arithmetic: Combine
In this chapter we will learn how to add and subtract compound numbers. Adding and
subtracting are just pieces of an overall process that is called “combining.” It is easier to
learn how to combine positive and negative numbers right from the beginning.
This chapter introduces our first Action, which is called COLT- Combine Only Like
Things (like things have like tags). As you learn about adding and subtracting, you will
begin to see that they are just like walking up and down the stairs of the icon. Above the
water line is positive and below the water line is negative.
We will start with a proper understanding of adding and subtracting, but quickly move
to the all-in-one method of combining. This method will not only work for arithmetic, but
it is also the far better way of adding and subtracting terms in algebra.
7) Adding on a Number Line 

We usually think of adding this way: Put two numbers together to get a bigger number.
If you use “bigger” the same way we used it in the previous chapter, then you are right.
However, most people don’t use it that way or teach it that way. They fear negative
numbers, so they think of only the up direction for bigger. They don’t realize that numbers
also get bigger as you go farther from 0 in the down direction. But the previous chapter
showed us they do!
-8 -6 -2
+5 +6 +11
0
+3 +4 +7
-8 -4 -4
Arrows lined up in the same direction, head to tail, is adding
Let’s use arrows to help us make a better definition. Adding is lining up two arrows
together in the same direction (head to tail). On the number line this means that adding
Arithmetic: Combine 33
is putting two numbers together so that the answer is farther away from zero. Therefore,
two positive numbers add up to a bigger positive, while two negatives add up to a bigger
negative number.
So you see, it is not because numbers go up that they add, it is because they go in
the same direction, even if that direction is down. Once again, if you understand the
difference between “bigger” and “greater than” you are farther ahead than many. They
mistakenly think that every time they add the answer must be higher on the number line,
but really, the answer must be farther from zero, up or down.
Think of this in practical terms it will make sense. If you owe someone $4 and someone
else $2, how much do you owe altogether? Of course, you owe $6 total. In your head you
knew that owing $4 was bad and so was owing $2. So putting them together meant that
things were going to get worse. You added, not subtracted, the debts. Your answer got
farther from, not closer to, 0.
Again, let’s say you dig a hole 3 feet deep, then you dig another 2 feet. How deep is
the hole? It only makes sense that if you go down, then down some more, you end up
with a deeper hole, which means you must add the 3 and the 2 to get 5. Of course, it is a
negative 5, because it is below 0, which is ground level.
Teach adding this way to prepare the student to understanding subtraction correctly.
8) Subtracting on a Number Line 

Adding lines up arrows in the same direction, so subtraction puts them together in
opposite directions. Subtraction is not always “taking away,” but “taking away” is always
subtraction. “Taking away” only deals with size, but of course, numbers have size and
direction. Therefore, subtraction must take into account size and direction, which is both
the number and its sign.
+6 +4
-2
0
+4
-8 -12
Subtracting lines up arrows in opposite directions, head to tail

34 Action Algebra
This is critical for us as adults to understand before teaching our students. We have
been conditioned to think that subtraction is only taking away, but this leads to a mental
road block. For example, if I have a stack of 3 books on the table, how can I take away
5? If I think that subtractions is only taking away, then this problem is impossible. When
a student believing this enters pre-algebra and negative numbers, all sorts of mental
difficulties and confusion arise. Some never get over it. Many take months to expand their
thinking.
To subtract 5 books from 3, I need to see that the original stack goes up 3 from 0,
which is the tabletop. Then I need to see that I must go down 5, which of course will land
me in negative territory below the tabletop at -2. I owe the table 2 books.
The only correct way to tell if you need to subtract two numbers is by looking at BOTH
of their signs. If the signs are different, subtract, but if they are the same, add. The answer
might be positive or it might be negative, but it will always be closer to zero than the
biggest number. Therefore, the usual advice to put the bigger number on top when setting
up a subtraction problem is always correct. (At this point, you might want to take a peek
at lesson 11 so you can see where this is all going, which is to the all-in-one method of
combining.)
Now look at the examples. -2+6 means you go left 2 then go right 6 to end at +4 for
the answer. When using pencil and paper with just the numbers, notice that -2 and +6
have different signs. +4-12 means you right 4 and then go left 12 to end at -8 for the final
answer. Again, notice the different signs and so the arrows go different directions.
9) Adding Stacked Numbers 

This lesson is the standard lesson which teaches students to add numbers vertically.
This will be a real test of a child’s abstract abilities. Some may need to wait, some may
take many weeks to master it to the level of being automatic. Again I advise not to push.
Challenge, but not push. There is a significant jump from concrete, pre-formal thinking to
juggling the abstract idea of numbers in the head.
+8 1 0 1 0 +72 +858
+6 +37 +79 +29 +245
+14 +13 +76 11 13
+50 +155 90 90
+101 1000
+1103
To prepare the way for combining, the worksheets put the biggest number on top and
all the signs are written. The process of adding and carrying the spillover is the same as
what you are familiar with. However, I have seen a variation that could be helpful to some
students. Instead of writing the carry above the column to the left, the answer is written in
one place below. It is a little bit more writing, but the place values are made plain all the
way through. Notice also that the problem can be done either right to left or left to right.
10) Subtracting Stacked Numbers 

With the exception of showing all the signs, this is a standard lesson on subtraction.
The big number is on the top, so even the standard “take away” explanation will work
here. (Take away is not wrong, it is just incomplete.)
As you can see in the examples, the standard way of subtracting, with all the borrowing
and slashing can be quite messy. If we as adults don’t like it, we can imagine the trouble
this mess causes young children. So in the beginning you might want to break down the
steps for them more clearly to aid their understanding.
The cause for borrowing (as well as for carrying in addition) is place value. Because
we cannot always store enough value in the top digit, we must borrow 10 times that place
from the place to the left and temporarily squeeze it in. What we are really doing when we
squeeze in extra value is making a new problem within the main problem.
Look at the 24-19 example. After borrowing 10 from the 20 we can look at it as two
problems, 14-9 and 10-10. Each of those problems only have 1 digit for an answer,
which fit fine in one place. So we want to make sure not to borrow when we don’t need
to, nor to borrow more than 10. In either case we will make a problem that results in two
digits. And as Hardy use to say to Laurel, “That’s another fine mess you’ve gotten me
into.”
Let’s look at the 93-27 example in the middle and sort of dialog our way through it.
36 Action Algebra
+15 1 6 7 14
+24 +858
8 0
/ / / /
1
+72
1 1
-7 +93
/
1
-19 -59 -269

+8 -27
+5 +13 +589
+66
I am going to work right to left, because along the way the top digit might be smaller
than the bottom digit. To solve that problem I need to have a big, rich neighbor on my left
that has not spent all her money yet.
So the first digit I will work with is the 3 and I see it must subtract a 7. For a final answer
I can go into debt, but not in the middle of a problem, so I must borrow. The 9 is the big,
rich neighbor and she is happy to loan me 1. But guess what?!! The 9 is in the tens place
so it is really a 90 and the 1 she will loan me is really a 10. That will make my subtraction
work!
10+3 is 13, so I now have 13 squeezed into the ones place that can easily have 7 taken
away from it. 13-7 is 6, so I write a 6 in the ones place of my answer.
Now I move to the second column and the 8 that remains from the 9 can subtract the
2 beneath it. 8-2 is 6, so I write a 6 in the tens place of my answer. I now have a final
answer of 66.
When demonstrating that to students you have two options. Slash and write the borrow
real tiny, or make separate problems. (Here is where a big whiteboard can come in handy.
Next to the main problem, you can write the two (or three) smaller problems, then put
their answers back in place under the main problem.)
Either way you do it, be sure to note to yourself and the students that they are using
their place value skill and bigger/smaller skill from the Numbers chapter. Nothing a student
learns is extra or useless. It all leads to something in a later chapter, or even in the very
next lesson, which is about to happen!
11) Combining Stacked Integers 

Starting with this lesson and before we complete the chapter, we will roll all the previous
lessons into one. Being able to combine tags at the end of the chapter means the student
is able to do all the skills to that point. It will be a good review spot. However, we must first
start with combining plain integers (blank tags).
Before beginning let me clear up some terminology. I have seen some books use
combining the same way I do to mean either adding or subtracting. I have also seen some
books use the word “adding” in the same way I use “combining.” I am comfortable with
both usages, but in this book, I will use adding in only the way I have already described
it. Adding is two arrows in the same direction head to tail. This translates to numbers on
paper as I showed two lessons previous.
Combining I will use only to describe the process I am about to show you, which will
combine (no pun intended) adding and subtracting. Mastering this method, a student is
set to conquer arithmetic, word problems, and algebra.
Combining clears confusion
Now lets put adding and subtracting together into one new process called, “combining.”
Combining will tell you when to do the old-style adding and when to do the old-style
subtraction and what the sign of the answer will be. You don’t need to memorize special
cases and what to do in case a number is negative. Everything is all wrapped up into one
overall process.
+7 +7 -7 -7 +15 +15 -15 -15

+2 -2 -2 +2 +03 -03 +03 -03
+9 +5 -9 -5 +18 +12 -12 -18
1) Always write largest number on top

2) Answer sign is Largest sign (top)
3) Same Signs Add, Differents Destroy
Before I explain, just study the examples to see if you can find a pattern. Did you
notice that the biggest number is always on top? Did you notice that the answer always
has the same sign as the biggest number? In other words, the top sign is always the answer
sign. Did you notice that when the signs are the same, the numbers add to get a bigger
number farther from zero? Did you notice that when the signs are different, the numbers
subtract to get a number closer to zero?
This is the process you should have been taught starting in first grade. With combining,
there is no need to learn, unlearn, and then re-learn separate processes with positive and
negative numbers. Merge the two processes with correct ideas of “bigger/larger” into the
38 Action Algebra
one process of combining that ALWAYS works, even in algebra.

(Remind the student that bigger and larger mean the same thing, just as they learned
in the Numbers chapter. I use the word Larger here because it fits into a mnemonic.)
SSADDL your COLT
Most of the time numbers are not stacked vertically and you don’t want to take the time
to re-write them that way. Here are the similar steps to combine positive and negative
numbers when they are in normal, sideways format.
Same Signs Add. -8-5 means combine by adding. +9+2 means combine by adding.
18+7 means combine by adding. Don’t forget the invisible + in front of 18!
Differents Destroy. This is a shorthand way of saying different signs destroy each other.
This goes back to the old Pacman game. The + are like cherries and the - are like Pacmans
who eat cherries. Put a - and + together and they destroy each other like matter and anti-
matter. Poof! This is the same as a hole and a pile of dirt. If you fill the hole with the pile,
then both the hole and the pile are gone. Poof! Positives and negatives destroy each other,
when combined.
Another little tip to fix this in the memory is that “different” is basically the same word
as “difference.” The word, difference, is used in word problems as a clue to subtract. So
you could say Different Difference to keep things straight, but people may look at you a
little funny as if you are a verbal photocopier! (but you won’t forget!)
-6-4= -7+9=
1 1
-6-4=- -7+9=+
2 2
-6-4=-10 -7+9=+2
3 3
1) Find sign of largest number

2) Copy it to answer sign
12) Series of Signs 

This lesson really belongs in the chapter on multiplication, but I need to insert it here
because some students will be confused by their textbook. Because they teach adding and
subtracting separately, some books insert an extra + or - sign intending to be helpful. This
is not necessary once you know combining and you will later have to unlearn the crutch
of depending on an extra sign. (I have seen more students confused by this device than
helped.)
So here is what to do. Count all the signs that look like - that are in front of the number.
If the count is odd, the number is -. If the count is even, the number is +. It does not matter
if you call the - sign a negative sign, a minus sign, or subtraction. Count all the - signs.
This is the NOPE rule that goes with the MuD Action.
I’ll explain why this works in the next chapter.
13) Combining Series of Signs 

Now that the student knows how to condense a series of signs into one, he will be able
to combine any number of numbers with any number of signs. (No need to go crazy here.
Every problem can be broken down into combining two numbers at a time until the total
is reached.)
4--7 = +4+7 -=- NOPE--

--=+ Negative
-8+-4 = -8-4 Odd
---=-
--++-2-+-6=-2+6 Positive
----=+ Even
9-(+7)=+9-7 -----=-
-3+(-5)=-3-5 ------=+
-------=-
11+(+2)=+11+2
40 Action Algebra
If you think this looks like standard pre-algebra, you are right. If you think it is too
early to introduce it to students, just remember that we have arrived here in a smooth
progression. If the student has successfully handled the previous lessons, there is no reason
to assume she will not handle this one successfully. Don’t let your fears and biases get in
the way of the student’s blank slate! Also, the earlier something is learned, the more it is
reviewed to the point of becoming automatic.
14) Combining Big Integers 

This lesson introduces no new concepts. Rather, it consolidates previous learning and
extends it to large numbers written sideways. It is up to the student to find the largest/
biggest number, put it on top, then add or subtract according to the signs.
4--7 = +4+7 = +11
-8+-4 = -8-4 = -12
--++-2-+-6 = -2+6 = +4
9-(+7) = +9-7 = +2
-3+(-5) = -3-5 = -8
11+(+2) = +11+2 = +13
15) Combining Decimals 

Combining decimals is no different than combining integers, except that a decimal
point is visible. Sure the decimals must be lined up, but we lined up the invisible decimal
points in integers when we lined up the ones, tens, and so on. Why must we always line
things up this way? Because of COLT, Combine Only Like Things. We add pennies with
pennies and dimes with dimes, so we also add ones with ones and tenths with tenths.
There is nothing magical about the decimal point. It is the place values that must be lined
up.
The icon looks like it is lined up on the right side. This is a small visual reminder to line
up numbers correctly to the right side. If you fill in the invisible zeros past the decimal, then
all numbers line up to the right, but the key is lining up the decimal so that place values
match above and below.
Notice that all the numbers above have blank tags. Because they are blank we don’t
even need to draw or label the tags. If you put them in, you won’t be wrong, but combining
blank tags gives you a blank tag.
16) Combining Tags 

COLT says Combine Only Like Things. We know two things are alike if they have
the same tag. So you could also say Combine Only Like Tags. Also, when you combine
identical tags, you get the same tag for an answer.
Now the question arises, What do I do if I need to combine things with different tags?
Don’t! You can’t! Just stop and do nothing. You are done! (Multiplying can work with
different tags, but combining cannot. Sometimes multiplying can change the tags so that
combining can work.)
-400. -28. +5.10 -75.30

- 75. + 5. + .26 - 2.04
-475. -23. +5.36 -77.34
Think about it. You have 3 apples in your left hand and 5 oranges in your right hand.
How many do you have altogether? Did you say 8? You should have asked me, How
many what? Do you have 8 apples? No. Do you have 8 oranges? No. You have 8 fruits,
but was that what I was asking for? You don’t know. Therefore, you can’t answer.
Math is exact. The question and the numbers you have, must ALL match exactly.
Otherwise, don’t answer the question, because you can’t. This may sound nitpicky and
42 Action Algebra
hard for students to understand, but actually it is easy. The rule is simple: tags match
exactly or do nothing. No exceptions. Not a lot of thinking. Combine ONLY Like Tags.
Frontnum Tag Frontnum Tag
+3 apples +3 miles
+5 apples +5 miles
+8 apples +8 miles
+3 apples +3 miles
+5 oranges +5 books
STOP STOP
Frontnum Tag Frontnum Tag Frontnum Tag
9.2 xy
- +7 /4 -8 /3
+3.7 xy -1 /4 +3 /3
-5.5 xy +6 /4 -5 /3
9.2 %
- +17 a +17 &
+3.7 % +24 a +24 &
-5.5 % +41 a +41 &
Fractions
As we saw earlier, fractions are compound numbers with visible tags. Everything from
the fraction bar down (or to the right) is part of the tag. Notice that the answer tag is the
same as the problem tags. The frontnums get combined as regular numbers, because they
are regular numbers.
Variables
Variables are always part of the tag. Look at the examples and you will see that when
you combine x’s you get an x. When you combine y’s you get a y.
Constants
Combining with constants is no different than combining with variables or anything
else in the tag. Use COLT.
Percents
Anything after the front number is part of the tag, even fancy symbols like the percent
sign. And guess what?! When you combine percents you get a percent.
When you are at the store you see there is a 10% sale taking place. Then you see little
signs that say prices have been lowered another 5%. 10% + 5% = 15% discount. % + % = %.
44 Action Algebra
Arithmetic: Multiply
In this chapter we will learn how to multiply compound numbers. We will see that the
tags do not have to be the same, and in fact, multiplying makes them different.
The icon gives hints that multiplying and dividing go together. Dividing is just
multiplication in reverse. That is why we call this Action, MuD, for MUltiply and Divide.
However, we will look at dividing in its own chapter.
The icon looks like a small grid and reminds us that multiplying is based on a grid,
while the stairs of the COLT icon were like a single number line. The icon also suggests
what do with the + and - signs.
17) Multiplying on a Grid 

Multiplying is putting two arrows together, tail to tail, at right angles. The answer is the
area of the rectangle that they make. Here’s why.
We have already seen that combining is counting numbers one after another without
restarting the count. This is visually represented by arrows lined up head to tail on a single
number line. What we want to do now is repetitive counting. We want to copy a number
some number of times and get that total.
If you think about that last sentence closely you will realize that we are introducing a
new idea that we don’t yet have words for. The words I am about to use are not “official”
as if they must be memorized. I am simply trying to describe an idea using whatever words
are available.
Here is the new idea that multiplying introduces: number
role. Each of the two numbers in a multiplying problem have
different roles. One number is the “original number” and the
other number is the “copy number.” The original number gets
duplicated according to the copy number. This is like putting
the original number on a piece of paper on a copy machine.
Then we punch in the copy number and we get that many
pieces of paper on the output tray that each have the original
number. Then we add up all those pages and get the total.
Arithmetic: Multiply 45
Do you see how this is different from combining where the numbers just sit there
waiting for us to count them? The numbers in a combining problem have no roles. They
are inert and lifeless. In a multiplying problem, however, they
total
have different roles to perform. They have different meanings.
Even though we can interchange the original number and make
it the copy number (which makes the copy number into the
copies
original number) and still get the same answer, whichever way
we solve it, we give the numbers different roles. This subtle idea
leads to new ideas.
original Notice that length ^ length = area. Length ^ length does
not equal another length. Multiplying makes a new thing, a
different thing. Now compare this to combining. Length + length = length. Combining
keeps everything the same. Multiplying makes things different.
This is easy to forget when we work with plain numbers for so long and forget about
the real things that they count. Numbers don’t exist to count themselves. They exist to
count real things. When you combine real things you get the same kind of thing as an
answer. When you multiply real things, you get a different thing as an answer.
This common sense pattern of life can be used when solving word problems. For
example, you are told that your room is 10 feet long by 12 feet wide. Then you are asked
to find the area of the room. In the information and the question you have feet, feet, and
area. You have more than one kind of thing. You can know automatically that combining
the numbers will not give you the
answer, because feet + feet = feet.
Combining works on
So, you must multiply.
a number line, while
Multiplying literally adds another
multiplying works on a grid
dimension that combining does not
know exists. Two number lines put
together on a grid lets us multiply two
different things at once. If we know
that different things are involved, then
9*6=54
we know multiplication was used. If
length=6
we use multiplication, then we know

different things will result.
Apply that idea to this question. area=54
If 5 trucks each have 1000 cookies,
how many total cookies are there?
We have trucks and cookies and
must find cookies. What I am not sure length=9
46 Action Algebra
about is whether I should multiply or combine. My question is answered as soon as I

realize that trucks and cookies are different things. I cannot combine them, so therefore I
multiply.
So the lesson is that different things (different tags) and multiplying (which includes
dividing) go together, while same things and combining go together.
Multiplying lets us work with more than one kind

of thing at a time, because it works with more
than one number line at a time. One number line
represents trucks, while the other represents crates
in each truck. The area of the rectangle tells us how
many total crates are in all the trucks. One number
line can work with trucks OR crates, not both.
crates each truck=6
9*6=54
total crates=54
trucks=9
What dividing really is

We will do division problems in the next chapter, but it might be helpful at this point
to contrast division with multiplication. Because dividing is just multiplication in reverse, it
also uses more than one thing at a time. Division “unpacks” the answer that multiplication
put together. What got packed was a rectangle on the grid. What did the packing were the
two numbers multiplying each other on the two axes.
Multiplying is length ^ length = area, so division is area _ length = length.
It does not matter in what order you multiply the lengths, but you can see that order
matters when it comes to dividing. Area _ length gives you length, but length _ area is
nonsense!
area
length
length
Simply put, division is reverse multiplication where the order matters. Never change
the order of a division problem or the division part of a main problem!
18) Learning the Times Table 

Before getting too deep into multiplication, the students will need to know the times
table. Sure a calculator can do the raw calculation, but then the students will never gain
automaticity, which means they will mentally stumble every time they face a concept
based on multiplication. (This applies the same to combining and dividing.) They should
be able to work mentally with at least single digits and small double digits in all four of the
basic operations.
Memorizing the times table need not appear as a giant task if we cut out the duplication.
We can further trim it by cutting out the 2’s and 9’s because there are better ways of
dealing with them. So what is left is a smaller, easier to manage group of numbers. (A side
benefit is that the squares become obvious along the diagonal.)
This times table follows the good study habit of not studying the same thing twice.
Students do not need to memorize 3^4 and 4^3, they understand that is the same
problem. By making them study the same thing twice, or learning what they already know,
they begin to doubt if they know it and so start slipping backwards. Review is good, but
intensive study should focus only on what is not yet understood or memorized.
So now here is why 2 and 9 are left off the table.
48 Action Algebra
You can figure 2 ^ a number by doubling the number in your head. Just add number
+ number. 2^8=8+8=16 5^2=5+5=10
You can figure 9’s by either of two neat little tricks. Let’s solve the problem 4^9
Method A) Subtract 1 from 4 to get 3. That is your 10’s digit. Subtract the 3 from the
9. That is your 1’s digit. Your answer is 36. Always subtract 1, then subtract from 9.
^ 3 4 5 6 7 8
3 9 12 15 18 21 24
4 16 20 24 28 32
5 25 30 35 40
6 36 42 48
7 49 56
8 64
Method B) Hold your hands in front of you and curl your 4th finger (count left to right).
Now count the fingers to the left of your curled finger, 3. This is your 10’s digit. Count the
fingers to the right of your curled finger, 6. That is the 1’s digit. Your answer is 36.
Try both of these tips with all the 9’s to prove it to yourself.
Before leaving this lesson, look at the times table above one more time. Doesn’t that
look like a less daunting task than memorizing the full table? If it looks easier to us, then it
will also look easier to children!
19) Learning Multiples 

Multiples are very much related to the times table and they can help a student learn
their multiplication facts. A list of multiples is generated by starting with any number then
repeatedly adding that number to itself. Sometimes this is called skip-counting.
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, ...
5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, ...
7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, ...
11, 22, 33, 44, 55, 66, ...

You can also start multiplying the number by 1, then by 2, then by 3, and so forth:
4^1=4; 4^2=8; 4^3=12; 4^4=16; 4^5=20; 4^6=24; etc... This is where the word
“multiple” comes from. The reason to find multiples is to find common multiples, which
will then be used by fractions and other problems later on.
20) Negative Numbers on a Grid 

It is time to complete our understanding of negative numbers. We have a system that
works for all adding and subtracting called, combining. Now we need a system that works
for multiplying, and along with it, dividing. We also need to know how to tell the two
systems apart.
50 Action Algebra
-
2
+
-16 +4 +16
-4
+4*+4=+16
+
+4
-
-4*+4=-16
-4*-4=+16
+4*-4=-16
+16 -4 -16
3 4
Let’s return to our copier illustration, but this time we will copy money instead of plain
paper.
I want to solve the problem 8^10. In other words, I want to make 8 copies of a $10
bill. I put the bill on the glass, punch in 8, and out comes 8 bills. I add them up and get
$80. Sweeeet!!
Translating this problem to a grid I can put 10 on the horizontal axis (the X axis) and
8 on the vertical axis (Y axis). Since the 10 is positive it goes to the right. Since the 8 is
positive it goes up. Therefore, the rectangle that they make is in the upper right quadrant
(quadrant 1). Since the answer is positive (I have $80 in cash, not debt) we say that any
answer in quadrant 1 is positive.
Now let’s modify the problem. Instead of a $10 bill, I now have a $10 IOU. When I
make 8 copies of the IOU, I will be in debt $80. That is -80.
Going to the grid, my 8 is still positive and up, but the 10 is negative, so it goes left,
not right. In which quadrant is my answer rectangle? In the upper left, quadrant 2. So any
answers in the “northwest” quadrant are negative.
Notice that so far the answer sign is following the NOPE rule that was introduced in
the Combining chapter. Negative Odd Positive Even, and the first problem had 0 negative
numbers, and 0 is even, and the answer was +. The second problem had 1 negative
number, which is odd, and the answer was -.
Now things get interesting because we must imagine a negative copier. Let’s pretend
that we have a copier destroys existing copies instead of creating new ones. When I ask
for 3 negative copies of my original, this strange machine destroys 3 originals. Negative
copies, get it?!
So now I put my $10 bill on the glass and punch in -8 copies. Rather than spitting
out $80 for my spending pleasure, it reaches into my wallet and shreds 8 $10 bills into
oblivion. Obviously, I am not happy, but the copier did what I told it to do!
So now I am $80 poorer. The answer to -8^10 is -80. I show this on the grid with
a +10 to the right and a -8 down. Therefore, my answer rectangle is in the lower right
(southeast), which is quadrant 4. Thus, we can conclude that any answers in quadrant 4
are negative.
And here comes the final mindbender. I put an IOU of $10 on the copier and punch
in -8 copies. The copier goes into my wallet, pulls out 8 IOUS of $10 each and destroys
them! Weird, but quite nice! Better than a bailout! I am $80 less in debt. A positive thing
just happened to me because something bad got destroyed. A negative got negated. A
double negative is positive. We will overlook the moral implications of arguing that two
wrongs make a right and instead focus on a reversed reverse is forward. Does all that
make sense?! If my debt (-) is destroyed (-) then that is a + result for me.
On the grid that problem looks like this: the -8 goes down and the -10 goes left.
Therefore, the answer rectangle is in the third quadrant (southwest), and so quadrant 4 is
positive.
In summary, multiplying is two arrows making a rectangle in one of four quadrants.
Which quadrant the rectangle is in determines the sign.
Telling the difference
How do we tell the difference between a multiplying problem with + and -, and a
combining problem with + and -? Multiplying always has * or ^ or ( ). If you see nothing
that says to multiply, then combine.
-6+(-4) becomes -6-4

-6^+(-4) becomes -6^-4
8-(+5) becomes 8-5
8*-(+5) becomes 8*-5
52 Action Algebra
Sometimes a sign touches the ( ) instead of a number. In that case, only the sign
multiplies the sign inside. This is part of the general math notation that says that things
that touch multiply each other. For example, 5x means 5 times x, and 7b means 7 times b.
A couple of exceptions to this general way of writing are digits and mixed numbers. If two
digits are next to each other, then they are spelling a number using place value. 25 means
twenty five, not 2^5. Also, mixed numbers put a whole number next to a fraction. In that
case, it means add, not times.
-2+5 = -7 but -2*+5 = -10
+1-8 = -7 but +1^-8 = -8
-3-6 = -9 but -3(-6) = -18
-4+9 = +5 but (-4)(+9) = -36
- +
2 1
3
+ - 4
21) Multiplying Big Numbers 

Now that we have a system in place for multiplying numbers with signs, we can now
attack 2 and 3 digit numbers. This will introduce the distributive property and carrying.
(Note: This explanation of distributive property is for you as a teacher. I have not found
it necessary to add to the load of young minds with another new technical phrase. When
the student encounters it again in pre-algebra, then the wording will be more appropriate.
Right now your goal is to teach “common sense.”)
You may not be familiar with the name “distributive property,” but you have used
it every time you multiply by more than one digit. For example, 3^15 is the same as
3^(10+5) which is the same as 3^10 + 3^5. The 3 was distributed to each number in the
( ). Using the distributive property I can sometimes multiply up to 2 digits ^ 2 digits in my
head.
12^34 = (10+2)(30+4)
10^30 + 10^4 + 2^30 + 2^4
300 + 40 + 60 + 8 = 408
29^75 = (20+9)(70+5)
20^70 + 20^5 + 9^70 + 9^5
1400 + 100 + 630 + 45 = 2175
Distribution is used a lot in algebra, so it is good to introduce the concept with plain
numbers to make it easier to grasp. The basic idea is that distribution lets you split the
main problem into smaller problems, solve them, then combine their subtotals into a final
answer. For example, 8^12 = 8^(10+2) = 8^10 + 8^2 = 80 + 16 = 96
The key point not to miss here is that distribution works only when the group of
numbers in the ( ) are being combined. If the problem looks like this: 3^(10^5) then
distribution does not apply because it is not needed.
I really don’t think of the distributive property as another rule to memorize. It is really
54 Action Algebra
just a common sense interpretation of what is written. It is always wise to break down big
problems into smaller ones and the distributive property gives us a label to help correctly
describe what we are doing. I use the word “fill” when I teach equations and sometimes
the visual of a sprinkling can helps students “see” what is happening no matter what they
call it.
So here is the complete idea. Every number in one group must multiply every number
in the other group. Look at the examples.
Of course, if one is careful, the part with the parentheses can be skipped, and the four
subproblems can be written out in any form, as long as the student remembers to combine
their subanswers.
Powers of 10
When multiplying big numbers much time can be saved if the student knows how
handle powers of ten. 0’s at the end of the numbers (not in the middle) can be written
down as part of the answer right away. Then normal multiplication can be performed
on the remaining digits and their answer written on the left side of the answer 0’s. This
shortcut works because of the distributive property. For example, 5^100 is 5^1 and two
0’s for an answer of 500. 20^30 is 2^3 and two 0’s for an answer of 600.
Vertical Multiplication
Whether you have your students break up the problem as in the examples or use the
standard vertical method, the underlying principle is the distributive property--everything
^ everything.
Now let’s look at vertical multiplication and a couple different ways to do it. The
normal carrying can be used, or else the full subanswers can be written out in the middle
area. I recommend the latter method because it is cleaner and easier to read. Young
children often get confused about where and why to put their carries and which carry is
the current one to use.
15 68 200
500
^12 ^37 68
10 2^5 1
56 7^8 ^37
20 2^10 420 7^60 476
1
50 10^5 240 30^8 2040

100 10^10 1800 30^60 1516
180 1516
22) Multiplying Bigger-Smaller 

The purpose of this lesson is to develop “math sense” in the student. They do not
need to do the actual multiplying. They just need to look at the problem and tell if the first
number is being made bigger or smaller. For example, if I multiply 8 by 2 the 8 is getting
bigger, but if I multiply 8 by 1/2 the 8 is being made smaller. This skill helps in estimating
and in double checking word problems to see if the answer makes sense.
The key is to look at the second number to see if it is bigger or smaller than 1. If the
first number is multiplied by a number bigger than 1, then the answer is bigger than the
first number. If the first number is multiplied by a number smaller than 1, then the answer
is smaller.
A fraction is smaller than 1 if the top number is smaller than the bottom number.
A decimal is smaller than 1 if there are all 0’s on the left of the decimal point.
A percent is smaller than 1 if it is less than 100%.
23) Multiplying Decimals 

Multiplying decimals is just like multiplying integers with one extra step. At the end we
must figure out where the decimal point belongs. The rule to use is M2 on the rule sheet:
Combine add-ons. In this case, it is the decimal places added on to integers.
This means that we should count the decimal places in the first number, count the
decimal places in the second number, then add them. The total number of decimal places
in the problem is the same amount we put in the answer. Let’s progress from integers to
see how this works.
5^3=15 --there are no decimal places in the problem or answer

5^30=150 --an extra 0 in the problem makes an extra zero in the answer
5^.3=1.5 --1 place in the problem makes 1 place in the answer
50^30=1500 --2 0’s in the problem make 2 0’s in the answer
.5^.3=.15 --2 places in the problem make 2 places in the answer
Do you see the pattern? Just like multiplying by an extra zero is like multiplying by 10,
so multiplying by a decimal place is like dividing by 10. Each decimal place has its effect
and so must be accounted for in the answer.
For a really nitty gritty explanation we can expand the numbers.
56 Action Algebra
.5^.3 = 5^.1 * 3^.1 = 5^3 * .1^.1 = 15^.01 = .15
So we see that multiplying decimals is the same as multiplying them like integers, then
putting the same number of decimal places in the answer as were in the problem.
No need to line up decimal places, count them
35 .74 1.2 .049

^.2 ^1.1 ^.12 ^ .02
7.0 .814 .144 .00098
24) Multiplying Fractions 

Now let’s extend the idea of multiplying decimals.
A decimal is really a shorthand fraction. For example, .4 is 4/10 and .19 is 19/100 So the
basic idea is the same: the division built into the problem must be accounted for in the
answer. In practice, all that means is we should multiply straight across.
If I divide by the bottom number of the first fraction, then divide the result again by the
bottom number of the second fraction, then those divisions accumulate. For example if I
cut a number in thirds, then cut those thirds into eighths, that is just the same as if I cut the
original number into 24ths. That’s why we just multiply straight across.
Frontnum Tag 2 4 8 4 7 28
2 /3 7 * 3 = 21 5 * 9 = 45
^5 /8 No need to line up fractions,

10 /24 multiply straight across
Note: I have referred to division, but we have not yet covered division. Therefore, we
have not yet covered reducing. All the answers in this chapter are not reduced on purpose.
25) Multiplying Tags by Merging 

There are two basic steps to multiplying any compound number, including fractions.
1) Multiply the frontnums in the normal manner. Use NOPE to figure the sign.
2) Merge the tags. If there is any division, put those factors after a fraction bar.
For example: 2ab ^ 3b = 6abb 5/x ^ 8/y = 40/xy -7m/xy ^ 3az/x = -21azm/
xyx
(Note: In the last example you could Sort the azm into amz and the xyx into xxy, but
remember not to sort across the division sign. Also, we will not cover exponents until pre-
algebra, so do not use them yet. However, you could point out the need for a shorter way
of writing xx.)
-4&^-3& = 12&&
5a^-+2b = -10ab
7/a*6 = 42/a
2a/b*8/c = 16a/bc
This looks like complicated algebra, but only in looks. The merge concept is a simple,
one-step preparation that will be repeated and reviewed many times before the student
actually begins algebra. At that time, this skill will be automatic--even tedious--and will
lead naturally and correctly into exponents and other higher order operations. You might
think of merging tags as forming compound words--just stick them together and you’re
done.
Now let’s apply our merging skill to a variety of problems.
If something is “missing” a tag, all that means is that there is an invisible ^1 there. You
can use the Show Action to write it in, if you want. However, the thinking required at this
level does not need to be that much. Just merge what is there, if anything.
58 Action Algebra
5 % 6 x -6 &
^20 ^1 ^6 x ^6 &
100 % 36 xx -36 &&
Next, let’s look at a possible question that may arise with percents. I can’t recall any
problem of this type in real life or in the textbooks, but some sharp student of yours will
surely think of it, so here it is.
What if we have 5% ^ 20% ? You might be tempted to think that the answer is 100%
but follow the rule of multiplying nums and merging tags. 5% ^ 20% = 100%% Yes, that
is %%. It is not a typo and it is actually a correct answer for students at this point. To see
that it is correct try it on your calculator. You may have to convert it to decimals first, which
would be .05^.20 for an answer of .01
Now let’s compare that to our answer of 100%%. Remember that % means /100.
Therefore, 100% = 100/100 = 1. Therefore, 100%% = 1%. Next, 1% = 1/100 = .01
So you see, merging tags is correct. It is unfinished, but it is correct.
26) Finding Common Multiples 

We have arrived at our last lesson of multiplying and it is a preparatory lesson for the
full handling of fractions in the next chapter and algebra topics to come later.
Common multiples is simply finding all the matches in two lists of multiples. For
example, if I write a list of the first ten multiples for both 3 and 4 they look like this:
3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, ....
4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, ....

Now taking those two lists I look for numbers that show up on both.
3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, ....
4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, ....

Because both lists can be extended to infinity, the number of common multiples can
be infinity, but we are not going to go that high! Almost always we are interested only in
the first or lowest common multiple (LCM). However, just for practice, textbooks often ask
students to find the first two or three common multiples.
Common multiples can also be found visually using grids. The examples show how the
common multiples of 3 and 5 can be found. Again, we find the first ten multiples.
10 50 10 30
45 27
40 24
35 21
30 18
25 15
20 12
15 9
10 6
5 3
5 3
60 Action Algebra
Arithmetic: Divide
This chapter is definitely something new. Even many adults are confused by division
because of the mental reversals involved. And if there is a keyword to this chapter, it would
be “reverse.” Reverse operations with adding and subtracting seem natural and almost
invisible to many, but not with multiplying and dividing. Make sure the student is ready
for this chapter!
Growing out of reverse multiplication, and helping with it, is a major Action. Shift
is introduced in this chapter as a very powerful concept and the key to understanding
many moves in the game of math. The Shift Action is the key to fractions and many other
mysteries.
27) Dividing on a Grid 

Let’s review the concept of multiplication all the way to its logical end--division.
We introduced multiplication with the illustration of a copier, which was a must faster
way of combining numbers. Our copier needed an original number and a copy number.
We also saw that those two roles are easily interchangeable. In fact, they are so easily
exchanged that their order does not matter and so we often lose sight of their roles.
However, multiplying two numbers in real life causes an interesting side effect--tag
merging. This causes a new kind of thing to
be made. For example, feet ^ feet produces
square feet. Speed ^ time produces distance.
rectangle
Items ^ individual price produces total cost.
Tag merging is the reason why Sort does not
arrow
work on division. Division is multiplication

in reverse, but its order cannot be reversed!
Here is why.
A number is an arrow. Two numbers
multiplied together are two arrows at right
angles to each other, but look at what they
arrow form! Something entirely different from
Arithmetic: Divide 61
arrows is produced--a rectangle! Now think carefully, if arrow ^ arrow = rectangle, then
it only makes sense that rectangle _ arrow = arrow. Furthermore, any other combination
does not make sense.
What is arrow _ arrow? Nonsense.
What is arrow _ rectangle? Nonsense.
Changing the word “arrow” to “length” makes no difference. Length _ length and
length _ rectangle are still nonsense.
So what is the point? The first number in a division problem ALWAYS represents the
rectangle. The numbers that follow ALWAYS represent the lengths (arrows). Order matters
with division. It can never be reversed.
3 24
24
8 3
Therefore, if you are given a problem like 24_8, then 24 is the area of the rectangle
and 8 is one of the sides. (It does not matter which side, because sides have no order as we
learned in the multiplication chapter.) The answer will be 3, which must be the other side.
This visual demonstration should be proof why the Sort Action says, You may re-
arrange the objects in a level at any time, but never change a division part. In other words,
you can Sort a problem from this 4+9_3 to this 9_3+4, but you cannot Sort the division
part from 9_3 to 3_9. Not only does that give you two entirely different answers, but in
real life you get two entirely different meanings. So when drawing a division problem on a
grid there are two possible correct answers as shown above, and putting the 24 anywhere
else is wrong.
28) Learning How to Shift 

No, this is not a lesson on how to drive a car that does not have an automatic
transmission! This lesson is about a very important and widely used Action called, Shift.
62 Action Algebra
It is based on the principle of equality which says that every value change must have a
counterchange.
As I said in the chapter on basic principles, before must equal after. We can neither
create nor destroy. We cannot inject new values into the problem, we can only work with
what is there according to the basic rules of math which I have summed up into the ten
Actions.
You see, the process of math is so important that we must understand and do it correctly,
because we have no way other way of checking ourselves along the way. Sometimes we
don’t have a really good way of checking ourselves at the end, either.
For example, let’s say you are plowing a long field. You want your rows to be straight,
so you keep your eye on a fence post at the other end. All along the way you keep making
minor corrections and countercorrections to keep the tractor straight. When you get to the
other side, you can stop and turn around, then check yourself.
Math is the same way. We start on the problem side of the field and we try to plow a
straight line to the answer side of the field. All along the way we change and counterchange.
We have no easy and direct feedback in the middle of all the solution steps, so we must
make sure we always make a right move. Those right moves are Actions. If we always
make only right moves then we might not go at the quickest pace across the field to the
answer, but we are guaranteed to sooner or later find the right answer, instead of a wrong
answer.
Now let’s look at Shift.
The Shift Action says, You may change the value of an object at any time if you
counter it with an equal, opposite change within that object. 2 opposite effects, 1 side.
In arithmetic, we are always working with expressions in preparation for working with
equations. So we are always working on 1 side.
Now let’s start with a simple, but rarely used, example: 5+2. We know that it equals 7,
so we know that whatever change we make, we must make a counterchange to bring the
total value back to 7. That is the original problem, so that must be our final answer.
Shift says I can change the value, so I decide to add 1 to 5 to make it 6. However,
Shift also says I must make an equal, opposite change. Therefore, I must subtract 1. I
could subtract 1 from 5, but that would bring me back to where I started so that would be
useless. I could subtract 1 from the 2 which would make it 1. I think I will do that! I now
have Shifted 5+2 into 6+1. Before the Shift I had 7, and after the Shift I have 7. Everything
is good!
Why did I that? Just to demonstrate to you what a Shift is. Perhaps in real life someone
finds it easier to work with 1’s instead of 2’s or 6’s instead of 5’s, then they might want to
make this same Shift. Actually, we rarely Shift combining problems. It is when we multiply
or divide that Shift is the most helpful.
6^4 becomes 12^2
6^2=12 and 4_2=2
^2 and _2 are equal, opposite changes
This type of Shift is more for educational purposes then for arithmetic usefulness.
However, in algebra we will use it a lot with factors. What this illustrates is the equal but
opposite effects. I made something bigger then compensated for it by making something
else smaller. I also call the Shift Action the “bigger smaller principle” or the “greater lesser
principle.” This held true in the first example because the 5 got bigger while the 2 got
smaller.
A question arises at this point, Why can’t I add some number, say 3, to the 6 and
subtract 3 from the 4? Isn’t that right, because of bigger smaller?
Well, two answers. First, try it and see if you get 24. Remember, equality says before
must equal after. 6+3 is 9 and 4-3 is 1, but 9^1 = 9, so the answer is, Don’t do that!
Second, you will always Shift by using what is there. In the case of 5+2, that is a
combining problem, so I use combining to Shift. With 6^4 that is a multiplication problem
so I use multiplication or reverse multiplication (division). Try to Shift another way and
you will almost always be wrong. (Coincidence will once in a while lead you to falsely
believe you are right.)
With that in mind let me show you some more examples for you to figure out.
11-8 3^9 -10^4 -12^5

becomes becomes becomes becomes
13-10 1^27 -5^8 6^-10
Did that last one stump you? I divided the -12 by -2, so I multiplied the 5 by -2.
I have not given you any examples of division, because that is the idea behind reducing
fractions which I cover in lesson 36. There are also many more ways of Shifting which will
unfold as we progress through math. This is enough to get us started.
64 Action Algebra
29) Dividing and Bigger-Smaller 

This lesson is the counterpart to lesson 22, Multiplying and Bigger-Smaller. The
purpose of this lesson is also to develop “math sense” in the students. They do not need
to do the actual division. They just need to look at the problem and tell if the first number
is being made bigger or smaller. They should keep in mind, however, that the effect will be
the reverse of multiplying. That fact can be used to figure out the answer.
For example, if I multiply 8 by 2 the 8 is getting bigger, but if I divide 8 by 2 the number
is made smaller. If a student forgets what division will do, just figure out the question using
multiplication, then reverse the answer. This skill helps with Shifting.
Just like with multiplication, the key is to look at the second number to see if it is bigger
or smaller than 1. If the first number is divided by a number bigger than 1, then the answer
is smaller than the first number. If the first number is divided by a number smaller than 1,
then the answer is bigger. If this seem counter intuitive, it is! It is COUNTER intuitive. It is
reversed, always! Try examples on your calculator until you are convinced!
15_50% is bigger than 15
23_.01 is bigger than 23
A fraction is smaller than 1 if the top number is smaller than the bottom number.
Therefore, dividing by it will make a number bigger. A decimal is smaller than 1 if there
are all 0’s on the left of the decimal point. Therefore, dividing by it will make a number
bigger. A percent is smaller than 1 if it is less than 100%. Therefore, dividing by it will make
a number bigger.
30) Speed Division 

We need to change focus here for a few lessons to actually teach how to divide numbers.
Then we can put everything together in the last half of the chapter to finish arithmetic.
Long division still has a use because a calculator is not always available, algebra has
problems that use it, and the concept itself is used often in pre-algebra and upward.
However, I do not see much use in doing lots of digits that take all day to figure. So I will
show you a way that quickly handles single digits that some of you might not have seen.
Then we will do the regular long division with two digits and decimals.
0 028959.25 1) Write answer above

2) Put remainder on left
4 115837.00
3 3 2 3 1 2
of next number
I call the method for dividing by 1 digit “speed division” because I have not seen a
name for it anywhere and it is faster than long division. In speed division by 1 digit you
follow the same basic steps as in long division. You start at the left and collect a second
digit if you need to. If you need another digit at any time, put a zero over the one you
skipped. As you look at the digit(s) you collected, ask yourself how many times the outside
will go into the subnumber. Write the answer directly above and put any remainder as a
small digit to the left of the next digit. Now look at that remainder and digit as a regular
number. In the example above you can see 35, 38, 23, 37, 10, then 20. Repeat this same
process at each digit until you get a remainder, or it comes out even, or until you can
round according to your instructions.
31) Long Division 

I wish there were an easier, less tedious process to show you, but this is the best one
I know for both remainder and decimal answers. The basic idea is that you are trying to
find out how many times the number outside multiplies into the number inside. The way I
remember it is that the outside number has a knife and is trying to get through the door to
cut the inside number into pieces. How many pieces is the answer you want. If the outside
does not go into the inside evenly then you also want to know how many crumbs are left
over, in fraction or decimal form.
On the left, under the 37, notice that I doubled three times. That is a handy list to help
me see what multiple of 37 goes into my number inside. If I need a multiple not listed,
I just add from the next lowest. That is what I did in the lower left with the 74+37=111.
Some people just make a list for all multiples up to 9.
Also, notice that I bring down all the numbers inside on every step. That helps those
students who lose their place. This process is time-consuming so we want it to be accurate!
Here are the steps:
1) Start at the left of the inside number. Collect digits one at a time until you make a
66 Action Algebra
subnumber bigger than the outside.

2) Pick the biggest number from your list that will fit in your subnumber. Subtract it
from your subnumber.
3) Write the multiple you used directly above the 1’s digit of your subnumber. Fill in
any blanks with 0 if you are not at the start of your answer.
4) Bring down all the other unused digits from the inside and put them next to your
answer.
5) Start over on step 1 with your new inside number.
Wasn’t that fun?! About as fun as getting a tooth pulled? I understand. =(
32) Long Division with Decimals 

What do we do if we are dividing by a number with a decimal in it? We Shift it.
Move the outside decimal all the way to the right end of the number. Then move the
inside decimal the same number of places to the right. If you move the decimal past the
end of the number, just fill the blanks with 0’s. Now put the answer decimal directly above
your new inside decimal and you are ready to divide.
This trick works because it is a Shift. For every place we move the decimal to the right
that is like multiplying by 10. Since we move the decimal the same number of places
inside and out, that means we are multiplying by the same number inside and out. If you
move both decimals one place, you are multiplying by 10. If you move both decimals two
places you are multiplying by 100. If they both move three places, you are multiplying
by 1000. Making both numbers bigger by the same multiplication is inflating the factors.
More on that later in this chapter.
You might have noticed that I wrote out the example in lesson 31 a little differently
than in this lesson. Here I filled in all the blank spots with 0’s (or whatever digit is to be
brought down), while in the previous lesson I left them blank. This is a matter of preference
and organization. Some children and even older youth have problems keeping columns
lined up. Filling in with 0’s may help them.
34.40000 1630.000
2.5 860.00000
.57 9300.0000
75000.000 57000.000
11004.000 36004.000
10000.000 34200.000
1004.000 1804.000
1000.000 1710.000
00.000 90.000
33) Factoring 
Factoring is a kind of division we use far more often than long division. Factoring
breaks up any kind of number into its multiplication parts. In a compound number both
the front number and the tag are factors, because frontnum ^ tag = compound number.
All the things in a tag are also factors, because a factor is any thing or group of things that
multiplies or divides with other factors to make compound numbers.
Nothing tells us what to divide by. We start thinking of multiplication pairs that equal
the number, with no remainder, and put them in a list. For example, 4 can be broken into
4^1. Also, 4 can be divided into 2^2. You have just factored 4.
To factor 8 we can break it into 4^2 or 2^4, order does not matter when you multiply,
so that counts as one pair in the list. To keep track of things and make sure I have found
all possible pairs, I start with 2 and work up. So my pairs always have the smaller number
listed first. Also, as the first number is working up, the last number is working down. When
I meet in the middle then I know I have found them all.
68 Action Algebra
Number Factors
6 2^3 Factoring a number
breaks it into a list of
9 3^3 smaller numbers that
multiply each other
12 2^6, 3^4
18 2^9, 3^6
24 2^12, 3^8, 4^6
For example, in the 18 list below, I found that 2, then 3, worked, but 4 and 5 did not.
Since I already found the 6 with the 3, I have met in the middle and I am done.
One pair you will quickly find to be useless. Don’t waste your time on a number ^ 1.
Every number can times by 1, but it really doesn’t break the number down into smaller
numbers, so we usually ignore it.
I also put the Shift icon here because this is another subtle example of Shifting. For
example, 12, which is 12^1, Shifts by a ^2 and_2 to 6 and 2.
34) Prime Factoring 

Factoring looks for pairs of numbers that multiply into the original number. Sometimes,
however, you must factor a number all the way down to its prime factors, which means
there might be more than two factors. 8=2^4 but that breaks down further to 2^2^2.
A prime factor is a prime number, which means it cannot be broken down any further.
2, 3, 5, and 7 are the first four prime numbers. They cannot be broken down any further.
Remember, 1 ^ the number never counts. When prime factoring a number I check 2, 3, 5,
and 7 in that order, unless something obvious and easy appears. Sometimes I also need
to check 11 and 13.
Let’s prime factor 36. Because it is even it divides by 2 to 18, so I put 2 on my list and
start working on 18. It is even, so a put another 2 on my list and work with 9. I see that
2 is now done, so I move to 3. 9 divides by 3, so I put 3 on my list. I am left with 3, and
since 3 is a prime number, I am done. My list has 2^2^3^3 which are all prime numbers
that multiply to 36. Done!
Quick tests: 2 is a factor if the number is even. 3 is a factor if the digit sum of the
number divides evenly by 3. 5 is a factor if the number ends in 5 or 0. I don’t know of easy
shortcuts for 7, 11, and 13 that are any faster than doing the actual division.
48=2^24=2^12=2^6=2^3
so 48=2^2^2^2^3
70=7^10=2^5 so 70=2^5^7
98=2^49=7^7 so 98=2^7^7
I sorted all the lists from small to big to compare
lists easier.
35) Finding Common Factors 

The main reason we factor is so that we can factor two numbers and compare their
lists. Of course, we do this a lot with fractions because they have two numbers. One
comparison that fractions often need is finding common factors.
15=3^5 CF=3
18=2^3^3
18=2^3^3 CF=2^3=6
24=2^2^2^3
14=2^7 CF=2^7=14
28=2^2^7 CF is short for Common Factor
70 Action Algebra
A factor is common to both lists if it shows up in both lists. We also want to know how
many times it shows up in both lists. For example, let’s find common factors of 8 and 10.
8=2^2^2 and 10=2^5. The only common factor is 2. It shows up once in both lists. It
shows up 3 times in the 8 list, but only once in BOTH lists. Now let’s compare 8 and 12.
12=2^2^3. Now we have a common factor of 2 twice. 2 shows up twice in both lists.
The third 2 in the 8 list must be ignored because the 12 list does not supply enough 2’s to
partner with it.
A factor in one list can only be partnered with a matching factor in another list once.
No double partnering. No two timing! Once a factor is partnered it is then unavailable.
After you have matched ALL the partners, multiply them to get the greatest common
factor. Since this is a mouthful for many students I often refer to it as just, common factor.
Since we work with just one pair of factors or all of them, students don’t seem to get
confused.
36) Reducing Fractions 

The first use of factoring is in reducing fractions. A fraction is reduced when all the
common factors divide to 1. Why do we do this? Because we prefer smaller, simpler
numbers that are easier to work with.
A factor over itself, like a number over itself, divides to 1. When this happens we
say the factors cancelled themselves. We don’t need to show them anymore, because a
fraction multiplied or divided by 1 is still the same fraction. So canceled factors can safely
disappear. (Actually, they are still there, but hidden. See the Show Action.)
= 2^2^3 = 2 = 3^3^3 = 9
18 2^3^3 3 15 3^5 5
= 3^4 = 4
9 3^3 3
12 12 27
Canceling is a Shift. You are dividing the top and bottom by the same number(s). You
are making an equal change and counterchange.
Whenever you look at a fraction you should think of two things automatically. First,
there are two numbers, so you will have a change/counterchange pair. Second, the two
numbers are linked by reverse multiplication, so you will use multiplication or division to
change the fraction. Factoring never works with combining, because they are on different
zoom levels.
A question often arises, How come we Shift by ^ or + twice, but at other times, such
as with fractions, we ^ once and _ once? The answer is bigger-smaller. The goal is not
multiply or divide once or twice, the goal is to make one part of the fraction (or other term)
bigger while making the other part smaller. It is the bigger-smaller that balances things out
and keeps the number equal before and after. Multiplying and dividing are just the tools
you use if and when you need them.
Let’s compare problems.
The overriding concern is to start and end with the same final value, 40 on the left
and 3 on the right. Shift helps me change my numbers to a form I prefer while keeping
that final value the same. Whether or not I multiply or divide is not the main concern. Try
all the combinations of ^ and _ in both problems and you will see there is only one way
that works.
More on Reducing
The reason why reducing fractions looks backwards from what you expect is because
there is division happening already inside it. As you know, whenever you get anything
with division in it, all your normal expectations will get turned backward. When you think
things should get bigger they will get smaller. When you think they will get smaller they
will get bigger. But here is the good news! Division will always reverse what’s normal.
So whenever you see division, reverse your normal expectations. Remember, division is
reverse multiplication.
A fraction is top _ bottom. When you make the top bigger you multiply by a bigger
number, but when you make the bottom bigger you divide by a bigger number. So the two
effects cancel each other out. They change the numbers without changing the fraction.
This big-small effect is exactly what Shift does.
8^5=40 18_6=3
becomes becomes
4^10=40 9_3=3
_2 and ^2 _2 and _2
Even though you divide top and bottom by a common factor, their effects cancel each
other. You are multiplying by a smaller number on top, but you are also multiplying a
smaller number on the bottom. It is like pizza. If you get a whole pizza on your plate, or
several small pieces, you end up with the same amount. What is the difference between 1
whole pizza and 4 quarter slices?
72 Action Algebra
9_3 3 If you eat the whole pizza does it matter

=
12_3 4 how many pieces you cut it into? A big
number on top that gets smaller means you
have less pieces, but a big number on the
18_6 3
12_6 = 2
bottom that gets smaller means the pieces
are bigger! That’s fair!
15_3 5
27_3 = 9
= =
37) Dividing Fractions Using Reciprocals 

A reciprocal is the upside-down version of a fraction. For example, the reciprocal
of 3/5 is 5/3 The reciprocal of an integer is 1 over the number. 6, which is 6/1, has a
reciprocal of 1/6.
Reciprocals come in handy in several places in algebra, but they also help us divide
fractions. All you need to do is flip the second fraction and turn the _ into ^. So we really
don’t divide fractions, we turn them into fraction ^ reciprocal, then we calculate.
Why does this work? Because of Shift.
1
4_4=1 and 4^ 4 =1
1
4x4=16 and 4_ 4 =16
3 2 15 3 5 15
8 _ 5 = 16 8 ^ 2 = 16
Prove both of these problems to yourself on your calculator!
Dividing by a number is the same as multiplying by its reciprocal.
Look at the example above. You can rewrite the division problem to look like a fraction
problem. Next we multiply top and bottom by the same number, similar to reducing. If you
have doubts if this is a correct Shift, what is any number (including fractions) divided by
itself? 1. So multiplying the “super” fraction (called a complex fraction) by 1 is perfectly
legal. But why did we multiply by 4/3 on the top and bottom? Because we are clever! On
the next step the two fractions on the bottom cancel each other out, leaving us whatever
is on top. And lo and behold! what is on top but multiplying by the reciprocal! So _ by a
number = ^ by its reciprocal.
5 4
5 3 2 ^3 5 4
The 3/4 ^ 4/3 on the bottom
entirely cancels out to 1. Since
2_4= =2^3 dividing by 1 changes nothing,
3
4
^4
3 you can hide it, this leaves the
top fractions.
Whether or not you followed that technical explanation, here is the rule to follow. It
is D3 on the rule sheet: Reverse last, then multiply. To reverse the last fraction you flip it.
38) Making Like Fractions 

Now that we know about factors, multiples, and reducing, we can fill in a gap from
the chapter on combining. We can now combine fractions with different bottom numbers,
because now we can change their tags to match each other and make COLT happy. (By
the way, my guess is that like is short for “alike.” It is the math word for same, identical,
etc...)
How do we do that? By using multiples and the same process as reducing, except we
will make the numbers bigger instead of smaller. We have no technical name for it. I call it
“inflating.” I think of reducing fractions to smaller numbers as deflating, so inflating works
for me!
Let’s say you want to combine 3/8 + 1/2 We will need to inflate 1/2 until the 2 matches
the 8. Because I am in a fraction made by reverse multiplication, I Shift the fraction by
multiplying by 4 on top and bottom. 1/2 now become 4/8. Now I have same tags, so now
I can combine like things to get a like thing. 3/8 + 4/8 = 7/8 (Do not add the 8’s to get
16, nor multiply them to get 64. Remember, nickels + nickels = nickels, not dimes nor
quarters.)
74 Action Algebra
3 + 2 = 3*2 + 2*3 = 6 = 6
2 1 2*2 1*3 4+3 7
1) Find common multiple of bottom numbers

2) Times top and bottom by missing factors
3) Calculate answer over common multiple
1 5 3 1*2 5*4 3*3 2+20+9 31

6 + 3 + 4 = 6*2 + 3*4 + 4*3 = 12 = 12
+1 /6 +2 /12
+5 /3 +20 /12
+3 /4 +9 /12
stop0 +31 /12
39) Combining Fractions 

The heavy lifting to combine fractions has been done, so now those that have negatives
or that subtract each other is no different than adding positive fractions. Follow the same
steps and do what you already know about combining positive and negative numbers and
counting a series of signs. The only new advice you need is that if you see a negative on
the bottom, simply move it to the top and then proceed as normal. Because a fraction is a
compound number, it does not matter where the negative(s) is, but it is so much easier to
work with the negatives on the top that I won’t even bother explaining how to work with
negatives on the bottom.

Note: The process of using common multiples of the bottom numbers to find a number
that all the bottoms will multiply into is technically known as finding the lowest common
denominator (LCD). I thought you would like to know that.
3 + 2 = 3*2 + 2*3 = 6 = 6
-2 -1 -2*2 -1*3 -4-3 -7
3 - 2 = 3*2 - 2*3 = 6 = 6
-2 -1 -2*2 -1*3 -4+3 -1
-5 - 10 = 5*2 - 10 = 10 = 10
3 7 -3*2 7 -6-7 -13
40) Canceling Tags 

The idea of canceling is so easy (anything over itself cancels to an invisible 1) that
we can teach it to young children to complete their knowledge of division. Variables,
constants, or whatever is on both the top and bottom cancels.
Even though we don’t know what actual number each variable holds, we do know
one thing. All x’s hold the same number. That means x over x is a number over itself. That
means it will cancel to 1. Therefore, it can disappear.
One caution: Don’t double cancel. When a factor cancels, it is gone. You cannot use
it to cancel with another matching factor. If you partially cancel a number you can cancel
with the smaller factor, but you cannot use the original number again.
76 Action Algebra
6xyx 2x
3xyy =y
15abc 3c
10ab =2 3
6
12x 3
8xyx
=
2
=
4xxy 1 8x 2
5ab 1 4
10ab = 2
2
6xy& 2&
=y
Cancel a number or variable
only once and when it cancels
3xyy it cancels to 1, not 0
8x&x 2
4xx& =
78 Action Algebra
Pre-Algebra: Exponents
With pre-algebra we definitely ascend another level to multi-step problems and new
notations, such as exponents and roots. Any weaknesses in arithmetic will show up here,
so be prepared to pause for extra review once in a while.
From now on, I will use the standard word “term” instead of “compound number.”
You will also see the dot notation much more than in arithmetic, * instead of ^. This is
because we will be using x much more often and we don’t want to confuse x with ^.
41) Basics 
Exponents and powers are the same thing. You recognize them because they are the
little numbers that sit on the upper right of other numbers or groups, called the “base.”
The exponent tells us how many times to multiply the base by itself. 43 = 4*4*4 = 64
(not 4^3!!)
xxyxyyx=x4y3
aabbcc=a2b2c2
aaaaxxxxx=a4x5
(-x)(-x)(-x)(-x)=(-x)5
(-7)(-7)(-7)(-7)=(-7)5
Exponents were invented as a type of shorthand to give us a way to collapse those

long strings of variables we get when we multiply. Instead of xxxxx, we can write x5.
Instead of aaa, we can write a3.
Count the bases, then write the base once and write the count as an exponent. If the
Pre-Algebra: Exponents 79
negative gets repeated with each base, be sure to use ( ) so that the power affects the sign.
-4*-4*-4*-4 = (-4)4 -2*-2*-2=(-2)3 -5*5*5*5=-54
When we collapse we are not making a calculation. We are just rewriting a multiplication
problem as an exponent problem. We are Morphing (converting) from times to power.
We have not done anything except to make the same problem shorter. We are really just
changing from one function to another.
The exponent affects just what it touches. If it touches a group, the whole group gets
affected. This means the negative sign may or may not get affected by the exponent. This
is an exception to treating the sign as part of the number. -42 = -(4)(4) = -16 (-4)2
= (-4)(-4) = 16
Another correct way of looking at the negative sign is that it is part of a separate,
invisible -1 that is multiplying the base. -42 = -1*42 = -1*4*4 = -16
30 = 1 x1 = x x2 = xx
31 = 3 -x1 = -x -x2 = -xx
32 = 9 (-x)1 = -x (-x)2 = (-x)(-x)
33 = 27 -(x)2 = -(x)(x)
If a base has an exponent of 1, or the exponent is invisible, that means the base occurs
just once. It doesn’t multiply anything. Nothing happens. 51 = 5 -171 = -17 (-17)1
= -17
If a base has an exponent of 0, then the base automatically becomes 1, even if the base
is negative. 60 = 1 2980 = 1 -90 = -1 (-9)0 = 1 x0 = 1 -x0 = -1 (-x)0 = 1
You may be asking why the 0 exponent makes everything into 1. I think the next lesson
on negative exponents will help us answer that question.
Note: I use the funnel icon with exponents and roots because they act like functions.
They are like little machines into which you feed the base and out comes a different
number.
80 Action Algebra
42) Negative Exponents 

Negative exponents are the reciprocals of their positive counterparts. For example, 23
= 8 and 2-3 = 1/8 So the basic idea is that when you see a negative power, flip it from the
top to the bottom, or the bottom to the top, and change its sign.
Where do negative exponents come from? Look at the sequence

104 = 10000
on the left to figure out the pattern the numbers make. Negative
103 = 1000 exponents were not invented, they were discovered when someone
102 = 100 kept dividing past the 0 exponent. Notice that as you go down the
101 = 10 list, the exponents get lesser by 1 as the numbers keep dividing by
10. When the power becomes 0, the answer becomes 1. All numbers,
100 = 1
not just 10, follow this same pattern. That is why any number to the 0
10-1=.1 power = 1. Now keep dividing by 10, which lowers the exponent by
10-2=.01 1. Each step lower adds another decimal place, and decimal places
10-3=.001 are just fractions.
10-2 = .01 = 1/100 10-3 = .001 = 1/1000
10-4=.0001
What happens when we have a negative base with a negative exponent? The same
pattern applies, but watch how the negative sign changes as the exponent changes from
odd to even.
The negative sign of the exponent has nothing directly to do with the sign of the base.
The negative sign of the exponent makes a fraction. The number part of the exponent
then tells how many times to multiply the base. Multiplying the base determines the final
sign of the base.
As you can see, there is a little extra work involved to use exponents, but their ability
to collapse long strings of numbers and letters make it worth it.
1
=1_3 =1_ =1^ =9=3
-2 1 9 2
9 1
3 -2
22=4
Negative exponents 21=2
make fractions, not 20=1
negative numbers 2-1=1/2
2-2=1/4
(-2)3 = (-2)(-2)(-2) = -8
(-2)2 = (-2)(-2) = +4
(-2)1 = (-2) = -2
(-2)0 = +1
(-2)-1 = 1/(-2) = -1/
2
(-2)-2 = 1/(-2)(-2) = +1/
4
(-2)-3 = 1/(-2)(-2)(-2) = -1/
8
82 Action Algebra
43) Multiplying Bases 

Because exponents are just another way of writing multiplication, at any time you can
rewrite an exponent problem as a multiplication problem. It will take longer, but you will
be sure you have the right answer. I mention this because it is not uncommon for students
to forget the exponent rules.
To multiply matching bases, combine the exponents. (Rule M2)
52*56=58 73*7-5=7-2 x3*x7=x10 -84*89=-813 (The - is not part of the base)
Nothing magical is happening here. If we write a problem out the long way, then
collapse it, we get exactly the same answer. So why not figure out the pattern of what is
happening and do it the short way?! 52*56 = 5*5^5*5*5*5*5*5 = 58
The exponent pattern is part of a bigger pattern. When we multiply any number we
count negative signs. When we multiply decimals we count decimal places. Counting is
combining one at a time. So when you multiply numbers you combine the signs, places,
or powers that go along with them. This is why the rule says: When multiplying, combine
add-ons.
102*105=107
23*22*22=27
x3*x3=x6
x3*x-3=x0=1
(-4)2*(-4)-5=(-4)-3
(-2)3*(-2)-3=(-2)0=1
x2y4*x5y7=x7y11
Notice that I am combining the exponents just as they are when the bases multiply.
In the next lesson where I divide bases, I will change the sign of the last exponent. This is
why textbooks say to add exponents when ^ bases and subtract exponents when _ bases.
44) Dividing Bases 

To divide matching bases, change the sign of the last power, then combine. (Rule D3)
52_56=5-4 (-7)3_(-7)-5=(-7)8 x9_x5=x4
Notice that in every example the bases matched. It must be that way because exponents
are shorthand for long strings of the same base. So, if you have bases that are different you
must make them the same or else stop. For example, you can pull negatives out and deal
with them separately as a string of -1’s. (-8)4*89 = (-1)4*84*89 = 1*813 = 813
There is something else you need to notice--the parentheses around _ problems with
more than one base. The ( ) are needed to make sure everything in the last part is being
divided. For example, in ab_xy, only the x is dividing. The y is multiplying. In fraction
form it looks like this: ab/xy The y is actually on top, not the bottom as you might think. To
make sure both the x and the y are on the bottom use ( ) like this (ab)_(xy) It is important
to be clear to write what we mean and mean what we write!
102_105 = 102-5 or 102*10-5 = 10-3

x3_x3 = x3-3 or x3*x-3 = x0 = 1
x3_x-3 = x3+3 or x3*x3 = x6
(-4)2_(-4)-5 = (-4)2+5 or (-4)2(-4)5 =(-4)7
(x2y4)_(x5y7) = x2-5y4-7 or (x2y4)(x-5y-7) =
x-3y-3 Let’s look at this one again in fraction form
x2y4 xxyyyy x-3x-3 1

= = =
x y
5 7
xxxxxyyyyyyy x3x3
Once again we see that division reverses things. When we multiply, we just combine
84 Action Algebra
the exponents as they are, but when we divide, we must reverse the signs of the exponents
after the division sign or fraction bar. This is because the exponents are not expanding the
string of bases, but because they are canceling them. Look at the rule sheet and compare
M2 with D3, and look at examples M9 and D7.
Groups with one term Groups with multi terms
(5x)(-6y) (-5x-6y-2x)
(5x*-6y) (3m2-4m2)
(3m2y*2m-3) (x2+x-7)
-4x(-8xy) (x+5)+9
( )
x2y4 Factors ^ and _ in terms
Terms + and - in expressions
x5y7 Groups box anything
45) Zoom Levels

Now it is time for students to be introduced to zoom levels. We need to focus on
groups, terms, and factors. As we have already seen, factors multiply or divide each other
to make up a term. Terms combine with each other. 5x+2y are two terms with two factors
each, but 5x*2y is one term with four factors.
(22)3=222222=22*3=26=64
(x2)3=x2x2x2=x2*3=x6
(x4y2)2=x4y2*x4y2=x8y4
(x4+y2)2=stop for now
If we zoom out one level from factors we see terms coupled together with + and - signs.
It is important to recognize the difference between terms and factors because exponents
will cause different effects. If there is only one term inside a set of parentheses, a completely
different answer is made compared to two or more terms inside the parentheses.
Now we want to focus on groups and terms. Groups use ( ) or [ ] or { } to pack a
term, a part of a term, or multiple terms. Groups occur at any level. They are like boxes
because they make something happen to everything in the box, not just one of the items.
We need to recognize when a box holds a bunch of factors in one term or if it is holding a
bunch of separate terms. It makes a big difference! For example, (3abc) is one term with
four factors, but (3+a+b-c) are four terms.
Probably the trickiest part in seeing zoom levels correctly is paying attention to the
difference between a - sign being used for combining and a - sign that is part of a number
being multiplied. For example, look at the first two lines on the left above. Notice that -6y
is not being combined with the 5x, rather it is being multiplied. There is a ( and a * in front
of them. Now compare that with the first line on the right. There is nothing in front of the
-6y to tell us to multiply, therefore it is being combined. See the difference?
x3 xxx 1 1
= = x3-2
= = = x
x2 xx x2-3 x-1
86 Action Algebra
46) Groups with exponents 

Some textbooks call this “power of powers” or “multiply powers.” A special “shortcut”
is given, but it is really just basic exponent properties.
Sometimes the base of an exponent is not a number or variable, but a grouping
symbol like ) or ] or }. If there is only one term in the box, then you multiply all the inner
exponents by the outer exponent, including any invisible 1’s. (x4y2z-3)5 = x20y10z-15
(xy3)2 = x2y6
This works because the outside power tells you how many groups you have, and
inside each group is the same string of repeated variables. (x2y4)3 = (xxyyyy)(xxyyyy)
(xxyyyy) = x6y12
You can think of this as our regular exponents on steroids.
If the variable looks plain, like it does not have an exponent, that means it has an
invisible exponent of 1. Remember the basics, anything to the 1 power is itself, so anything
that is itself is to the 1 power. For example, (xy2)4 = (xyy)(xyy)(xyy)(xyy) = x4y8 Why
do it the long way, if you just remember the x is really x1 and gets multiplied by the 4 like
any other exponent.
If there is more than one term in the box or in the fraction in the box, you should just
stop for now. Multiplying the outside power by all the inside powers does not apply. In the
polynomials chapter we will learn how to solve this type of problem.
47) Exponents in Fractions 

Multiplying bases on the top or bottom of a fraction is no different than multiplying
bases that are not in fractions. What gets interesting is dividing bases in fractions. You still
follow the same rule you learned, but you have two ways of doing it. You can start the
division from the top or from the bottom, but where ever you start dividing is where your
answer goes.
( )=
x2y4 3 x6y12
x5y7 x15y21
x2y-3 x2-4 x-2 x-2y-8 1

= 5+3 = = =
x y
4 5 y y8 x2y8
x2yx3y-4 x5y-3 x5+3 x8 x8y-6 1

= = = = =
xy5x-4y-2 x-3y3 y3+3 y6 x-8y6
Look at the examples again and you will see that the answer ends up where the division
started. Where the division started is the first exponent and where the division ended is the
last exponent. So if you do top _ bottom, then the bottom exponent changes sign and the
answer belongs on the top. If you do bottom _ top, then the top power changes sign and
the answer belongs on the bottom.
What this all leads to is another shortcut. You can flip a base between the top and
bottom if you change the sign of its exponent. What you are doing is finding reciprocals.
Let’s investigate the above example a little more. Remembering that exponents are
just shorthand for multiplication, it makes sense that dividing exponents are related to
cancelling. Therefore, cancelling two pairs of x’s leaves one x on the top, which is x3-2.
But what about the x2-3 on the bottom? To get an answer only on the bottom means
we must cancel everything from the top, but how can we do that if we are one x short
on the bottom? By going in the hole. We “borrow” an x and say that we will pay it back
later. If that sounds like combining, it is! Just remember, because we are working across
a fraction bar (division) we need to reverse the sign of the exponent(s) on the other side
from which we start.
88 Action Algebra
48) Scientific Numbers

A handy application of exponents is scientific numbers or “scientific notation.” They
were invented by scientists (duh!) to handle very big or very small values. Scientifics can
handle the largest numbers, like googol. Instead of writing a 1 followed by 100 zeros, you
just write 1 followed by a ^10 with an exponent of 100, like this: 1x10100 A lot easier
and shorter!
7^102=7^100=700
0.25^104 = .25 ^ 1000 = 2500
4.8^105 = 4.8^ 100000 = 480000
8.03^10-3 = 8.03 ^ .001 = .00803
75^10-3 = 75 ^ .001 = .075
A positive power moves decimal bigger
A negative power moves decimal smaller
Of course, scientific numbers are compound numbers. The frontnum is only the
number in front, and the tag starts at the ^ sign. To morph a scientific to a decimal all you
need to do is move the decimal the same number of places as the exponent. If the power
is positive move the decimal that many places to the right. If the power is negative move
the decimal that many places left.
5^102 = 5^100 = 500 Decimal moved two places right
3.9^103 = 3900 3.9^10-3 = .0039

105.3^10-2 = 1.053 .0027^103 = 2.7
One last, important point: A true scientific follows a precise pattern. It starts with one
digit then has a decimal point and 1 or more digits (including 0) after it, followed by
^10power. That means the frontnum must be 1.0 or greater and less than 10. So that
means you sometimes end up with a scientific-looking number and not a true scientific.
You need to learn to adjust a scientific-looking number to make it be a true scientific: digit
decimal ^ power of 10. That is the next lesson.
Notice how Shift is involved here. When the integer or decimal in front gets smaller,
the ^10power gets bigger. It goes from a negative exponent up to an invisible ^100 which is
1. When the integer or decimal gets bigger, the power gets smaller by going down to ^100.
Shift is involved in so many things. It pays to watch for it so that you will then be inclined
to use it. It was even used in the canceling of factors and exponents in the previous lesson!
49) Adjust Scientifics 

Scientifics are compound numbers with two basic parts, a decimal and a power of 10.
These are the two parts we will often Shift so we can combine scientifics and make them fit
the official format. The big-small principle applies here. If the power goes up, the decimal
goes down. If the power goes down, the decimal goes up.
9150^101 = 9.15^104
9150^10-10 = 9.15^10-7
.0108^104 = 1.08^102
.0108^100 = 1.08^10-2
Notice that the power becomes greater so that the decimal can
become smaller, or vice versa. It is not decimal times exponent.
It is decimal times 10 with an exponent.
7.25^104 = 72.5^103 = 725^102

Power stepped down 1, so decimal stepped up 1 place.
90 Action Algebra
6.4^105 = .64^106 = .064^107

Power stepped up 1, so decimal stepped down 1 place.
Of course, you are not limited to adjusting the power one step at a time. You can
change it by any amount you like, as long you Shift the decimal an equal, but opposite,
amount.
8.4^109 = 84000^105 = .000084^1014

Why does this work? Every decimal place smaller or bigger is a change by 10 and every
step up or down in the exponent is a change by 10. Since the power and the decimal are
in the same compound number, the scientific does not actually change value. Notice that
the decimal and the power are factors in the same term. Factors ^ or _ and we are using
^ and _ to make adjustments.
50) Multiply Scientifics 

Because multiplying can handle different tags, we can easily multiply any scientific
number times any other scientific. Multiply the front nums as usual, and combine the
exponents. Even if one or both of the exponents is negative, combine them. This is no
different than multiplying variables with exponents. It might help to Sort the scientifics
differently to make this plain.
4^105*9^107 2^105 * 7^10-8

4*9*105*107 2*7*105*10-8
36^1012 14^10-3
3.6^1013 1.4^10-2
3.6^102 * 2.8^104 8^10-3 * 6^10-7
10.08^106 48^10-10
1.008^107 4.8^10-9
3^105*7^102 = 3*7*105*102 = 21^107 3^x5*7^x2 = 3*7*x5*x2 = 21^x7

Notice that we are not combining or changing in any way the 10’s. They are just the
base for the exponents. Only the exponents get combined. The 10 remains a 10, just like
the x stays x.
When you get an answer, you will probably need to adjust it. Often it only looks like a
scientific, but is not a true scientific.
(5^103)2 (2^10-2)-4 (3^10-6)3

25^106 1/ ^108
16 27^10-18
2.5^107 .0625^108 2.7^10-17
6.25^106
51) Powers of Scientifics 

A scientific raised to a power is no different than a group of variables to a power. Use
the same logic to solve this problem. Distribute the outside power to the inside power.
(8^104)2 = 82^108 = 64^108 = 6.4^109
or
(8^104)2 = (8^104)(8^104) = 8^8^104^104 = 64^108 = 6.4^109
You can write problems out the long way to prove it to yourself.
(4^103)4 = 4*4*4*4*1000*1000*1000*1000 = 256^1012 = 2.56^1014
92 Action Algebra
52) Dividing Scientifics 

Just like dividing variables with exponents, change the sign of the last exponent then
combine.
7^104 _ 2^108 = 3.5^10-4
3^10-2 _ 8^10-6 = .375^104 = 3.75^103

There are two right ways and one wrong way to show division with scientifics. The two
right ways are on the left. Use a fraction or use ( ), if you don’t use ( ) you are not actually
dividing the whole scientific, just the front number. 8^102 _ 4^107 is not saying what you
mean. Only the 4 is doing any dividing. Only the 4 is on the bottom of the fraction. The
107 is still on top. You can still solve this problem, but it won’t be what you might expect:
2^109 not 2^10-5
(8^102)_(4^107)
8^102
20^103_5^106=4^109
4^107 No ( ) so only the 5 was divided
2^10-5
The cause of this “problem” is the Sort Action. We can sort anything at anytime,
except division. Since the 107 at the end was not in ( ) we can Sort it to the beginning of
the line where it multiplies with the 8. Only the 102_4 are permanently stuck in division.
53) Combining Scientifics 

Just like fractions, it is the second part of the compound number, the tag, that tells
us whether or not they can be combined. The bottom number of the fraction and the
power of 10 are the parts to be matched. Similar to fractions, we need to “make common
denominators” so we can combine them. Of course, we won’t literally make common
denominators. Instead, we will adjust the powers so that they match, then we can combine
scientifics.
A good habit is to adjust the lesser power up to the greater. Often, but not always, it will
save you a step. Compare the first two examples below on the left and you will see what
I mean. The top problem I adjusted to 102 then had to adjust again to 105. Whichever
method you use, always remember to adjust your answer so it becomes a true scientific.
3.1^102 + 2^105 Frontnum Tag
3.1^102 + 2000^102 +4 ^103

2003.1^102
2.0031^105 +5 ^103
3.1^102 + 2^105 +9 ^103
.0031^105 + 2^105
2.0031^105
8^103 - 8^107
.0008^107 - 8^107
-7.9992^107
94 Action Algebra
Pre-Algebra: Morphs
Morph is my cool, hip, and up-to-date word for convert. I also needed a one-syllable
word because all the other Actions ended up with one syllable!
Morphing (converting) is not so much a problem in itself as it is a tool to help solve
other problems. Sometimes a problem is given to me in mixed numbers, but fractions are
much easier to work with, so I convert the mixed numbers to fractions, work the problem,
then morph the answer back to mixed. With that in mind, this chapter will be a collection
of techniques.
A related idea that fits in with morphing is units. We often have to convert 24 inches to
feet and 78.5 meters to centimeters and so on. That will be covered in this chapter as well.
54) Fractions and Mixed Numbers 

Fraction to mixed number. Divide the top by the bottom and the answer becomes
the whole number and the remainder becomes the new number on top. The bottom never
changes.
14 4 -23 2
5
=2 5 3
=-7 3
2 7
5 14 3 23
10 21
4
2
Pre-Algebra: Morphs 95
Mixed number to fraction. Multiply the bottom ^ the whole number, then add the
top.
Mixed numbers are a rare exception to the notation of multiplying by touching. Of
course, two digits touching each other is a number, but a whole number next to a fraction
is a mixed number where the whole number adds to the fraction rather than multiply.
4 7*3+4 25
37 = 7 = 7
55) Rounding 
This is the one time where we will change the value of a number without making a
counterchange. This is technically illegal, but we consider the change so small compared
to the bother of writing a long number, that we allow this loophole. In the real world,
because of imprecision in measuring we don’t even consider this a loss of value.
Many decimals are the result of dividing two numbers that never reach an even answer.
The division keeps going and going with remainders that never reach 0. If there is a
repeating pattern we can at least turn it into a fraction, but some have no pattern and no
end. Those are irrational numbers. They are insane! They wander endlessly and aimlessly.
Who wants to write all that?!
This is why we have rounding. You know, who cares if you lose a few billionths!
Textbooks and teachers are different, but in my classroom, the rule was to round to the
4th place during a problem, then round the answer to the 2nd place, the pennies place.
We kept the 4th place during a problem because of all the steps and operations that could
lose accuracy.
To round to the 4th place I must first look at the 5th place. If the 5th place is 4 or lower,
I will just chop the number past the 4th place. If the 5th place is 5 or higher I will make
the 4th place 1 higher, then chop the number. If the 4th place has a 9, then rounding up
makes it a 10, so carry the 1 to the 3rd place.
96 Action Algebra
Round to 2nd place Round to 4th place

(nearest hundredth) (nearest ten-thousandth)
13.7063 Look to the right 13.706319

13.71 of your place.
13.7063
4.89517 4.8999501
5 rounds it up,
and 4 does nothing.
4.90 4.9000
Chop off the number
at your place.
.27483 .27483522
.27 .2748
56) Fractions and Decimals 

Fraction to decimal. This is one of the times where you look at a fraction as a
division problem, top _ bottom. The number on top goes outside. Round your answer
according to the instructions of your textbook. My classroom rule is to round decimals
to the 4th place during work and then to the 2nd in the final answer. That way enough
accuracy is kept along the way for the final answer to be accurate.
17 3.4
= 5 17.20
Fraction to decimal:
5
Top divided by bottom
Decimal to fraction. Because it does not change the number, every number is
invisibly divided by 1. So Show the decimal over 1. Now you have a decimal in a fraction,
so Shift it. Inflate the fraction by moving the decimal all the way to the right, then add as
many zeroes to the 1 as places you moved. If you moved the decimal once, add one 0. If
you moved the decimal twice, add two 0’s, and so forth. Now you have a normal looking
fraction! Reduce it, if necessary.
3.4= 3.4 = 34 =17

Decimal to fraction:
Decimal over 1, Shift, reduce
1 10 5
57) Fractions and Percents 

Percents are just fractions over 100 and they are decimals to the hundredths place.
They don’t appear by themselves. They take a Percent to fraction:
Number over 100, reduce
part of something else. For example, 10% of $5,
or 25% off of the price, or 50% of the profits.
25% = 25/100
Like mixed numbers, we don’t work with
them in problems. At the beginning, you will
3% = 3/100
convert the percent to a fraction or decimal,
which ever seems easiest to fit in with the rest
of the problem. You will then work the problem
as normal, then convert back to a percent at the
end, if needed.
Since percents always appear as a “percent of” something else, multiply the percent
times the other thing. For example, translate 8% of 22 into 8/100 ^ 22 or into .08 ^ 22.
Translate 20% of $32.78 into .20 ^ 32.78. In the last example, I did not bother with
making the percent into a fraction, because the money was in decimal form. I could turn
the percent into a fraction, but that would make the problem harder for me.
Percent to fraction. % means /100 so put the number over 100, then reduce, if
needed.
Fraction to percent. Think of this as part of a combining fractions problem where the
other fraction is over 100. Your “common denominator” is 100, so multiply the bottom of
your fraction to make it 100. Then, because of Shift, multiply the top by the same amount.
Now you have a fraction over 100, which is a % by definition.
3^25 = 75 =75% Fraction to percent:

Multiply bottom to 100,
4^25 100 multiply top by the same

you now have percent
98 Action Algebra
58) Decimals and Percents 

If you can remember the direction the decimal should move, you will find it easy to
Morph decimals and percents. First, realize that the decimal always move two places.
Remember what the two 0’s in the % sign mean? They are dividing by 100, which is two
places. Now the only question is, Should the decimal move left or right?
Percent to decimal. Shift answers the question. A % sign divides a number 100
smaller, so what happens if you take it away? The number will get 100 times bigger
by returning to normal. That is a change. Now we need a counterchange, so make the
number 100 times smaller. That is, move the decimal left two places. So when you take
the % away from the end of a number, move the decimal away from the end two places.
Percent to decimal: Percent goes away, decimal goes away two places
72% = .72 4.9%=.049

This Morph makes me think of magnets attracting or repelling each other. Remember
playing with those as a kid?! If you take the % magnet away from the right, there is nothing
holding the decimal, so it goes away to the left by two places. When you bring the %
magnet in on the right, it pulls the decimal towards it two places.
Decimal to percent. The % comes in at the right end, so the decimal moves to the
right two places. This is a Shift because the % is making the number 100 times smaller.
Moving the decimal right two places makes the number 100 times bigger.
Everything that applies to decimals and percents also applies to integers and percents,
because integers have an invisible decimal at the right end.
Decimal to percent: Percent comes in, decimal comes in two places
.45 = 45% 3.8 = 380%

59) Units 
In arithmetic I used the phrase “compound number” to help expand the students’ view
of numbers and the things they count. Now we must complete that view.
A unit (inches, meters, gallons, pounds, etc...) is the third part of a compound number,
or term. It tells us how the things are being counted. For example, we can measure distance
in inches, feet, miles, kilometers, etc...
Units really don’t have an effect until we have two compound numbers with units.
Then we must figure the ratio between the units, then multiply or divide by that ratio. The
units can then be dropped and regular math proceed. For example, if we have 5 yards that
is nice to know, but if we want to know what 5 yards + 8 feet equals, then we have some
calculating to do.
First, the ratio of feet to yards is 3 because 3 feet = 1 yard. (3 of the smaller unit fits
into 1 of the bigger unit.) Second, I need to decide if I want to change yards to feet or feet
to yards. Sometimes the textbook tells me what to do, sometimes it is left up to me. In this
case, it is left up to me and I usually find it easiest to change all units to the smallest. So 5
yards will become feet.
Third, how do I know whether to multiply or divide? Look what happened when I
changed yards to feet. The unit got smaller. Therefore, the Shift Action tells me that the
number must get bigger so I don’t lose any of the original length. Obviously, I multiply 5^3
to get 15 feet. Now I can combine 15 feet with 8 feet for an answer of 23 feet.
Shift comes in all over the place! Are you catching on to its importance and power?
Changing from one unit to another is a Shift operation. If the unit gets changes to a
bigger unit, then the number must get smaller. If the unit gets smaller then the number
must get bigger. For example, to change 48 inches to feet, inches gets 12 times bigger, so
the number must get 12 times smaller. The answer is 4 feet.
Convert 73 inches to feet
Inches to feet means unit gets bigger,

so the number gets smaller,
so I divide: 73_12 = 6.08 feet
What if I don’t know how many inches are in a foot? Look it up in the Unit Conversion
Chart. The chart tells you how many little units fit into the big unit. That is the number you
will use to multiply or divide. If you can’t find a pair of units that match what you need,
100 Action Algebra
make the match in steps. As you work your way from small to big, multiply the numbers
along the way, until you have the multiplier/divider you need. For example, to convert
inches to miles, find inches to feet. That number is 12. Then find feet to miles. That
number is 5280. Multiply both numbers 12^5280=63360 inches in a mile. The 63360 is
what you will use in your problem.
How many days in 4 centuries?
Centuries to days means unit gets smaller,

so number gets bigger, so I multiply:
4^365^100 = 1,460,000 or 1.46^106
Convert 24 hours to seconds

Hours to seconds means unit gets smaller,
so number gets bigger, so I multiply:
24^60^60 = 86,400 or 8.64^105
Unit Conversion Chart

Small unit Abbreviation How many in Big unit
LENGTH
inch in. " 12 foot
foot ft. ' 3 yard
foot ft. ' 5280 mile
yard yd. 1760 mile
mile mi.
LIQUID
ounce oz. 8 cup
cup 2 pint
pint pt. 2 quart
quart qt. 4 gallon
gallon gal.
WEIGHT
ounce oz. 16 pound
pound lb. 2000 ton
ton tn.
ANGLES, CIRCLES
second sec. " 60 minute
minute min. ' 60 degree
degree deg. 360 circle
degree deg. 90 right angle
degree deg. 180 semi-circle
right angle 4 circle
semi-circle 2 circle
TIME
second sec. " 60 minute
minute min. ' 60 hour
hour hr. 24 day
day 365 year
month mo. 12 year
week 52 year
year yr. 10 decade
year yr. 20 score
year yr. 100 century
year yr. 1000 millenium
century cen. 10 millenium
102 Action Algebra
60) Metric Units 

I’ve taught many classes, but one class I have never taught is chemistry. However, I
know chemistry uses scientifics a lot. I have seen chemistry students using worksheets to
figure their metric numbers. It seemed like a long process to me when I would need to help
them with the math. After a while we came up with a shorter process that works for any
metric problem in any class. You just need the Metric Conversion Chart and the following
three steps.
1) Write the power number above each prefix and a - above “to”
2) Copy the number, attach a ^10, and the power will be the answer to step 1
3) Adjust the decimal and power if needed.
always put a - in between

numbers come from chart
0 - -2
6.8m to cm = 6.8^102cm
-3 - 3
3.1mg to kg = 3.1^10-6kg
6 - -9
87Ml to nl = 87^1015nl
Metric Conversion Chart

abbr. prefix number power rough size
yotta Y 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 24 beyond universe
zetta Z 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 21 galaxy diameter
exa E 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 18 100 light years
peta P 1,000,000,000,000,000 15 solar system
tera T 1,000,000,000,000 12 past Saturn
giga G 1,000,000,000 9 3 trips to moon
mega M 1,000,000 6 Texas
kilo k 1,000 3 6 blocks
hecto h 100 2 soccer field
deka da 10 1 big room
__m meter 0 0 long yardstick
__l liter
__g gram
deci d .1 -1 handwidth
centi c .01 -2 fingerwidth
milli m .001 -3 thick fingernail
micro µ .000 001 -6 bacteria
nano n .000 000 001 -9 molecule
pico p .000 000 000 001 -12 atom
femto f .000 000 000 000 001 -15 proton
atto a .000 000 000 000 000 001 -18
zepto z .000 000 000 000 000 000 001 -21
yocto y .000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 -24
104 Action Algebra
Pre-Algebra: Calculate
We have looked at the pieces and parts, but now it is time to put them together to
calculate real world problems, use formulas, and solve common word problems from
standardized tests.
After introducing the basic principle of multi-step problems, I will then show two ways
to approach them (I let my students choose), then we will start the lessons.
IN FUN MUD COLT
We have done all the basic operations with
all the kinds of numbers, but what do we do if
we have more than one kind of operation in the
same problem? What happens when functions
and parentheses are also present? That is when
order of operations helps us. It tells us the order
of importance of all the functions, operations, and
grouping symbols.
The basic principle is to calculate the complicated
first. Inside parentheses is before functions which is
before multiply and divide which is before combine.
In the example, I worked inside the parentheses
first even though combining is the least complicated.
The ( ) made it the most important. Then I went
outside and looked for the most important thing to IN FUNny MUD is a COLT
do. The 32 was the most important to do next
1+2*3 (1+0)
because it was the most complicated. I learned about it
after combining and after multiplying. That brought me 2
1+2*3 (1) 2
to the third line where I had to choose between adding
the 1 or multiplying the last 3 numbers. Multiplying
won because it was more important and complicated.
1+2*9(1)
1+18
Lastly, I added the 1 to get the right answer of 19.
If I had just worked left to right and forgotten about
19
order of importance, I would have calculated an answer
of 82. That is way off from 19!
So now that I have demonstrated the importance
of the order of operations, how do I do it and teach it
Pre-Algebra: Calculate 105
systematically? There are two ways that I call Copy or Calc, and Multi-Pass. Both methods
have their advantages and can be used together in the same problem. The worksheet
solutions use the Multi-Pass method.
Copy or Calc
The Copy or Calc method is what most students start doing naturally, but do not
always use it successfully. Part of the reason is that they use it out of laziness and/or not
thinking.
Starting at the left you work left to right, but you look one operator or function ahead
to decide if you copy or calc the number you are at. For example, I start at the 4 in 4+2*5-
7*2. My current spot is on the 4 and it appears that the first thing I should do is combine
the 2, but now I look ahead to see what is happening on the other side of the 2. It is
multiplying the 5. So now I decide, copy or calc the 4? The correct thing to do is copy it
to the next line, because the 2 has something more important to do on its right with the 5
than it does with the 4 on its left. So copy 4 to the next line and move to the 2, then start
the process over again.
Your new spot is on the 2. Look ahead to the 5. Should it combine with the 7 on its
right or multiply with the 2? MUD comes before COLT, so go ahead and calc +2*5. You
now have 4+10-7*2
Now your next spot is -7 and you can calc it with the *2 because you are at the end.
Now you have 4+10-14. Since all you have left is combining you can finish the problem
and get your answer of 0. Notice that this example had no parentheses. That can throw
students off if they are not paying attention. All calculating should stop, everything before
the ( ) should be copied to the next line. Then start fresh inside the parentheses.
Multi-Pass
The multi-pass method basically scans the line from left to right first looking for any
parentheses, then starting again looking for functions, then for multiplying/dividing, then
for combining. This method appears to be slower (but is not), but it is safer because the
student tends to be more focused and aware of what s/he is looking for.
Let’s look at the example from Copy or Calc. 4+2*5-7*2
I first scan the problem looking for ( ), but I see none. Then I look again for functions,
such as exponents, trigonometry, and logarithms, but I see none. Then I look for multiplying/
dividing. I first see the 2*5, so I write down the next line 4+10-7*2. Then I scan again for
multiplying and see the 7*2, so I write down the next line 4+10-14. Scanning again for
multiplying gives me nothing, so all I have left is combining, so the answer is 0.
Earlier, I said the two methods could be used together. In the example above, at the
first multiplying pass, I could have done both multiplications at the same time because
they don’t interfere with each other. 4+2*5-7*2 becomes 4+10-14 on the second line,
and the answer of 0 is reached on the third line. This combined method is the one I use.
106 Action Algebra
Equal importance
What do you do when you look ahead and find something of equal importance? In
other words, the spot you are on is ready to combine, then you look ahead and the next
operation is combining also. What do you do? Work left to right for habit’s sake. (It doesn’t
matter what order in which you combine, just keep the signs with their numbers.) When
multiplying or dividing, definitely work only left to right. It makes a difference!
Look at these examples. 8_4^2 = 2^2 = 4 but 8_4^2 = 8_8 = 1 The first
problem I worked left to right and got 4. The second one I worked right to left and got
1. Since there are two different answers, mathematicians have voted that we work left to
right. If you want someone to get 1 for the answer use parentheses, like this, 8_(4^2).
Now they have to do the 4^2 first.
Exception alert! Treat fractions like single compound numbers, not number _ number.
Try these on your calculator. 8_4/2 = 4 is correct, and 8_4_2 = 1 is correct. So if you
see a fraction, use your fraction button, not your division button.
2^12_4^3 2^12_4^3
2^12_4^3
24_4^3 2^12_12
24_12
6^3 2^1
18 YES!
NO 2 NO 2
Thankfully, most of the confusion in these types of problems is avoided in the textbooks,
because they use parentheses. But I said “most” not “always.” If you stay in the habit of
always working left to right, you won’t get caught ignorantly making mistakes by working
out of order.
61) MUD before COLT 

Combining is the last thing you do because it was the first thing you learned. Another
way of saying that is multiplying and dividing is more complicated than combining, and
calculate the complicated first. Think of it visually. Multiplying and dividing use a grid with
two number lines. Combining uses only one number line.
3+4*5 5-3*7+2-1*4 -2*4+8*3-5

3+20 5-21+2-4 -8+24-5
23 -18 11
In the following problems notice I handle equal importance of multiplying and dividing
by working left to right.
7-10*4_2-5 3+8_2*6-1 12_3*4+2*9

7-40_2-5 3+4*6-1 4*4+18
7-20-5 3+24-1 16+18
-18 26 34
62) FUN before MUD 

Even more complicated than multiplying and dividing are functions like powers, roots,
trig, and logs. Therefore, functions are more important than multiplying and dividing.
After all, how do you know what to multiply until you put the numbers into their functions
and get an answer?
3*log100+2*92 3+4*52 1-9*23*cos(0)+5

3*2+2*81 3+4*25 1-9*8*1+5
6+162 3+100 1-72+5
168 103 -66
If there are two functions next to each other by one of the four operations, + - ^ _,
then you can calculate them as independent units. They are not interfering with each
108 Action Algebra
other, so order does not matter. However, it is always good to stay in the habit of left to
right.
I will not cover any details of log or trig functions (that’s the next book!) except to say
the worksheets will only include problems where only button pushing on the calculator
is required. Roots, however, will be explained in the next chapter. For now, just button
pushing!
2*@ 36 5+3* @49-28_7

2*6 5+3*7-4
12 5+21-4
22
63) IN before FUN 

Parentheses override everything else and makes you start over on the inside.
Parentheses can come in three flavors ( ) or [ ] or { } or they can be fraction bars. These
are all grouping symbols. Each pair of symbols puts numbers and functions in a box, and
you cannot touch what is in the box until you calculate it.
It is best to think of these boxes as being made out of frosty glass. You can see the
numbers inside, but you can’t clearly see the answer. And we must know the value of the
box before we let something on the outside do it’s thing to the box.
For example, say you have 3 boxes filled with candy bars. Someone asks you how
many candy bars you have, but all you can honestly reply is, 3 boxes worth. Until you
open the boxes and count the bars, you have no real clue how many total candy bars you
have.
So boxes are the most important and complicated of all. They wrap their answers in
mystery until you go inside and figure them out. All other calculations must pause and
wait for the answer from inside the parentheses.
102*(1+1) 9+5(3-8)*42 2*6(log10+32)

102*2 9+5(-5)*16 2*6(1+9)
100*2 9-25*16 2*6(10)
200 9-400 120
-391
6+3*4*22 6+3*4*4 6+48 54
= = =
-52*3-7 -25*3-7 -75-7 -82
64) Order with fractions 

With fractions, the process is no different than with integers and decimals, but they
make everything look so much more complicated it is worth focusing on them. You follow
the same order: IN FUN MUD COLT. What is important to remember is that you treat
fractions as a single compound number, rather than number _ number. Use the fraction
button on your calculator instead of the division button.
1/
3+ /5*10-( /3+ /6)
4 2 1 2 17 3 1
+ *
1/ +4/ *10-(5/ )2 5 5 4
3 5 6
1/ +4/ *10-25/ 17 3
3 5 36 +
1/ +8-25/ 5 20
3 36
275/ 71
36
20
110 Action Algebra
65) Nesting 

It is possible that you will see parentheses inside of parentheses. This is called nesting.
That is why there are different flavors. It is easier to see what matches. Go to the innermost
box and work your way out until you get to the outside. Along the way, always use FUN
MUD COLT.
Some books will change brackets [ ] and curly braces { } to parentheses ( ) as the
inner boxes disappear. Whether or not your book changes them, you know it all means
the same thing, just different flavors.
8*2-[4{2cos(3*30)+6}+32]
8*2-[4{2cos(90)+6}+9]
8*2-[4{2*0+6}+9]
If you want,
you can safely 8*2-[4{0+6}+9]
calculate the 8*2-[4{6}+9]
8*2 at the start
because the - to
8*2-[24+9]
the right is lower 8*2-33
importance 16-33
-17
66) Absolute Value 

Absolute value signs | | are special parentheses that do more than just group. They
turn any negative answer inside them positive. If the inside answer is positive, it leaves it
positive. So this means that you will ALWAYS get a POSITIVE answer from an absolute
value group.
Going all the way back to what we learned about the size and direction of numbers in
the first chapter, absolute value is only concerned about size, and size is always plain or
positive.
|-2|=2 |+2|=2 In both of these examples, the final answer could also be +2.
Absolute value makes only the ANSWER, not all the signs in the problem, into a
positive.
|-5+2|=|-3|=3 Do NOT do this |+5+2| Do ALL the inside calculations first, then
change the sign of the answer. Never change the signs in the problem.
|7-4+3|=|0|=0 |-6-2+3|=|-5|=5 |4*-3+7|=|-12+7|=|-5|=5
Absolute value signs behave just like parentheses. Which means you follow IN FUN
MUD COLT. Find the answer inside first, then make it positive, then calculate outside.
3|-9+7|=3|-2|=3(2)=6 2-4|1-6|=2-4|-5|=2-4(5)=2-20=-18
3|4-8| 3(4-8) 2-|3-9| 15_|-3+8|

3|-4| 3(-4) 2-|-6| 15_|5|
3(4) -12 2-(6) 15_5
12 -4 3
67) Formulas 
Formulas are equations or relationships between numbers that usually come from real
life. For example, someone discovered that it is always true that the total distance travelled
on a journey equals the average speed times the number of hours. So now we have the
formula: d=rt.
A formula is useful when you have all the parts except one. If you are missing two
pieces then you will need two equations, three missing parts, then three formulas, and so
on. Right now, we will concentrate on just one unknown.
To use a formula, just substitute the values you know for their corresponding variables
in the equation, then calculate. For example, you can calculate the distance a car goes if
it drives at 50 mph for 4 hours. Substitute the 50 for r (rate). Substitute 4 for t (time). You
now have the equation: d=50*4=200
The formulas are sometimes made up to give practice before entering chemistry,
physics, and other classes.
112 Action Algebra
For example, the instructions may say that x=2 and y=-5. Then it asks the student to
find the answer to 3(x-y)+8. So Sub to get: 3(2--5)+8. Following the order of operations
(IN FUN MUD COLT) you get 3(7)-8=21-8=13
A rectangle has width=15 and length=20. What

is the area? A=lw, so A=15*20=300
You run 8mph for 3 hours. How far do you run?

D=rt, so D=8*3=24
In the simplest equations it looks like overkill, but a good idea is to put ( ) around each
variable, then Sub into those parentheses. This helps students see the all-in-or-all-out
principle of Substituting, especially when the new value is negative
Let x=-4 and y=10. Find 5xy-8x.
5(x)(y)-8(x)=5(-4)(10)-8(-4)=-200+32=-168
The brackets in this next problem serve the same purpose as the parentheses in the
previous problem, but I want to distinguish them. I could use ( ) in ( ), but that might be
too confusing.
Let a=-3, b=-1, c=6. Find b(c-a).
[b]([c]-[a]) = [-1]([6]-[-3]) =
-1(6+3) = -1(9) = -9
68) Units in Formulas 

In the previous lesson the units were selected so that they all matched. That is, time
was in hours and speed was miles per hour. We did not have time in minutes in one place
and in hours in another place. This must always be the case before you start solving any
problem. All your lengths must be in the same unit. All your times must be in the same
unit. All your weights and temperatures must also be in the same unit. Never try to work
a problem with both meters and feet, or pounds and tons, or days and hours.
Use only one unit for time, length,

weight, and temperature.
Pick a unit for each type of measurement (time, length, weight, etc...) that makes it
easy for you. Work the problem with those units. Then, after finding your answer, convert
your units to the units the problem requires.
Now let’s look at an example. How far does a car travel if several drivers drive 50mph
for 3 whole days? First, we notice that the speed uses hours, but the driving time is in days.
Hours must be changed to days or days to hours before we calculate. You know that 3^50
can’t be right!
Unlike variables, units only merge if they match.

Let’s change 3 days to 3*24 hours for 72 total hours. Now we can substitute in our
formula d=rt. D=50*72=3600 miles. Since our problem was based on miles then our
answer is in miles.
If we change hours to days we will still get the same answer. 50mph ^ 24 hours =
1200 miles per day times 3 days gives us 3600 miles. So you see, it does not matter what
unit you use, but it must be only one unit before you calculate.
What is the area of a rectangle with a width of

6 inches and height of 2 feet?
A = 6in*24in = 144in2
A = .5ft*2ft = 1ft2
1 square foot = 144 square inches
Both units give correct answers!

114 Action Algebra
69) 2D Shapes
For the next several lessons we will not introduce new math concepts, instead we will
apply what we already know to common visual and word problems.
Two dimensional shapes are surfaces with length and width, or height and width, both
are correct. What they lack is depth, also called height. (Now we wonder why kids get
confused!)
The area of any surface is measured in square units, such as square inches, square
centimeters, square miles, etc... Notice that “square” is represented with an exponent of
2. This corresponds with 2D, so it is easy to remember. The previous examples could be
abbreviated: in2, cm2, and mi2. This works for all surfaces like paper, floors, land, etc...
This even works for curved surfaces like balloons and cylinders. And don’t be fooled by
3D surfaces like cereal boxes. Just “unfold” them so they lay flat and total up all the parts.
length
radius
width
height
area = &r2 base

circumference
area of triangle = 1/2bh
(perimeter)
area of rectangle = lw
2&r
There are three basic shapes to learn, because they can be cut and/or combined
to make up more complex shapes. (Of course, we are not including reeeeally complex
curves and angles which require calculus and trig.) The shapes are circles, rectangles, and
triangles.
Notice that the area of a triangle is derived from a rectangle. The base of a triangle is
the same as the length of its containing rectangle and the height of a triangle is the same
as the width of its containing rectangle. Now look at the left and right halves of the triangle
and then of the rectangle. See how the triangle is half? It always works that way.
You may have memorized formulas for the areas of squares and parallelograms when
you were younger, but these are just special rectangles with the same formula. Trapezoids
are just combinations of a rectangle and 1 or 2 triangles, but if you want a formula, it is:
vertical height^.5^(top+bottom)
One more thing just to be sure I cover my bases. You can have kids memorize formulas
for the perimeters of different shapes, but except for the circle, it is superfluous. Just add
up all the sides and you are done.
70) 3D Shapes
3D shapes are able to enclose volume. They can hold air or water or solids. They have
length, width, and height. Looking at them from a different
point of view you can also say they have length, width, and
base depth. Either way, there are 3 dimensions to be multiplied
which will give you a 3 exponent on your unit: mm3, km3,
ft3.
base There are two categories of shapes that concern us.
Those shapes that have the same outline on top directly
height
over the bottom (vertical, with no skewing or slanting, as
in the top diagram), and those that come to a point on top
(cones or pyramids as in the bottom diagram).
The first category is called “right solids.” They are made by drawing a base, then lifting
it exactly vertical (right angle) to a height. Their volume is found by multiplying the area of
the base ^ height. This works for rectangles, triangles, other polygons, and circles.
Pyramids have a polygon for a base and cones have a circle for a base. Their formulas
are the same. 1/3 ^ base area ^ height. So if you have an ice
cream cone that exactly fits in a tin can, find the volume of the
tin can and divide by 3.
A sphere (perfectly round ball) is our last object and it is 2/3
the volume of the cylinder into which it exactly fits. So its formula
is 4/3&r3. This comes from 2/3^2r^&r2. That is translated from
height
2/3 ^ height(which is the diameter) ^ area of circular base.
base
116 Action Algebra
71) Averages
Average, also called “mean,” is the idea of “leveling” a group of numbers to find their
value if all of them were the same. It is like having four buckets with different amounts of
sand in each one, then pouring them into a big barrel, then pouring the sand back into the
buckets in equal amounts. That new amount in each bucket is the average.
The average evens out the fast and slow parts of a trip. For example, you might drive
45mph to get out of town, then stop 10 minutes at the gas station, then drive 70mph to
the campground. Overall, it takes you 2 hours to travel 100 miles, so your average speed
is 50mph.
The average of a group of numbers is found by combining the numbers, then dividing
by the number of numbers. To find the average of 10, 12, and 14 we write it like this:
(10+12+14)/3 Notice the use of parentheses to make sure I am dividing the total by 3,
rather than just dividing the last number by 3. The correct answer is 12, not 26.67.
N1+N2+N3+...+Nx
average = x
N1 is the first number and N2 is the second number and so forth until you reach the
last number. X is the count of the numbers. So if you have 5 numbers, divide by 5. If you
have 8 numbers, divide by 8.
72) Rates
Rate, or speed, problems ask questions that link how fast for how long with how far.
The formula, or equation, is d=rt. An example is, How far do you go (d) if you travel at
30mph (r) for 3 hours (t)?
Believe it or not, rate (speed) problems are very much like the box problems we did
back in our arithmetic days. How many jars do I have if I have 3 boxes that each have 30
jars? Each box, and therefore each group of 30 jars, is repeated 3 times.
The same repetition happened with the rate problem. Each hour, and therefore the
30 miles travelled each hour, was repeated 3 times. The answer is the same for both
problems, 90: 90 jars or 90 miles.
1 hour 1 hour 1 hour

30 miles 30 miles 30 miles
90 miles in 3 hours
What might be hard for some students to comprehend is the fact that time can be a
container. Instead of a visible box holding visible jars, the container is a unit of time that
holds the number of miles travelled or the number of widgets produced. This shows a
small part of the power of math. By looking at the same idea in a slightly different way, we
can solve new problems.
There is yet more. We can prepare the student for the need of modifying equations
by introducing problems where a variable is missing from the side with more than one
variable. That is, rather than looking for d in d=rt, what if we ask the student to find r or t?
They do not yet know how to solve equations for a variable, but these are simple enough
that they can do one step backwards to find the answer.
If I travel 200 miles in 4 hours, how fast did I drive?
1 hour 1 hour 1 hour 1 hour

50 miles 50 miles 50 miles 50 miles
200 miles in 4 hours
Because the total time is divided into four parts, then the total distance must also be
divided into four parts. This just makes sense, and that math-sense is what we want the
student to develop right now, before they learn to just mechanically plug numbers into an
equation. Developing math-sense will make the eyes light up, but mechanical math leads
to sloppiness and loss of motivation, which results in lowered performance.
Another thing: Notice the arrows lining up. What does that remind you of? Adding
numbers on the number line? Yes! A student can “do the math” or they can “draw the
math.” The point I make here is that if students develop their own practical sense of doing
and seeing math, they are not bound by the one method of memorize-the-formula-and-
do-it. Just like us, they often forget, especially under test pressure. If they understand
how all math grows from the basics, they can return to the basics and solve a problem
their own way. Sure, it’s slower, but it develops creativity, inventiveness, and American
ingenuity. I did it myself on some tests, just to be sure or to double check my work!
118 Action Algebra
73) Ratios
Rates and ratios are related. In face, some teachers say they are the same thing. I won’t
argue, because I look at them like multiplication and division, one is the reverse of the
other.
If a problem does not appear to me to be a repeating problem, like rates, then I look
to see if is a ratio, or division, problem. My habit is to look for the easiest possibility first!
A ratio problem often uses “per” or “for each” as in a simple division problem.
However, such wording is not always used, so my failsafe backup is to find two things that
equal each other, then I will know they form a fraction and I will do other things with the
other numbers present.
Let’s look at this problem. 10 bananas cost 5 dollars. How much will 30 bananas cost?
A) Right away I see that if I triple the bananas, then I must triple the dollars, so my
answer is 15. B) Of course, it won’t always be that easy or obvious, so I look for a rate.
I don’t see anything repeating, but it seems I must figure out the rate, or cost, of a single
banana. To find that I need a ratio or fraction. Which 2 of the 3 numbers should I make
a fraction from?
The first sentence tells me. 10 bananas = 5 dollars because when I go to the checkout
counter I will give the clerk 5 dollars and then she will let me walk out of the store with 10
bananas. I can’t make a fraction with 30 bananas, because I don’t know anything else that
equals them.
So now which fraction do I make? 5/10 or 10/5? It doesn’t really matter. Just be
consistent all the way through. To help students I first have them make a word fraction on
the left that will be the model they will follow for all the other fractions they might make.
bananas 10 30 dollars 5 x
= = = =
dollars 5 x bananas 10 30
So both ways of setting up the problem will work. I like it when that happens. That
means I don’t have to remember which way is the right way and that means there is less
chance I will make a mistake. Why doesn’t it matter? Because I am keeping my units the
same all the way across, and each fraction is saying the same thing, either bananas per
dollar or dollars per banana. This is the equality principle!
So now my problem is a simple reducing or inflating fractions problem. To inflate the
10 to a 30, I need to multiply by 3. Shift tells me to counterchange and multiply the x by
3. Therefore, my answer is 15 dollars.

Actions have more value than just guiding the math part of problems. Actions come
from real life, so Actions can help us think about real life, which helps us set up our
problems.
Changing Rates
Ratios can help us with problems in which the rates change. Of course, we will not be
able to make equal fractions, but the idea of keeping the units organized will still help us.
Miranda can ride 80 miles in 2 days. If she doubles her speed, how long will it take
her to ride 400 miles? Because the speed changes, I cannot say 80/2 = 400/x, but I have
other options.
A) Find her rate for 1 day, then divide. 80 miles in 2 days means she rides 40 miles
each day. Doubled means she now rides 80 miles per day. 400 miles divided by 80 miles
per day is 5 days.
B) Double the distance. Doubling the days means she would take longer to cover the
same miles, therefore she is slower. So I want to double the distance in the same time to
show a doubling of her speed. Now I can set up equal fractions.
miles 160 400 days 2 x

= = = =
days 2 x miles 160 400
160 is inflated by 2.5 to equal 400 (400_160). 2 days times 2.5 is 5 days.
C) Other ingenious approaches might divide the 400 by 2 because that is the equivalent
of doubling the speed. Or, you might write the fraction 80/2 next to your model, but just
not put an equal sign next to it. By looking at 80/2 it might be more obvious how to show
doubling of speed instead of halving of speed by mistake.
120 Action Algebra
Pre-Algebra: Roots
This chapter completes what the Exponents chapter started. Roots are just the reverse
of exponents and fractional exponents put powers inside of roots. The same rules used by
exponents are used by roots, because every root can be turned into a fractional exponent.
74) What is a Root? 

Since roots are just the inverse (the “undo” function) of exponents, there are more
roots than the common square root. The default root is the square root. This means it has
an invisible power number of 2, like this: Ć If you want to show it, you can. It won’t hurt.
Look at the examples below and you will see how roots “undo” exponents.
22 = 4 so @4 = 2 32 = 9 so @9 = 3
23 = 8 so ć8 = 2 33 = 27 so ć27 = 3
24 = 16 so Č16 = 2 34 = 81 so Č81 = 3
25 = 32 so č32 = 2 35 = 243 so č243 = 3
26 = 64 so đ64 = 2 36 = 729 so đ729 = 3
52=5*5=25 23=2*2*2=8
@25=@5*5=5 ć8=ć2*2*2=2
Odd roots can have negative answers
(-2)3=(-2)(-2)(-2)=8
ć-2=ć-2*-2*-2=-2
Why is there no root 1? Let’s look at the pattern of what is happening inside the roots.
Č16=Č2*2*2*2=2 ć8=ć2*2*2=2 @4=@2*2=2 1@2=2 If this last part looks
Pre-Algebra: Roots 121
weird, that’s because it is. A root is a division problem with identical factors, but a 1st root
just has the number itself without any division! There is no root 1 because it is pointless.
75) Reducing Roots 

Reducing roots resembles reducing fractions. Break up the number inside the root into
factors. If a factor repeats itself, pull the pair outside and multiply one of those partners by
what is already there. The key is to remember to multiply by only one partner, not both.
Why? Inside the root sign, the numbers are “bloated.” They are squares. Squares = root
^ root. When you take a square from the inside to the outside, it becomes its root, not its
root ^ root.
For example, 9=3^3, so @9 cannot equal 3^3 also. @9=3, just 3. This is another Shift
Action. 3 gets inflated to 9, but we can’t just change without a counterchange. That is what
the @ sign is for. It is the counterchange. The 9 is just a bloated puffer fish borrowing air
from the @. It looks like a regular 9, but not really. It is an inside 9, which means it is smaller
than an outside 9. When the @ goes, the 9 goes also and returns to being just a regular 3.
@ 12 = @2*2*3 = 2@3
4 inside = 2 outside
Roots turn 2 duplicate inside factors into 1 outside factor
2 @ 45 = 2 @3*3*5 = 6 @ 5
9 inside = 3 outside
^ the 2 already there
122 Action Algebra
76) Combining Roots 

Roots are just another factor that can appear in the tag of terms (compound numbers).
The number in front, which might be an invisible 1, is the frontnum. Of course, Combine
Only Like Tags applies here as everywhere else. If the tags don’t match, you cannot
combine them. However, you may be able to reduce some or all of the roots which will
then make some roots match. Then you can combine them. Once again, Combine Only
Like Tags to get a like tag.
6@5+2@3 = stop 6@5+8@5 = 14@5 9@3-7@3 = 2@3
5@4+2@9-7@25 = 10+6-35 = -17 @12+@75 = 2@3+5@3 = 7@3
8@9-2@5+3@16 = 8*3-2@5+3*4 = 24-2@5+12 = 36-2@5
4@8+5@18 = 4*2@2+5*3@2 = 8@2+15@2 = 23@2
@ 12 + @ 27
Frontnum Tag
+2 @5
@ 2*2*3 + @ 3*3*3 +7 @5
+9 @5
2 @ 3 +3 @ 3
5@ 3
8@5-2@3+7@5+3@3
15@5+@3
77) Multiplying Roots 

You can merge roots by multiplying together the numbers inside. This may enable you
to do some reducing you were not able to do in the beginning. So @3^@3 = @9 = 3
If there are numbers in front, you will multiply the nums together, then merge the tags.
For example, 4@2*5@2 = 20@4 = 20*2 = 40
Multiplying two identical roots is squaring a square root, so they cancel each other
leaving a single partner outside. For example, @4 ^ @4 = 4, because @4=2 and 2^2=4
3@ 5 *4 @ 7 =12 @ 35
@ 6 * @10 * @15 = @ 900

= @ 9*100 = 3*10 = 30
8 @ 48 _2@ 2 = 4@ 24
=4@ 2*2*2*3 =4*2@ 6 =8@6
Dividing works like multiplying.

@22_@2 = @11
@28_@7 = @4 = 2
@32_@2 = @16 = 4
20@8_4@2 = 5@4 = 5*2 = 10
24@18_6@6 = 4@3
124 Action Algebra
78) Fractional Exponents 

We have seen how a root is really a division problem. Now what if we have a multiplying
problem within the division? In other words, what if we have an exponent inside a root?
That situation leads us to fractional exponents.
The top number is the inside power and the bottom number is the outside power. The
numbers in a fractional exponent are behaving just as they do in a regular fraction. The
top number is multiplying and the bottom number is dividing. Since exponents are short
for multiplication and roots are short for dividing, the top number is the exponent and the
bottom number is the root.
ć52 =5 č37 =3
2 7
3 5
Top is inside power,

bottom is outside root
ć8 = 8 č3 = 3
1 1
3 5
@ 34 = @81 = 9 = 3
4
2
ć82 = ć64 = 4 = 8
2
3
79) Rationalize Roots 

It is considered bad manners to have a root in the bottom of a fraction. So we rationalize
the fraction to take care of the problem. This means we will square a square root to have
only an outside number. Of course, if we change the bottom, we must counterchange the
top. Therefore, like reducing or inflating regular fractions, we will Shift a fraction with a
root on the bottom.
1) Multiply top and bottom by the square root on the bottom.
2) Multiply on top as far as possible.
3) The root cancels itself by squaring, leaving you a plain bottom number.
Notice that this is somewhat similar to canceling factors, except that you are canceling
functions. Roots undo squares, and squares undo roots. An exponent 2 cancels a root 2.
Note: This lesson only shows how to rationalize a root multiplying another factor. The
next chapter will show how to rationalize a root combining with another term.
3 @5 3 @5 3 @5
= =
@5 @5 @25 5
7 @6 7 @6 7 @6
= =
@6 @6 @36 6
5 @2 5 @2 5 @2
= =
3@2 @2 3@4 6
126 Action Algebra
80) Roots with Same Base 

There is nothing really new in this lesson. It is the cumulation of the other lessons in
this chapter. We will do some reducing, a little multiplying, and then some combining. Of
course, the regular order of operations needs to be followed. First do functions (roots and
exponents). You might need to multiply unreducible roots to make a root that will reduce.
After reducing, you may see like roots (tags) that you can combine.
5@2*@6-8@3 3@5*@10+7@2
5@12-8@3 3@50+7@2
5*2@3-8@3 3*5@2+7@2
10@3-8@3 15@2+7@2
2@3 22@2
3@12+5@27 4@8-2@18
3*2@3+5*3@3 4*2@2-2*3@2
6@3+15@3 8@2-6@2
21@3 2@2
128 Action Algebra
Algebra: Polynomials
Polynomial means “many terms.” In other words, many compound numbers combining
with each other. These terms have certain limitations and must fit this pattern, axn. Any
number can be “a,” but the exponent, n, of the variable, x, must be non-negative (0 or
greater) and must be a whole number. Also, the terms can be combined or multiplied, but
not divided. Therefore, a/x is not permitted. Don’t be frightened. These limitations actually
make our job easier because we will have less to deal with.
Polynomial expressions will prepare us for equations, although most students find
polynomials more difficult than equations. So, in a way, this chapter represents the final
ascent up Math Mountain. After this, it gets easier, not downhill, but more like a gentle
slope up a long ridge.
Because we will mostly be starting and stopping with variables, we will not be able to
get a single number for our answer. Rather, our answers will look like 2x or x+4/6 We will
take problems as far as they can go and then just stop. Don’t stretch this next statement too
far, but our main goal in this chapter is not so much to get a single answer as it will be to
learn the processes and use the Actions correctly. These problems are really part of larger
problems for those who go further in math. Therefore, a student must correctly learn the
steps along the way if s/he wants to arrive at the right answer.
And speaking of “right answer.” That phrase can take on a whole new meaning when
we leave the world of arithmetic and enter the world of algebra.
Thinking in Algebra
To understand algebra you must think like an algebratician. Algebratician?! Is that
even a word? No, but if it were, it would mean a mathematician generalized. Imagine
Einstein and Sherlock learning 2+2, then they learn another problem, 2+3. Then they
learn another problem, 3+3, and so on. What would happen when they encounter 200 +
200? If they did not know how to think in algebra, then they would have to learn about
adding these two numbers as if they had nothing to do with all the adding problems they
had already solved. So, you have halfway done algebra already by generalizing about
adding and all the other operations, but now you need to understand adding x + x.
Algebra: Polynomials 129
We have also been introduced to algebra in two other ways. When we worked with
tags and exponents we used variables in the examples. We did algebra, but without
understanding it from an algebra point of view. Also, when we worked with formulas,
we were using a prime example of algebra. Rather than re-inventing a new formula for
every word problem we meet, we use one that someone else has already figured out. The
variables in a formula are the placeholders that anyone can use at anytime to drop in their
own custom numbers for their own unique problem.
(Motivation alert: Too often students are solving somebody else’s problems instead of
encountering and experiencing their own. A formula takes on more meaning when it helps
you solve something important, rather than simply being a means to someone else’s end.)
So algebra helps us expand our thinking beyond this problem with this number to
working with patterns and any number at all. Of course, this is a reflection of life.
What if my mother tells me to wash my hands before supper tonight? What if she told
me to wash my hands before supper last night and the night before and the night before
that? What if it never occurs to me to generalize her command from this night to all nights?
That would be all right for a night or two, but wouldn’t you consider me a slow learner if I
never caught on after 5 nights or 50 nights?
Just as my own thinking abilities should extend my mother’s command from a few
nights to any and all nights, so algebra extends arithmetic from common numbers to any
number, even unknown numbers. Of course, the answer to such a question usually looks
like “any number” instead of a specific number, but we try to get as close as we can.
Let’s look at a problem like 3+3. Since both numbers are the same, we can rename
3 to x and say x+x. Of course, we can do this with any other two numbers that match.
But now what? What do we do with x+x? Since x could be any number, I can’t arbitrarily
say x+x=6 or 10 or -25! What if x is 7? Then x+x=14. My three earlier guesses would
be wrong. In fact all my guesses (even 14) could be wrong if I don’t know what x equals.
So what good is algebra if my odds of guessing the right number is 1 in infinity?
Algebra is not about guessing the right number. It is all about figuring out the right pattern
which sometimes happens to be a number.
Let’s get back to our example, 3+3 and x+x. What do we know about our example and
what can we generalize about it? Isn’t 3+3 the same as 2^3? Yes, and isn’t 4+4 the same
as 2^4, and 5+5 the same as 2^5, and so on? Because x+x fits that pattern, wouldn’t it fit
the 2^x pattern as well? Wouldn’t ANY number fit those patterns? Wouldn’t ANY number
added to itself equal two times itself?
Therefore, we have discovered something. x+x=2x. We can now say the answer to
the problem, x+x, is 2x. If “answer” seems like a strong word to use, we could also say
2x is another way of looking at x+x, or we could also say, x+x can be rewritten as 2x. In
and of itself this discovery seems small, but it could be the key to helping us crack a bigger
130 Action Algebra
problem. More importantly, this simple problem is helping us right now think in algebra.
Let’s pause for a moment and think about what an “answer” is. We have been
conditioned to think only one way. That is, we think an answer can only be a single
number. Usually, that is the case, but why? More often than not, but not always, a single
number is desirable because we want to know how many cups of flour to put in the cake
batter, or how many tickets were sold, or what the net worth of a company is at the present
moment. One number is easy, concrete, and we can nail it down.
However, is it always best to have just one number? A high school graduate takes the
SAT and earns a score of 1200. Did he do reasonably well on both math and English, or
did he do superb on one and bomb the other portion of the test? 1200, a single number,
does not, and cannot, tell us. Something like 800+400 or 600+600 would be more helpful.
Another example, what if I want to write out a gazillion math problems for my eager
math students to do in one night? I would write a computer program that would work
something like the following.
1) Generate a list of random numbers. 2) Pick two numbers at a time (a and b),
print them with a + sign in between. 3) On the answer key, reprint the problem and the
calculated answer.
This brings us back to the use of variables as placeholders, but notice that the answer
to my problem are the two numbers that are a problem for the student. Just printing
an answer would be printing a list of random numbers. Instead, I need a list of random
problems in the form a+b. The “answer” is a matter of perspective. The “answer” is what
is most helpful, useful, and informative.
So now let’s go way back to the x+x example. Let’s say you have collected a lot of data
from doctors around the world about eye exams. You then need to make a report about
the number of eyes examined. Simple, you think, just add the number of exams to itself
to figure the number of eyes.
However, in this realistic, but greatly simplified scenario, you discover that your
computer will take 5 days to generate the report if you add all your numbers. Your CPU is
not optimized for adding, but it excels at multiplication. Thinking algebraically, you reason
that 2x is the same as x+x. The computer can generate the report in 5 hours, in time to
meet the deadline. What did not seem like an “answer” before is now your lifesaver.
There is a cost to everything we do. It pays to discover new ways of thinking and
doing because one day the reward will be greater than the cost. We have no idea now
how our ingenious insights might build a bridge, launch a rocket, or save a life, but all
the technology we have came from looking at problems and answers differently. Think
outside the box of arithmetic. That is thinking in algebra.
As Few Variables as Possible

It takes little comprehension to see what is going on with 3+3. Count out three dots *
* *, then extend it with three more dots * * * for a total of 6 dots * * * * * *. There it is,
right there before my very eyes.
But what if the numbers are different? What if we don’t know either of the numbers?
We can’t say x+x, because we can’t be sure they are the same. We need to say x+y,
because it might be 5+8 or 2+7 or -1+4. Therefore, I can’t say the answer is 2x or 2y. I
am forced by simple logic to say x+y=z. (z could equal x or y if either of them is 0, but the
odds of that happening are low.)
So what do I do with x+y=z? Nothing. Too many unknowns. Too little specific
information. I can’t nail anything down.
Let’s say a student of yours thinks they can finally stump you. He asks you, “What is
x+y?” You ask, “What is x and y?” He says, “I don’t know.” Then you say, “Oh, I know
the answer then! It is z.” He asks, “Really? What is z?” You say, “I don’t know numerically,
but I know it is the right answer to your question!”
The point is that there are limits to algebra and we are the ones that need to put limits
on it. If our problem does not have enough concrete and unchangeable numbers in it,
then we can’t deal with it.
The basic rule of thumb is to avoid making a new variable whenever possible, because
for each additional variable you will need another equation, if you want to find its value.
This dilemma is the topic of the last chapter on systems of equations.
Until then, in our math problems and word problems, we work with just what we are
given and relate the information we have to itself. For example, a common word problem
goes something like this. The second box has twice as many widgets as the first box. If their
sum is 24, how many widgets are in each box?
The first inclination is to write, x+y=24. However, if we are ever able to write the
problem with fewer variables, we should. We can relate the second box to the first box
by describing it as 2x. Why not?! After all, the problem said the second box has twice the
amount of the first!
So now our problem can be written as x+2x=24. This problem we can solve when we
get to the next chapter on linear equations. For now, the answers are 8 and 16.
Avoiding making new variables applies to the type of problem which we will delve into
next, multiplying with variables. We have already multiplied variables by merging them.
5x*2y=10xy, but what about variables in groups? (x+5)(x-2)
Without inventing any new variables, we can do this operation using the distribution.
132 Action Algebra
81) Distribution 
To distribute means to hand out or spread around. Let’s say you are helping with
an earthquake relief effort. You distribute aid to all who need it. In the same way, the
distributive property tells us that whatever is in front of the parentheses gets distributed
to all that need it inside. Every term, every compound number, gets multiplied once by
whatever is in front. This is rule M11 on the rule sheet: all terms ^ all terms.
This really isn’t a technical rule. It is just common sense. If you have 4 boxes then you
have 4 of everything that is in the boxes. 4(2) means you have 4 boxes that each have a 2
in them so you have 8 items total. If you have 4(x+2), that means you have 4 boxes that
each have an x+2 in them. I cannot combine x+2, because I don’t know what x is. Neither
do I want to call it y. Therefore, I just bring the x+2 outside of the box and lay out all 4
sets. 4(x+2) gives me 4x and 4*2, which is 4x+8. I still do not know what x+2 equals, but
at least now I have a formula for my total that I can use once someone tells me x.
You should always get an answer term for every possible pairing of terms in the
problem. If there is one term outside (or in the parentheses in front) and two inside, then
there are 1*2 pairings, which means you should get 2 terms in your answer. If there is 1
outside and 3 inside you will get 1*3 terms in the answer. You can also have more than 1
term in front if there are ( ). (x+1)(x+2) means you have 2 terms times 2 times for a total
of 4 terms in the answer. (3x-5)(x2-6x+8) is 2 terms ^ 3 terms for a total of 6 terms in the
answer.
3(x+5) x(4-x) 2(x-9)
3x+15 4x-x2 2x-18

All terms ^ all terms = answer terms
(x+5)(x-8) = x2-8x+5x-40
(x-3)(x2+4x-7) = x3+4x2-7x-3x2-12x+21
82) FOIL 
There is a special case of distributing that is worth special attention because it is used
so often. When there are 2 terms times 2 terms there is a visual pattern formed that has
been nicknamed FOIL for First Outer Inner Last. This is just a special mnemonic (memory
aid) to make sure you don’t overlook something when multiplying all terms by all terms.
In many cases, but not all, the outer and inner pairs give you like terms which can then
be combined. You actually get 4 answer terms (from 2^2 terms), but they collapse to 3 in
the end. All the rules still apply, but when two of the terms get combined, some students
think something else happened and get confused. So, even if your textbook does not show
the step with 4 terms, it still got 4 terms then combined to 3.
first last
(x+5)(x-4)
inner
outer
x -4x+5x-20
2
x +x-20
2
134 Action Algebra
83) Rationalize with conjugates 

Thanks to our distributive property (all terms times all terms), we can now take care of
the complication that is introduced when the root on the bottom of a fraction combines
with another term, rather than multiplies with another factor. We multiply by the conjugate,
then distribute.
Whoa! The conjugate?! What is that? It is the almost identical twin to the two terms on
the bottom. Only the middle sign is reversed, everything else is exactly the same. Why do
we multiply by such a strangely named beast? Because it makes our life turn out easy. The
important point is not to remember the name, but to think one step ahead toward your
goal. Your goal is to have no roots on the bottom. So we must Shift the fraction in such a
way that all roots cancel themselves, and that is precisely what the conjugate does. Let’s
call this “clever Shifting!”
Let’s say you have 5-@2 on the bottom. If you multiply by 5+@2 then you will get
these answers: 25+5@2-5@2-@4. Notice that 5@2-5@2 = 0. Those roots are gone! Now
notice that @4 reduces to an integer, 2. All the roots are gone! This same pattern will
always happen if you multiply by the conjugate. If you don’t change the sign in the middle,
then the roots in the middle will add instead of subtract to 0.
x 2-@3 2x-x@3
2+@3 2-@3
= 4+2@3-2@3-@9
2x-x@3 2x-x@3
4-3 = 1 =2x-x@3
Reverse the sign in the middle,

then distribute, then combine
84) Common Factoring 

Common factoring with variables works the same as common factoring without
variables. You are looking for factors that are contained by all terms. When you figure out
what the common factor is, go ahead and divide each term and write down the answers.
The answers go in parentheses with the common factor out front. Make sure that your
common factor will multiply evenly into EVERY term, not just some of them. If you cannot
find a common factor that works with all terms, then just stop.
Why? Because the answer must equal the problem. You should be able to distribute
your factor to all the terms inside and return to your problem. Factoring is always a Shift
Action and Shift always works in both directions.
6x3+9x2-24x 8x3+4x2-10x
3x 3x 3x 2x 2x2x
3x(2x2+3x-8) 2x(4x2+2x-5)
Just like with plain numbers, a common factor
can be divided out of ALL terms
85) Bifactoring 

Bifactoring is FOIL in reverse. Of course, it is a little trickier because you don’t know
what factors to use to multiply. You are not told. Instead, you must figure out two factors
that multiply into the last number, and also combine to give you the middle number,
including signs.
When we say, “first, middle, and last,” that always assumes the expression has been
Sorted into descending order of x. The x2 term should always come first, then the x term,
then the plain number term. Usually it is pre-sorted, but sometimes you need to Sort it.
This type of problem can lead to a lot of guessing, but there is a way of using a short
list. Start with the last number, the plain number. Make a list of all possible factor pairs,
136 Action Algebra
starting with 1 and the number, then moving up until you meet in the middle. For example,
a list for 12 starts with 1 and 12, then 2 and 6, then 3 and 4. Because 3 and 4 touch each
other, we know we are done. Your answers will be found in that list.
An answer list for 24 is 1 and 24, then 2 and 12, then 3 and 8, the 4 and 6. 5 doesn’t
work, but it is in the middle so we are done. The next number is 6, but we have it already.
An answer list for 28 is 1 and 28, 2 and 14, skip 3, 4 and 7, skip 5, skip 6, done. 7 is
next and we have it already.
x2+7x+12 x2-9x+18
first middle last
(x+4)(x+3) (x-3)(x-6)
first last first last
outer inner inner outer
first ^ first = first Multiply your

last ^ last = last answer. It must
outer + inner = middle equal problem.
x2-5x+24 x2+12x-13
(x+3)(x-8) (x+13)(x-1)
13x
-1x
Let’s look at the last example more closely. Students usually see the x*x=x2 right
away. Most have little difficulty finding two numbers to multiply to equal the last number.
However, getting all the signs right and having the same two numbers also combine to
equal the middle is difficult for most. This is another reason why at least the small number
arithmetic should be learned without a calculator. If it is not automatic, algebra is almost
impossible.
Another way of looking at these bifactoring problems is as a word problem where you
are asked to find two numbers that multiply to -13, but also combine to +12. It may help
to approach the problem this way for those who are not visual learners.
86) Bifactor when a>1 

Remember the pattern that a polynomial must fit before it can be bifactored? There
must be an x2, then an x, then a plain number. That pattern is usually described this way:
ax2+bx+c, where a, b, and c are whole numbers (constants), including invisible 1’s or 0’s.
In the previous lesson, the leading number, a, was always 1. Now we want to bifactor
when a is greater than 1. The procedure is the same, but involves a lot more trial and error
until you find the numbers that make FOIL work.
Most of the time, a will be small and prime. Therefore, put the number and x in one set
of ( ) and a plain x in the other ( ). That helps you nail something down. Now work with
your list of factors of the last number, c. However, don’t forget that one of them must get
multiplied by a. This is what doubles your number of combinations and can double your
time in finding the right one that works.
3x2+2x-8 2x2-19x+35
first middle last
(3x-4)(x+2) (2x-5)(x-7)
first last first last
outer inner inner outer
first ^ first = first

last ^ last = last
outer + inner = middle
Multiply your answer. It must = problem.
2x2+10x+12 In this case, first common

factor by 2. It’s easier.
(2x+4)(x+3) 2(x2+5x+6)
2(x+3)(x+2)
138 Action Algebra
87) Bifactor- other 

Bifactoring can happen with more than the x2+x+number pattern. After sorting the
expression to be in alphabetical, descending order of powers, here are some patterns to
look for.
If the first exponent is twice the second exponent you can bifactor, as in these examples:
x4-5x2+6 x6+4x3-12
(x2-3)(x2-2) (x3+6)(x3-2)
x4-2x2-3x2+6 x6-2x3+6x3-12
Bifactoring also works if the middle uses the same variables as the first and last, as in
these examples.
x2+5xy+6y2 a2+5ab+6b2
(x+3y)(x+2y) (a+3b)(a+2b)
x2+2xy+3xy+6y2 a2+2ab+3ab+6b2
The gray lines are the answers multiplied so I can check if I am right. It also helps me
to understand the method.
Study the examples until it becomes clear that they are nothing but FOIL problems
with a twist. The twist is the higher power exponents or the extra variables.
Also remember that all this FOIL business is really just a tool for the underlying principle
of all terms ^ all terms, which is the distributive property, which is multiplying variables
without making new ones.
88) Squares 

Two more special bifactoring patterns are called perfect squares and difference of
squares.
A perfect square is when the terms in the parentheses match so that they can be
collapsed to a single group with a 2 exponent, like this: (x+5)(x+5)=(x+5)2
x2+12x+36 x2-4x+16
(x+6)(x+6) (x-4)(x-4)
(x+6)2 (x-4)2
Difference of two squares is when the problem has a 0x in the middle, which is usually
left invisible, and the two terms you see are square - square. This tells you that the bifactors
will have the square roots in them with opposite signs, like this: x2-25 = (x-5)(x+5)
x2-36 x2-81
(x-6)(x+6) (x-9)(x+9)
x2+6x-6x-36 x2+9x-9x-81
Again, to figure these out and to check them, multiply your answer factors and you
should get back to the problem.
89) Double factoring 

Double factoring lets us handle an x3 pattern we are unable to handle with the factoring
techniques we have learned so far. Double factoring uses common factoring in parts,
140 Action Algebra
rather than common factoring the whole problem. Of course, make sure the expression is
Sorted in descending order, then try to common factor the first two terms, then common
factor the last two terms. This should leave you with the same terms in parentheses.
x3-5x2+2x-10 = x2(x-5)+2(x-5)
Now look at each ( ) with a term in front of them as a compound number or a sort of
“super-term.” The frontnum part of each compound number forms a bifactor while the
tag of each compound number collapses to form the other bifactor.
(x2+2)(x-5)
What you have really done is factored the tag from each compound number. Putting
it first in your answer may make it look more familiar. (x-5)(x2+2)
x3+7x2+2x+14 x3+4x2-3x-12
x2(x+7)+2(x+7) x2(x+4)-3(x+4)
(x2+2)(x+7) (x2-3)(x+4)
90) Quadratic Formula 

When all the other types of factoring fail (and even when they succeed) the quadratic
formula will give you both factors. It always works for any quadratic equation or expression.
As you may have noticed, not all polynomials can be factored by one of our methods. As
one advances deeper and deeper into math, all-in-one methods are harder to find, not
impossible, but much more abstract thinking is required. One example is the quadratic
formula.
A quadratic equation looks like ax2+bx+c=0. A quadratic expression looks like
ax2+bx+c. The a, b, and c represent the numbers (possibly an invisible 1) in front of the
variables. You will substitute only the numbers, but not the variables, in the formula.
After you Sub the numbers work the formula as if it is two formulas, one with the +
and the other with the -. The two formulas will give you two answers. You may be asked
to leave them in root form or you may put them in decimal form.
Note that the quadratic formula is meant to solve quadratic equations, not quadratic
expressions. There is a difference, but it is easy to deal with.
Let’s say you get 1.97 and .38 for your answers. Those answers can be turned into
factors by reversing their signs and putting an x in front of them. So the answer 1.97
becomes the factor (x-1.97), and the answer .38 becomes (x-.38).
If your answers are -.25 and 9, then your factors are (x+.25)(x-9) [Be aware that there
are possible inaccuracies due to rounding. Therefore your answer may not quite check.)
Factors are the answers to an expression problem, while numbers are the answers to an
equation problem. If the “discriminant,” the b2-4ac expression inside the root, calculates
to a negative number, then your answer is a complex number. This is another number
type in addition to those introduced so far in this book and is a whole topic in itself. For
now, with expressions, stop. The expression cannot be factored.
-b±@b2-4ac
2a
ax2+bx+c=0 ax2+bx+c
3x2+6x-8=0 5x2-7x+9
a=3 b=6 c=-8 a=5 b=-7 c=9
-3±@62-4*3*-8 7±@(-7)2-4*5*9
2*3 2*5
2 answers in one formula
First from the +, second from the -
Factors have opposite signs from the answers
142 Action Algebra
91) Reduce fractions 

Now we start putting your factoring skills to greater use. By factoring the polynomials
in a fraction, we can turn the tops and bottoms into factors that multiply each other. Which
then means we can cancel matching factors that divide each other, because any factor
over itself is 1.
Remember that you can only cancel factors. You cannot pick and choose among
terms.
Any factoring method that works can be used.
x2+7x+12 = (x+3)(x+4) = x+3

2x+8 (2)(x+4) 2
x2-6x-16 = (x+2)(x-8) = x+2

x2-4x-32 (x+4)(x-8) x+4
x2-36 = (x-6)(x+6) = x-6

x2+12x+36 (x+6)(x+6) x+6
In every case, I factored the top and bottom as far as possible and put the factors in
parentheses. This is a good safeguard to help me to cancel factors and not the individual
subterms inside the factors. Why can’t you cancel terms?
Remember how reducing plain fractions works. We do not add or subtract numbers on
the top and bottom, we multiply or divide. Likewise, I must multiply or divide an algebra
fraction by the same factor on the top and bottom. You can split the fraction into two
smaller fractions to see that you are really multiplying a fraction by 1.
(x-6)(x+6) (x-6)*(x+6) (x-6)

(x+6)(x+6) = (x+6)*(x+6) = (x+6) *1
92) Multiply fractions 

Just like in arithmetic, multiply fractions straight across. What you especially need to
be aware of is that a fraction bar is a grouping symbol. It puts the entire top into one set of
invisible ( ) and the bottom into another set of invisible ( ). So the whole top is one factor
divided by the whole bottom, which is another factor. You must deal with the tops and
bottoms as factors. You can’t just cancel a term or two here and there.
If you have a hard time seeing this, draw ( ) around the top and bottom until you “see”
the invisible ( ) all the time.
Dividing polynomial fractions follows the same rule of “reverse last and multiply.”
(x+5) *(x-2) = (x+5)(x-2) = x+5

(x-2) (x+7) (x-2)(x+7) x+7
x-4 * x-7 = (x-4)(x-7) = x-7

x+3 x-4 (x+3)(x-4) x+3
x-3 _ x-3 = (x-3)(x+6) = x+6

x+1 x+6 (x+1)(x-3) x+1
If this looks like reducing fractions, it is! These are all just factors multiplying and
dividing each other.
93) Combine fractions 

Just like in arithmetic, Shift the fractions so their tags (bottom) match, then combine.
Again, the entire top and the entire bottom are factors.
144 Action Algebra
term term
x+1 + x-4 = (x+1)(x+2)+(x-4)(x-3)
x-3 x+2 (x-3)(x+2)
term
Because of space, the examples don’t show the middle step where each fraction is
multiplied top and bottom by what its bottom is missing, but the result shows the two
fractions in one and each has the missing factor. The left fraction shows up in the left
“circle” having (x-4) on top and bottom. The right fraction shows up in the right “circle”
having (x-5) on top and bottom. This is just like combining number fractions!
term term
x-1 + x+1 = (x-1)(x-4)+(x+1)(x-5)
x-5 x-4 (x-5)(x-4)
term
1 1 1*4+1*5
5 + 4 = 5*4
When combining you will always get more than one term on the top. To cancel a
factor, you must cancel it out of all terms on top and bottom, or none.
94) Long Division 

A polynomial can be divided by another polynomial by a process very similar to long
division. (And just as painfully!)
1) Divide the first term inside by the first term outside. Write the answer above the term
that matches.
2) Multiply the rest of the terms outside by the answer you just wrote. Write those
answers below the matching terms inside.
3) Subtract the line you just wrote from the one above it and repeat the process.
Any number at the end is the remainder. So the first example can be written this way:
x+5 1
x+2 x2+7x-8
x2+2x
2
3
5x-8
(x2+7x-8)_(x+2)=x+5
r-18 5x+10
-18
x2+1x-4
x-1 x3+0x2-5x-9
If your problem is “missing”
a term when you put it in
descending order, remember that
x3-1x2
the frontnum is really just 0. So
write it in.
+1x2-5x-9
+1x2-1x
-4x-9
-4x+4
-13
146 Action Algebra
Algebra: Linear Equations
95) Recognize equation types

There are four basic equation types that we want to focus on now. You can tell them
apart by how many kinds of variables they have and by the highest power of a variable.
Kinds of variables: If an equation only has x for its variables, then the equation is
a single variable equation, V1. If the equation has two different variables, then it is a 2
variable equation, V2. If it has 3 kinds of variables, then it is V3, etc....
Degree: Ignore any numbers that have exponents. All we care about are variables with
exponents, and we want to know the greatest power any variable has. For example, if an
equation has an x and an x2 then the degree is 2, D2. If an equation has an x, x2, and x3
then it has a degree of 3, D3. Also, the variables can have no fractional exponents or roots.
V1D1 4x-9=-11+7x
V1D2 8-2x2+3x=-x+1-5x2
V1D3 7x3+6x2-5x+34=0
V2D1 y=8x-3
V2D2 3x2+4x-y=6
The third equation has an exponent of 4,
but its base is a number, so x3 sets degree
Algebra: Linear Equations 147
FA Method for linear equations

Here is one of the more difficult equations to show you something for each step. This
method has solved every linear (V1D1) equation I have encountered in the textbooks. As
you can see, this method is based on Actions, but also tells you when to use which Action.
As long as you go in order, you can’t go wrong. You may need to repeat a step or you
may need to skip a step, but never go backwards. Here is the meaning of the letters and
the next lessons will look at each step one at a time.
F) Fill parentheses or Flip complex fractions or Figure functions

E) Eliminate fractions or decimals
D) Decouple like terms (letters left, use Switch Sides Switch Signs)
C) Combine like terms (COLT)
B) Break variable term (divide both sides by coefficient using OOOS)
A) Answer! check it, reduce it, round it
F -.2(1.5x+5)=-2(.35x+.3)
E 10(-.3x-1)=(-.7x-.6)10
D -3x-10=-7x-6
C 7x-3x=-6+10
B 4x=4
A x=1
148 Action Algebra
96) Answer! 
A) Answer! check it, reduce it, round it
Before students hand in their homework or test for grading, they can know for sure if
they got their equations right. The Sync Action, based on balance and equality, is the key.
The whole premise that makes equations work is “equal.” An equation must start and
finish equal on both sides. Therefore, if both sides equal the answer is correct.
Take the answer and substitute it back into the original equation. Then calculate the
left and right sides separately. If their answers equal other, then the answer being checked
is right. If the sides do not equal, then it is time to find and fix the mistake.
Fraction answers should be reduced. Decimal answers should be rounded according
to the instructions. In my classes, I always had my students round their answers to the
nearest hundredth because that is like the nearest penny.
Here is the problem from the previous page
-.2(1.5x+5)=-2(.35x+.3)
We found this answer: x=1
We check it by subbing it back in
-.2(1.5[1]+5)=-2(.35[1]+.3)
-.2(1.5+5)=-2(.35+.3)
-.2(6.5)=-2(.65)
-1.3=-1.3
The sides match, so we are right!
Note: If your answer ends up being a fraction with 0 on top then the answer is 0.
However, if the 0 is on the bottom, the answer is “null” (Ø) or “no answer exists.” This
is the classic “divide by zero” error. Anything divided by 0 is infinity, not a number. Try
dividing any number by 0 on your calculator!
97) Break variable term 

B) Break variable term (divide both sides by the number in front of x using OOOS)
Break means that we are breaking the bond between the number in front of the
variable (the coefficient). We want to know what x is, not what 3x or -5x or 2/3x is. Since
the coefficient is connected to the variable by multiplication, then that is what we will use
to break the bond. Divide by that number or multiply by the reciprocal, on both sides, to
get your answer.
Opposite Operation Opposite Side is the shortcut. Because the left side will equal x,
divide the other side by what is multiplying x. This gives x = answer.
2x=10 -4m=12 7x=14

x=5 x=-3 x=2
-8x=9 x=4
1
3
-8x/-8=9/-8 1 * x=4* 1
3 1 3
3
x=-9/8 x=12
There is a strong similarity and a key difference between Sync and Shift. As the Action
chart showed, Sync uses the same effect on opposite sides, while Shift uses opposite
effects on the same side. Their purpose is identical, however, in that they seek to maintain
balance by making a counterchange for every change.
Multiplying or dividing a side by any number (except 1) obviously changes the value
of the entire side. To make a counterchange on the side you just changed would be
counterproductive. Therefore the counterchange is made on the other side.
This is different from our previous problems because for the first time we are working
with both sides of an equation, rather than just an expression on one side. Equations are
the “rest of the story” for expressions.
All the thinking you and your students have developed in Shifting can now be extended
150 Action Algebra
to Syncing. The point and purpose of both is the same, only the mechanics are different.
The big/small move now needs to become same/opposite.
The best picture is the “scales of justice” type of scale with two hanging plates. If one
side sinks lower under a larger weight, then the other side needs to sink lower under an
equally larger weight to bring it back in balance. That is Syncing.
If you are limited to working only on one plate, like we must when working only with
expressions, then you must make a big/small transaction on one side. Larger weight on
one part of the plate is countered by smaller weight on another part. The end result is that
the plate does not move and the scale stays in balance. That is Shifting.
So the purpose of both Syncing and Shifting is the same--to maintain balance. They
differ only in how they achieve that goal. Sync uses same/opposite. Shift uses big/small.
98) Combine like terms 

C) COmbine Like Terms (COLT)
Nothing new here. The reason you do step D before step C is to get terms separated
according to kind. Letters go left, and plain numbers go right. That sets you up for step
C, because now each side is made up of only like terms. Combine the variable terms and
combine the numbers and you are done with this step.
You will always have whole numbers at this step because step E previously eliminated
any fractions and decimals.
7x-12x=-1+5 4x-9x+2x=6+11-8
-5x=4 -3x=9
-x-6x+2x=-5-1+7 3x+8x-2x=-4+17
-5x=1 9x=13
99) Decouple like terms 

D) Decouple like terms (letters left, use Switch Sides Switch Signs)
Our goal is to get x on the left equal to a number on the right. Right now, we have
x’s and numbers all over the place. So use the Sync shortcut, Switch Sides Switch Signs,
to get letters left and numbers right. Switch the signs of ONLY those terms that jump the
= sign. Just moving a term around on the same side does not switch its sign. Same Side
Same Sign goes along with Switch Sides Switch Signs.
-5+7x=12x-1
7x-12x=-1+5
-11-9x-6=-4x-2x+11
4x-9x+2x=6+11-8
1-x=-5+6x+7-2x
-x-6x+2x=-5-1+7
The SSSS shortcuts are based on Sync which is based on equality is just a special case
of OOOS (Opposite Operation Opposite Side). Both the D and the B steps are similar
because they end up moving something from one side to the other. The B step used
multiplying and dividing, while the D step uses combining.
These shortcuts are well worth teaching students. Some books teach them to write out
all the details of the combining on both sides, but the end result is a simple move. So I
teach them to make the move based on the Sync Action. This results in simpler thinking
and less writing, which results in less mistakes. Sometimes writing things down clarifies a
student’s thinking and helps reduce mistakes, but not here. Writing down the simple and
obvious actually increases mistakes. Of course, some students insist, so fine, I let them.
152 Action Algebra
100) Eliminate decimals 

E) Eliminate decimals by multiplying both sides by biggest number of places
The rule is abbreviated for easier memorization and needs explaining. You can’t
multiply by a decimal place, but you can multiply by 1 with a 0 for each place. So if your
equation has a number with 1 decimal place, then multiply by 10, which is a 1 with one
zero. If your equation has a number with 2 decimal places, then multiply by 100, which is
a 1 with two zeroes. If you find a number with 3 places, multiply by 1000.
Make sure you use enough zeroes to match the number with the most places. It is
better to multiply by a number with too many zeroes than too few so that you make sure to
eliminate all decimal places. Reducing or rounding later will automatically take care of too
many places. Also make sure not to forget to multiply the numbers with invisible decimal
places. Everything on both sides must be multiplied for a proper Sync.
Also, make sure you have done step F first. Filling the parentheses will change the
decimal places! So step E should never take place if ( ) are still there.
places 1 0 1 0
10(.2-3x)=(1.4+6x)10
2-30x=14+60x
Notice that I wrap each side in ( ) to remind myself that I must change the whole side
when I Sync. Of course, Sync is required because I am inflating the sides by 10, 100, or
whatever. Shifting, by the distributive property, then takes place when I multiply the sides.
Notice also that the E step on top, when done completely, gives me a clean D step
on the next line. This is the purpose of E and F--to reduce the clutter and eliminate the
complications. The E and F steps fill a similar role to In and Fun with expressions. They
clean up the complicated, leaving us with just the basic operations for the D-A steps.
In both equations I multiply by a 1 with as many 0’s

that match the most decimal places I found
places 2 0 1 0
100(.37+x)=(2.1+8x)100
37+100x=210+800x
101) Eliminate fractions 

E) Eliminate fractions by multiplying both sides by common multiple of the bottoms
The technical names of what we are looking for is least common denominator or least
common multiple. Remember that the denominators are the bottom numbers and we
want to eliminate them so that the fractions become whole numbers, which means the
bottoms must all become 1. To achieve that we must multiply all the fractions by a number
that all the bottom numbers multiply into. If that seemed like a lot of words, basically we
are going to look for common denominators, but stop short of combining the fractions.
If you have bottom numbers of 2 and 3, then times by 6. If you have bottoms of 3
and 4 and 12, then times by 12. Any number will work if all the bottoms go into it evenly.
Just like with decimals, it is better to multiply by a number to big, than one too small. Any
common multiple will work, not just the lowest. Reducing in step A will auto-adjust.
Don’t forget the invisible 1’s on the bottom of whole numbers. The integers need to get
multiplied by your number, just like the visible fractions.
Just like with decimals, make sure you have done step F before step E, because any
parentheses will change your fractions.
6(4x+ 1 )=(5- 5 x)6

3 2
24x+2=30-15x
154 Action Algebra
In both equations I multiplied by a number that all

bottom numbers go into evenly. This Shifts every
fraction and turns them into whole numbers.
12(- 1 + 3 x)=( 5 x+ 1 )12

2 4 6 3
-6+9x=10x+4
102) Fill Parentheses 

F) Fill parentheses by multiplying outside ^ inside (distribute)
There is nothing new here. This is the familiar Shift Action applied to parentheses. The
outside number is the sprinkling can that waters every term inside and makes them grow.
The only thing you need to carefully notice is the change to fractions and decimals during
this step. Because they change is why you must wait to eliminate them until the next step.
4(9x-6)=-2(13-6x)
36x-24=-26+12x
These examples show why it is so important to do step F before step E. Also, if students
try to do step E before step F, they usually multiply the outside factor and the inside factors,
which is often wrong, because it is a double multiplication to that superterm. Other terms
outside any ( ) they will only multiply once. That puts their equation out of Sync.
In the fraction example below, they will ^20 inside and ^20 outside, which is multiplying
by 400. If they do that on both sides, they are fine. However, let’s say they have a problem
where there is a +4 next to the (x-7). They will multiply the 4 by 20 only once, while all
the ( ) terms are ^ 400. That is out of Sync. This is why F is before E, to help them avoid
that minefield of complexity altogether.
It looks like I should multiply by 20 on this line, but

after the ( ) I see I really need to multiply by 40.
3 ( 3 + 3 x)= 1 (x-7)
2 5 4 2
9 + 9 = 1 x- 7
10 8 2 2
Should I multiply by 2 places or 3 places?
.3(.4x-1.6)=.25(2x+.5)
.12x-.48=.5x+.125
These questions, and risk of mistakes, can be

avoided by doing step F before step E.
103) Flip complex fractions 

F) Flip complex fractions, this turns them into regular fractions
Once in a great while I have seen complex fractions in equations. These are very easily
turned into regular fractions and then you can continue with the regular FA steps.
A complex fraction is fractions within a fraction. Instead of number over number, it
is fraction over fraction. Just as the top number is divided by the bottom number, so the
top fraction is divided by the lower fraction. So really, this is just a fancy way of writing
fraction _ fraction. Therefore, flip the bottom fraction and turn it into two regular fractions
multiplying each other.
156 Action Algebra
7 1
2
x= 3 x+ 4
3 5 1
4 7
7 * 4 x= 3 x+ 1 * 7
2 3 5 4 1
Fraction over fraction turns into

fraction ^ flipped fraction
multiply right away
104) Figure functions 

F) Figure functions
The reason for step F is to take care of the complicated first. Step E cleans up what
step F can’t handle. That is the basic principle that applies even to things not covered by
step F. Simplify whatever looks complicated so you can turn the equation into something
familiar and easy. Use the calculator!
The one point not to miss is that this applies only to numbers. If you have a power or
root of x, or a trig or log function of x, you can do nothing. The equation is not even a
V1D1 equation. The degree is more or less than 1, but it is not 1. These FA steps apply
only to degree 1.
3x*cos45=92x+log28
3x*.7071=81x+3
You may not at first see how to solve an

equation, but do what you can to get it to
a point where it looks familiar and solvable
(sin90)x=43+log100*x
1x=64+2x
105) Proportions 
Proportions are a special type of equation that is simply fraction = fraction. These
occur often enough in real life and on tests that it is worth learning a shortcut for them. Of
course, you can use the FA method starting on step F, but the shortcut is faster and is the
natural result of step F.
The basic idea is shown here.
a c
b = d becomes ad=bc
If you were to follow the normal F step and multiply both sides by the common
denominator, bd, then cancel, you end up with the same result. This works with polynomials
of any degree in the fractions. The only limitation is that it must be fraction = fraction.
There can be no other terms combined with either fraction.
The shortcut is commonly called cross-multiplying, similar to cross-canceling with
fractions. Once the cross-multiplying is done you end up with a regular equation that is
usually on step D or B. You might even have a quadratic (x2) equation on your hands. We
will cover those in the next chapter.
x+1 x x+1 8
4 = 7 Ž 7(x+1)=4x 2 =x-4 Ž (x+1)(x-4)=16
158 Action Algebra
Algebra: Quadratic Equations

Quadratic equations are V1D2 equations. They have one variable with degree two. By
Syncing and Shifting you can make it look like ax2+bx+c=0. Many of these equations will
factor and all of them can be solved with the quadratic formula.
106) Fill, Flip, or Figure 

This step is identical to step F for linear equations. You can ignore the x2 for now because
you are dealing only with the numbers. Just as with method 1, fill parentheses, flip complex
fractions, or figure functions. Everything should look and feel the same, except there will
be an x2 along with the x.
4x2*tan45=9x+log216
4x2*1=9x+4
.3x(.4x-1.6)=.25(2x2+.5)
.12x2-.48x=.5x2+.125
4(9x-6)=-2x(13-6x)
36x-24=-26x+12x2
Algebra: Quadratic Equations 159
107) Eliminate fractions or decimals 

Again, this step is identical to step E for linear equations. Continue to treat the x2 as a
regular x, because you are dealing only with the fractions and decimals.
12(- 1 + 3 x2)=( 5 x+ 1 )12

2 4 6 3
-6+9x2=10x+4
places 2 0 1 0
100(.37+x)=(2.1+8x2)100
37+100x=210+800x2
160 Action Algebra
108) Descending order = 0 

Here is where the FA method for quadratic equations takes off in a different direction from
linear equations. Because you have an x2 in the equation, instead of decoupling the letters
to the left and the plain numbers to the right, bring everything to the left. Combine like
terms if you need to. Then put the terms in descending order of exponents in the familiar
pattern of ax2+bx+c=0. This is just like what you did in the polynomial chapter. You are
now ready for factoring or for the quadratic formula.
5x-8x2=7+2x
-8x2+5x-2x-7=0
-8x2+3x-7=0
1-2x=9+2x2-4x
-2x2-2x+4x+1-9=0
-2x2+2x-8=0
109) Common factor 

This is nothing but the old familiar common factoring from the polynomials chapter. You
may not be able to find a common factor, but if you can find one, you should use it. If the
number in front of the x2 is negative, then you should factor by a negative, because that
will make the next steps easier for you.
4x2+6x+18=0 -2x2+2x-8=0
2(2x2+3x+9)=0 -2(x2-x+4)=0
2x2+3x+9=0 x2-x+4=0
Now notice something. You can divide both sides by the common factor. Since the right
side is 0, it entirely disappears. Look at your equation as if it is at the B step in FA method
1. The common factor in front of the ( ) is the coefficient, and the ( ) is the tag. Dividing
both sides by the coefficient cancels it out. You are now prepared to bifactor.
15x2-5x-20=0
Divide both sides by 5 and
it disappears because of
the 0 on the right
5(3x2-x-4)=0
(More clutter gone!)
3x2-x-4=0
162 Action Algebra
110) Bifactor 
Again, this is a repeat of the bifactoring from the polynomials chapter. The new part is that
if you can bifactor, then go ahead and set each factor equal to 0, then solve those mini-
equations. Notice that the answers will always be the opposite sign of the factors from
which they come.
x2-7x+10=0 x2+8x+12=0
(x-5)(x-2)=0 (x+6)(x+2)=0
x-5=0 x-2=0 x+6=0 x+2=0
x=5 x=2 x=-6 x=-2
Factor ^ factor = 0, therefore when

either factor is 0 the equation is true.
So set each factor = 0.
2x2-5x-33=0 3x2-11x-20=0
(2x-11)(x+3)=0 (3x+4)(x-5)=0
2x-11=0 x+3=0 3x+4=0 x-5=0
x=11/2 x=-3 x=-4/3 x=5
111) Answer formula 

Of course, this is the quadratic formula. If none of the factoring got you to the answers
then the quadratic formula will. It always will give you an answer, even if it has to use
imaginary numbers. Just make sure your equation looks like ax2+bx+c=0
ax2+bx+c=0 ax2+bx+c=0
3x2+6x-8=0 5x2-7x+2=0
a=3 b=6 c=-8 a=5 b=-7 c=2
-3±@62-4*3*-8 7±@(-7)2-4*5*2
2*3 2*5
x=1.41 x=2.41 x=1 x=.4
-b±@ b2-4ac
2 answers in one formula
First from the +
Second from the -
2a
164 Action Algebra
Algebra: Other Equations
112) Linear
Technically, any equation of degree 1 is a linear equation because its graph is a
straight line. However, this lesson is focusing on the equations that are based on y=mx+b.
Most algebra textbooks will have at least one whole chapter dedicated to these types of
equations. They come in different forms and you usually have to change them from one
form to another. This is where the FA method comes in handy. If you can think of the y
as being the variable you want and the x as a constant, like &, then you can use the FA
method for any degree 1 equation.
The D step will look a little different, but the concept is the same. The variable you
want, y, goes on the left. The unwanted variable, x, and all the numbers, go on the right.
The C step is often skipped, but if there are like terms, go ahead and combine them.
You just won’t be able to combine everything on the right side to a single term. Combine
them as far as you can and put the x term first followed by the plain number term.
F 3x=1/4(2y-5) fill parentheses

D 3x=1/2y-5/4 y goes left, all else right
B -1/2y=-3x-5/4 ^ both sides by -2
A y=6x+5/2 put in desired format
D 4=4y+8x D x=2y+5
B -4y=8x-4 B -2y=-x+5
A y=-2x+1 A y=1/2x-5/2
Algebra: Other Equations 165
113) Rational
These equations look almost like proportions. They look enough like proportions
that many students get fooled and start doing very wild forms of cross multiplying. What
throws them off is the fact that there are variables on the bottom, but a proportion is only
fraction = fraction and nothing else. These other equations are really just step E equations
that could be linear or quadratic. They reveal themselves after step E is done.
Step E: Eliminate fractions 3 1 2

x+2 - x = 4x
Common denominator is 4x(x+2).
4x(x+2)( x+2 - = 4x )
The x in the second fraction is 3 1 2
factor of 4x already. x2 is extra. x
All tops must be ^ by factors 3(4x)-4(x+2)=2(x+2)

they are missing on the bottom,
just like regular and polynomial
fractions. 12x-4x-8=2x+4
Follow steps E through A as 12x-4x-2x=8+4
normal.
6x=12
x=2
The above equation proved to be a linear equation, but not this next one. At first, it
is not obvious that this equation contains an x2 but after the E step it is clear. Therefore,
switch to the FA method for quadratic equations.
166 Action Algebra
Step E: Eliminate fractions x 4 4

-
2x-6 2x = x-3
Common bottom is 2x(x-3).
2x(x-3)( 2x-6 - 2x = x-3 )

2x-6 factors to 2(x-3). x 4 4
All tops must be ^ by factors

they are missing on the bottom, x(x)+4(x-3)=4(2x)
just like regular and polynomial
fractions.
x2+4x-12=8x
Follow steps E through A as
normal. x2+4x-8x-12=0
x2-4x-12=0
(x-6)(x+2)=0
x=6 and x=-2

114) Multi-variable
A linear equation is a multi-variable equation with two variables, but you will also
encounter equations with three or more variables. The directions will tell you to solve for
x or solve for n or some other variable. If the degree of the variable you need to find is 1,
then you can use the same basic steps of the FA method for linear equations. Treat all the
unwanted variables as constants.
Solve for x
D 5b-3x+6=8x-b+7 all but x goes right
C -3x-8x=-5b-6-b+7 COLT
B -11x=-6b+1 _ both sides by -11
A x= 6b-1 fraction is reduced
11
Solve for n
D 4n-6m+s=7s-2+2n all but n goes right
C 4n-2n=6m-s+7s-2 COLT
B 2n=6m+6s-2 _ both sides by 2
A n=3m+3s-1 no more to do
168 Action Algebra
115) Exponential
A special set of equations that appear in many textbooks are exponential equations.
These equations have variables in their exponents. This makes it impossible to use a
calculator because how do you enter something like 4x ? Neither you nor the calculator
knows what x is. But the equations are setup to have similar bases, which means their
exponents must equal.
For example, 6x=62 We now use the fact that this equation is already in Sync.
Therefore, x=2 because the exponents must be equal to keep the sides equal and in Sync.
8x+1=84
Because the equation is in Sync and the bases are the same, the exponents must
equal. Therefore, x+1=4, so x=3. Check it on your calculator!
If the bases are not equal, then Shift and use the exponent rules to make them equal.
Then you can set the left exponent = to the right exponent.
2x-4=8 becomes 2x-4=23

Now you can set the exponents equal to each other. x-4=3 therefore x=7.
if nexpression1=nexpression2 then expression1=expression2

Now solve the new equation using the FA method
4x+2=45 6x-.3=67
D x+2=5 x-.3=7 E
C x=5-2 10x-3=70 D
A x=3 10x=70+3 C
10x=73 B
x=7.3 A
116) Inequalities
Inequalities are just regular equations with one small twist. Whenever you Sync both
sides by multiplying or dividing by a negative number, you need to reverse the direction
of the arrow in the inequality. That’s it! Remember this one thing and solve inequalities
just like equations.
-4x Þ 36 -5x Û -20

x Ý -9 x Ü4
Whenever you sync by ^ or _ with a negative number
reverse the direction of the inequality arrow.
x+6 Ü 9+4x 2x+8 Ý 9x-6

x-4x Ü -6+9 2x-9x Ý -6-8
-3x Ü 3 -7x Ý -14
x Û -1 x Þ2
170 Action Algebra
117) Radical
Algebra is just the beginning of a whole new world of math. There are many new
types of problems beyond what you have seen that will require new knowledge and new
strategies. However, their foundation will be the ten Algebra Actions.
One example is a type of equation known as radical equations. This is when a variable,
not a number, is inside the root symbol. In this type of equation, you will “solve it twice.”
In the first stage, pretend that the root is a plain x and follow the FA steps down to the
B step. Now Sync by squaring both sides. Do not individually square the terms on each
side, but put ( ) around each entire side and square the whole side at once. In really
complicated cases you will need to use distribution. After squaring, you can then start the
second stage at step F.
One note of caution. If you ever get a square root equal to a negative number, then you
need to stop or use imaginary numbers if you know them. In the world of real numbers
there is no such thing as a square root of a negative, because - ^ - = + and + ^ + = +.
Not even your calculator can give you the square root of a negative number!
B 5@x=15
(@x)2=(3)2 2@x-5=8 B
A x=9 @x-5=4
(@x-5)2=(4)2
x-5=16 D
@x+4=7 x=16+5 C
(@x+4)2=(7)2 x=21 A
B x+4=49
A x=45
System of Equations
Visually, a system of equations is two or three lines on a grid that intersect at a point.
We solve the equations to find the coordinates of that point. We are not going to graph in
this course. Graphing and other topics, like trigonometry, will be covered in another book.
What we want to look at in this chapter are systems of two or three linear equations
with or without quadratic equations. Some textbooks include other combinations, but
these are the major systems all books cover as well as both methods of solving.
The overall strategy to solve a system is not always one of the Actions, but along the
way the equations are Subbed then solved using the FA method.
118) Systems by Substitution

This method will solve all the standard problems in textbooks and on tests, but can
take longer than the elimination method that sometimes works. It’s a matter of choice.
We are looking for the unique combination of x and y that will make two equations
work. In other words, we want that special (x,y) coordinate that is on both lines at the
same time. It stands to reason that if we find the x that works, then we can substitute that
value back into the equations to find the y that works.
By solving one of the equations for x I will find all the y’s that go with it. Then if I Sub
that value of x into the other equation I will find the y that works in that equation as well.
I now have half my answer. By going back to the first equation with my y answer and
Subbing it, I will find x. Now I am done! Here is an example and the steps to take.
The system x+3y=11 Solve an equation x+3y=11

of equations for a variable
to solve
-2x-2y=-10 x=11-3y
172 Action Algebra
The solved -2(11-3y)-2y=-10

equation always
gets Subbed into
the other equation -22+6y-2y=-10
Because x=11-3y, 4y=12
then 11-3y can
go where x was
y=3
Now that I know x+3(3)=11

y, I can Sub it
back into the other
equation to find x x+9=11
x=2
I now have both answers, x=2 and y=3
Notice how I kept alternating my use of equations. I solved the top equation, then
Subbed into the bottom equation to solve it. Then I took that answer and Subbed it
into the first equation. If I Sub into the same equation I solve, I end up with correct, but
useless, information. For example, if I Sub back into the first equation I solved I would get
(11-3y)+3y=11. Solving that gives me 0y=0. Really?! 0=0 How amazing!
The substitution method also solves a linear-quadratic system such as the one below,
which is a line crossing a parabola and hitting it in two points.
The system 4x-y=-6 Solve an equation y-x2=-6

of equations for a variable
to solve (solving for the x2
y-x2=-6 will take longer) y=x2-6
The solved equation 4x-(x2-6)=-6

always gets Subbed
into the other
equation 4x-x2+6=-6
Because I have a x2-4x-12=0
degree 2 equation,
I have two answers.
Sub them both into (x-6)(x+2)=0
the other equation.
x=6 and x=-2
Finding 2 x's means y-(6)2=-6

I find 2 y's
My answers are y-36=-6

(6,30) and (-2,-2)
in coordinates y=30
y-(-2)2=-6
y-4=-6
y=-2
Where the substitution method gets more complicated is when the first equation you
choose to solve uses fractions. Yet, it can be done! Just keep alternating your solving and
Subbing as well as your equations.
174 Action Algebra
3) solve 5x+2y=9
3x-2y=-1 2) sub
1) solve
y=3/2x+1/2
5x+2(3/2x+1/2)=9
5x+3x+1=9
8x=8
4) sub
x=1
5) solve 3(1)-2y=-1
3-2y=-1
-2y=-4
y=2
119) Systems by Elimination

The elimination method is also called the addition method. It will not work with linear-
quadratic systems, but works nicely with linear systems.
Let's look at the previous example again, but solve it using elimination.
The idea is to 5x+2y=9

combine one of the
variables so it = 0.
That lets you find the 3x-2y=-1
other variable, which
you then Sub back
8x =8
into an equation.
x=1
3(1)-2y=-1
3-2y=-1
-2y=-4
y=2
In this example the y's eliminated themselves without us needing to do anything.

Usually you will have to multiply one or both equations to make a variable become a
common multiple in both equations. If you keep the variables the same sign, then subtract
the equations, else add them. Whatever you do, the goal is to combine them to 0.
Study the example on the next page, then read my confession.
I cannot tell you why this method works. It has never been explained to me and I
cannot find one on the web. I suspect the proof for it lies in some book of advanced
algebra not accessible by the common person.
176 Action Algebra
Equations to solve 3x-4y=1
2x+5y=16
I chose to eliminate the
x so I made its nums = a 2(3x-4y)=(1)2
common multiple of 6.
Of course I Synced the
whole equation. 3(2x+5y)=(16)3
Because the 6x are both +,
I subtract them and all the
6x-8y=2
other terms to get 0x
6x+15y=48
Now I can solve for y
-23y=-46
First answer! y=2

Sub y into either of the
original equations and solve
3x-4(2)=1
3x-8=1
3x=9
Second answer! x=3

120) Systems of Three

While quadratics could be included, I have only seen linear equations used to make
a system of three equations. Both substitution and elimination can be used and will be
demonstrated. Of course, there are more steps.
The basic elimination strategy is to pick two different pairs of equations and eliminate
the same variable from each. This will leave you a system of two equations. After solving
that new system for those two variables, you can then substitute the answers back into one
of the original equations to find the third variable. Easy?!
The three equations to 2x+y-3z=-9

be solved -x-2y+2z=3
2x-3y+2z=-2
I chose to eliminate y in
the first two.
2(2x+y-3z)=(-9)2
First equation ^ 2.
4x+2y-6z=-18
Added to second.
-x-2y+2z=3
First equation for stage
3x-4z=-15
two with x and z.
-3(-x-2y+2z)=(3)*-3
Eliminate y in second
and third equations. 2(2x-3y+2z)=(-2)2
Multiply each, then add. 3x+6y-6z=-9
Second equation for 4x-6y+4z=-4
stage two with x and z. 7x-2z=-13
Now we go to stage two with the two equations that have x and z.
Notice that I keep using the word "choose." It really is up to me to choose a pair of
equations to work with and a variable to eliminate according to what I think might be
easiest. There is no one exact way.
178 Action Algebra
Multiply by two, 2(7x-2z)=(-13)2

so I can subtract to get. 14x-4z=-26
3x-4z=-15
Equation with only x. 11x=-11
x=-1
Sub x into either 3(-1)-4z=-15

equation with x and z. -3-4z=-15
-4z=-12
Solve for z. z=3
Sub x and z into any 2(-1)+y-3(3)=-9

original equation with 3
-2+y-9=-9
variables to find y.
y=2
That was fun, wasn't it?! Yes, it is easy for students to get lost, but this is good exercise
for the brain and organizing and tracking abilities!
Now we will solve the same system using substitution. Here my strategy is to pick a
variable for which to solve. I then Sub that into the other two equations to give me a new
system of two equations with the same two variables. I can then solve that smaller system
using Substitution or elimination. Finding those two variables, I now Sub them back into
an original equation to find the third.
The three equations to 2x+y-3z=-9

be solved. -x-2y+2z=3
2x-3y+2z=-2
I solved the first one for
y. It was easiest.
y=-2x+3z-9
Sub for y in the second

-x-2(-2x+3z-9)+2z=3
equation.
-x+4x-6z+18+2z=3
First equation with x
and z for stage two. 3x-4z=-15
Sub for y in third

2x-3(-2x+3z-9)+2z=-2
equation.
2x+6x-9z+27+2z=-2
Second equation with x
and z for stage two. 8x-7z=-29
Stage two avoids 8(3x-4z)=(-15)8

fractions by eliminating. 3(8x-7z)=(-29)3
24x-32z=-120
Subtract to eliminate x. 24x-21z=-87
-11z=-33
Solve for z.
z=3
3x-4(3)=-15
Substitute z into any
3x-12=-15
equation with x and z
to find x. 3x=-3
x=-1
Sub x and z into any of 2(-1)+y-3(3)=-9

the original equations to -2+y-9=-9
find y. y=2
Actions Explained
This section focuses on Actions rather than on problems. I will bring together samples
of different problems to help emphasize the Action that connects them and provide an
overview for those who skipped the earlier chapters wanting to get to the heart of things.
However, if you skipped the Basic Principles chapter, I encourage you to read that before
this chapter as the Actions are based on those practical principles. You might also want
to look at the Action chart for a glimpse of the big picture first. If you have read through
the chapters, you have already seen the Actions applied, and so this section may seem
redundant, but think of it as a reference.
Action 1: Sync 
2 Opposite Sides - 1 Effect: You may do whatever you want to an equation as
long as you do the same thing to both entire sides. If you change one side, then you must
immediately sync the other side.
4+5=6+3
2*(4+5)=(6+3)*2
x+13=8-2x
13+(x-13)=(8-2x)+13
Visualize it this way. You have one of those balance scales hanging from your hand just
like the blindfolded Lady Justice. You don’t know how much is on each side, but if you
increase both sides by the same amount of weight, then you know it will remain balanced.
In the same way, if you remove the same amount of weight from each side then it will
remain balanced. You can also double or triple each side. You can cut each side in half
or reduce them 10% each. You do not need to know how much is on each side, you just
need to apply the same force to both sides.
The icon tries to remind you of this idea because it looks similar to a balance scale or
a teeter totter. If the forces on both sides are equal, then it is in balance.
A good thing to do when learning to use this Action is to put giant parentheses around
both sides and then outside the parentheses perform whatever operation you desire. This
helps you make sure the whole side gets affected, not just part of the side.
Shortcuts
Shortcuts are good, if you understand the principle behind them and don’t make so
many that they become hard to remember. They can also shorten how much you need to
write at each step and that can help reduce mistakes. So here are two shortcuts based on
the Sync Action.
Opposite Operation Opposite Side (OOOS). This is just the net result of syncing. If you
have a small equation like 5x=15, then you divide both sides by 5, then you can cancel
the 5’s on the left, then you divide 15 by 5 on the right, you end up with x=3. You can
skip all the error-prone writing in between and simply jump to the next line by writing x=
then doing 15/5 in your head and writing down 3. You know the 5’s will cancel on the left,
that is why you chose to divide by 5. So just cancel what is in the way on one side and
immediately write down the answer of the operation on the opposite side.
Switch Sides Switch Sides (SSSS). This is just a special application of OOOS that
applies only to terms. Move the term to the opposite side and change its sign at the same
time, instead of writing down all the intermediate adding or subtracting. The mirror image
to Switch Sides is Same Side Same Sign. This is a good mnemonic to remember when
students Sort on the same side of the equal sign but think they still should change signs.
x+7=12 4x=32
x=5 x=8
same result above as same result above as
long way below long way below
x+7=12 4x=32
x+7-7=12-7 4x/4=32/4
x=5 x=8
Action 2: Shift 
1 Side - 2 Opposite Effects: You may change an object at any time if you counter
it with an equal and opposite change to that same object. An object, such as a term or
factor or set of parentheses, is always on one side only. Often you have problems where
you have no equal sign, and therefore only one side. You can’t use Sync, because there is
not another side to sync with. That is when Shift comes to the rescue.
Shift comes from the idea of shifting your weight from one foot to the other. Your
weight did not change, you just transferred it within yourself. If you happen to be standing
on a scale, it doesn’t change or become unbalanced, because weight did not change.
The Shift icon is like squeezing a water balloon. All the water is still there, one part
just gets smaller while the other gets bigger. The water shifts around without increasing or
decreasing.
(4)(5)=20
(4/2)(5*2)=20
(2)(10)=20
Another good name for this Action is Big-Small. You do something to one part of the
object to make it bigger, then you do an equal and opposite operation to make the other
part of the object smaller. You can shift 8^3 into 4^6 because the 8 got halved while the
3 got doubled. You can also shift 8^3 into 16^1.5 by doubling the 8 and halving the 3.
In both of these examples, one number got bigger and the other got smaller by an equal
but opposite operation.
7+8=15
7-3+8+3=15
4+11=15
Force, not amount
Let’s be absolutely clear what is going on with the Shift Action. It is what you DO that
must be equal and opposite, not the new numbers that you get. It is the FORCES you
apply to the side of the scale with the old numbers that must be equal and opposite, not
the differences between the new numbers.
Also, how do you know when to add and subtract versus times and divide? By using
what is already there. If the two numbers use + or - then you will also. If the two numbers
use ^ or _, then you will also. Focus on what you DO, not the amounts the numbers go
up or down.
100*6=600
(100*3)(6_3)=600
300*2=600
Don’t be fooled by the 100 soaring way up to 300 while the 6
goes down only a little to 2. What I DID was opposite and equal, it
does not matter what the numbers do. In the end, the total of 600
remains unchanged. That proves I did a good thing!
Let’s look at two similar problems using ( ) to make it obvious: (10)+(4) and (10)(4)
The first expression joins the 10 and the 4 by combining, so I will use combining to
Shift them by any amount I want. (10+1)+(4-1) which gives me 11+3, which gives me
14, which is the same total I started with. The key to using Shift is to apply opposite but
equal forces on the scale, +1 and -1, to keep the original total the same.
The second problem uses ^, so I will ^ and/or _. (10^4)(4_4) = (40)(1) = 40 After
^4 and _4 I end up with the same total with which I started. Even though 10 went way
up to 40 and 4 only moved down to 1, that does not matter. Opposite and equal forces
were applied to the scale and the original answer was kept unchanged. I Shifted the
numbers without changing the total weight.
4x2+6x = 1(4x2+6x) = 2x(2x+3)

All factoring is Shifting (outside bigger, inside smaller)
Action 3: In (Inbox, Inside first) 

Parentheses ( ) and brackets [ ] and curly braces { } all serve the same purpose.
They put things in boxes. They group things. They look different only so we can more
easily tell where the boxes start and stop, especially if we have boxes within boxes. One
might just as easily use different colored parentheses to make things clearer.
Just like wrapped presents for your birthday, parentheses have a way of making
everything harder to get at. You can’t just play with your toys, you have to unwrap them
first. You don’t even know what gift is inside until you unwrap it. And like money stored
in hidden accounts, you have to get at each account first before you can figure how much
money you have in total. So if you see parentheses in a problem, go there first.
3^5+2 3^(5+2)
15+2 3(2)
17 6
Math gives us a kind of x-ray vision, because we can see the numbers inside the
boxes, but what we don’t know is their answer. So as you work left to right and you run
into the start of a box, ( or { or [, then stop, figure out the answer inside, then return to
the rest of the problem.
8+3^5+2 (8+3)^(5+2)
8+15+2 11^7
25 77
Once inside, you follow the regular order of fun, mud, colt. Only after you are done
working inside can you go out to play! The examples above show that putting boxes in
problems can change their answers by a large amount. Pay attention to them!
Action 4: Fun (Funny Functions) 

A function is like a mini factory. You feed raw materials in one end and different
items come out of the other. The icon uses a FUNnel that takes in a circle and spits out
a triangle. Functions are little math factories that intake a single number, or sometimes
several numbers, or a group of numbers in a box. After the factory does its unique process,
it spits out another number in the form of an answer. You then take that answer and use
it in further calculations on the way to your final answer. You never work with the input
number(s). You always feed it into the function, then work only with the answer it gives
you.
There are gazillions of functions in the world of math, but what you will see in most
algebra courses are exponents and roots, trigonometry functions, and logarithms. You
will learn the basics of how they work, but pretty much they are telling you to get your
calculator out. Most calculators let you enter the function and the number in the same
order you see them, then you hit the equal button and you’re done!
5+3*23 5+(3*2)2
5+3*8 5+(6)2
5+24 5+36
29 41
9+2*cos(90) (9+2)*sin90 The ( ) with functions

serve as "mouths" into
which to feed the input.
9+2*0 (11)*sin90 Sometimes ( ) are not
used, in that case, only
9+0 11*1 the first number after
the function gets fed
into it.
9 11
Intro to Combining vs. Multiplying 

Combining is adding and subtracting, while multiplying includes dividing, because
dividing is multiplication in reverse just as subtracting is adding in reverse.
Multiplication is a fast shortcut for addition, but it is also more than that. Multiplication
can do something that combining cannot. Multiplying can bond together more than one
type of thing. Combining can only work with one kind of thing at a time. COLT is Combine
ONLY Like Things, but you can MUltiply and Divide any kind of thing.
Combining lets you go up and down, or left and right, on only a single number line.
This is why you can only deal with the same kind of things. You combine apples only with
apples and oranges only with oranges.
Multiplying, however, comes from a grid, which is the result of two number lines,
called “axes.” One axis can represent years, while the other can represent inches of snow.
Putting them together makes sense. We want to know how many inches of snow fell
each year. Adding them would not make sense. Years + inches is nonsense. So when
you see different things together, they were put together only by multiplication, never by
combining.
5ft*5ft=25ft2
3*3=32=9
You can not only
multiply different
x*x=x2=x2 things, but different
things are made
4a*7b=28ab when you multiply
28yz/4y=7z
12ft2/4ft=3ft
Action 5: MuD 
Mud gets everywhere and gets on everything! That means you can MUltiply and
Divide everything. (In the right order, of course!) Only like terms can be combined, but
anything can be multiplied simply by merging them together. For example, you cannot
combine 6x and 2y, but you can multiply them by merging them together like this, 12xy.
(12 times x times y.) Division is just reverse multiplication so you can write 6x_2y as
3x/y. Multiplication and division are both very tolerant and flexible in this regard, while
combining is very picky.
3 nickels + 2 nickels = 5 nickels = 1 quarter

but: 3 nickels ^ 2 nickels = 6 quarters
The reason for the differences was explained on the previous page. In practical living
it gets applied this way. When you measure a room with a tape measure, you measure
one wall at a time. You discover their lengths are 15 feet and 20 feet. Notice that you used
a tape measure which looks like a number line, but the walls are at right angles to each
other. Two number lines at right angles make a grid. So now you can also figure out how
much carpet the room needs.
15ft^20ft=300ft2
Did you notice that feet got turned into square feet! A length on a tape measure that
looks like a number line, gets turned into an area that looks like carpet. MUD everywhere
means MUltiply and Divide everything because it even makes new things!
NOPE!
-=-
Do I like mud everywhere? NOPE! That is how I
remember what to do with the signs. NOPE stands for
--=+ Negative Odd Positive Even. Translated into English that
---=-
means Negative answers come from an Odd amount of
----=+
negatives in the problem, and Positive answers come
from an even amount of negatives in the problem. I only
-----=- count negatives. When multiplying or dividing you can
------=+
ignore positive signs. They have no effect. For example,
-------=-
-3*-5=15 In the numbers I multiplied, I counted two
negatives, and since two is even, my answer is positive.
The answer is still positive even if the problem is written
this way -+3*-5 or this way -++-3*+--5 Both problems turn out positive because I
ignored + signs and counted an even amount of negatives. Study the examples until you
catch on to the pattern.
-3*+2=-6 -3*-2=+6 +3*-2=-6 +3*+2=+6

If you are a visual person, you will be reminded of what to do with the signs every
time you see the icon. Remember that the numbers you multiply are arrows. So put them
on the grid with their tails at the origin (the intersection in the middle) and going at right
angles to each other. If the rectangle they make goes up to the right or down to the left,
the answer is +, else it is -. Notice that ^ looks like a + sign and that _ looks like a - sign.
Action 6: COLT 
2
COLT stands for Combine Only Like Things (or Terms or Tags).
+1
Add nickels get nickels
Combine same things
get same thing
3
Combining is adding or subtracting, but it is very picky. It won’t add just anything. It
will only add things that are of the same kind. You can add any two numbers but you must
line up their (invisible) decimals so that 1’s add with 1’s and 10’s with 10’s and so forth. If
you have 2 nickels and 3 pennies, you need to change the 2 nickels to 10 cents then add it
with the other 3 cents to get an answer of 13 cents. Nickels and pennies are not like things.
They are not same kinds, so they must be changed into similar kinds. If you can’t make
two different things into the same kind, then you cannot combine them. For example,
2x+3y is stuck. We don’t know what x is or what y is, so we don’t know how to change
them. Therefore, we just have to stop. Don’t make the mistake of accidently multiplying
them. If you answer 6xy, that is correct for multiplication, but not for combining!
When you combine like things you get a like thing, ALWAYS! Nickels add up to nickels,
and quarters add up to quarters, always. After you get a nickel answer you can change it
to dimes, but a nickel problem always give you a nickel answer. Combining x’s gives you
an x.
4x+2y+5x+3y = 9x+5y
7x-3x=4x not 4x2 2y-8y=-6y not -16y2

SSADDL
SSADDL your COLT. Same Signs Add Differents Destroy, Largest: Combining looks
for the LARGEST number, then takes that sign for the answer. Combining looks at the
signs of BOTH numbers, asks if they are the same or different, then decides. If the signs
are both + or both - you will add the numbers to get a larger number (farther from 0). If
the signs are different, + and -, then subtract to get a smaller number (closer to 0).
+6 +6 -6 -6
-2 +2 -2 +2
+4 +8 -8 -4
1) Always write largest number on top
3) Answer sign is Largest sign (top)
Let’s be practical. If you have $2 in your pocket, but owe somebody $3, you are
really $1 in the hole at -1. Notice that 3 was the largest and negative, so it put you in the
hole. Where do you end up if you start on the ground floor of a building, then walk up 3
floors, then walk down 5 floors? 2 floors in the basement. You walked down more than
you walked up, so you finished in the basement. Think of positive numbers as cherries
and negative numbers as Pacmans that eat the cherries. If you have 4 cherries, but 6
Pacmans want to eat, you are going to have two hungry and angry Pacmans leftover, -2.
If you combine cherries with cherries or Pacmans with Pacmans, you have more of the
same. Same Signs Add. If you put cherries with Pacmans, your cherries get destroyed.
Different signs Destroy. But whatever you do, the answer sign always matches the sign of
the Largest number.
Action 7: Show 
This means that you may show or hide invisible objects at any time. For example at
the right end of every whole number is an invisible decimal. Whether you hide it or show
it does not change the value of the number. 1 = 1. = 1.0 = 1.00000 = 0000001.000000
That last 1 looks bigger than the rest, but it is just like a bloated puffer fish, as hollow as all
the useless 0’s. Here is a list of many, but not all, invisible things.
Positive signs: 4 = +4
Multiply by 1: 5 = 5*1
Divide by 1: 3 = 3/1
Add 0: 8 = 8 + 0
Subtract 0: 8 = 8 - 0
Square root: @4 = Ć4
Exponent of 1: 7 = 71
3+x (3+x)
Fraction bar parentheses: x-1 = (x-1)
All of these changes can happen anytime for any reason. Why? They never change the
value of what is already there. Also, since a value change never took place, a counterchange
is not needed. We only changed the looks, not the values. So if it makes your life easier,
show it!
Action 8: Sort 
You may re-arrange objects at any time, except division. The order of combining and
multiplying do not matter, but division order matters. 2/10 is a lot different than 10/2, but
2-10 is the same as -10+2, and 2*10 = 10*2.
In algebra, it is good practice to keep things sorted in alphabetical order. Sort 5y+2x
into 2x+5y. Sort 3b-5c+2a into 2a+3b-5c.
1+2-3+4=-3+2+4+1
8b+2c-4a=-4a+8b+2c
9x+7+5x2=5x2+9x+7
but never sort the division part!
-3-14_7=-14_7-3 You cannot sort -14_7 to 7_-14
Some formulas, like the quadratic formula, require you to have things sorted so that
you put the right numbers in the right places in the formula. Sort 7-2x+3x2 into 3x2-2x+7.
Make a habit of sorting things alphabetically, then by descending order of exponents.
Once again, notice that we changed no values, so no counterchange was made. We
only changed looks.
Action 9: Morph 
The common word for this Action is convert, but morph sounds cooler! Besides it is
just one syllable like all the other actions.
The Morph Action lets you convert an object from one format to another at any time.
This is like one person who wears many masks. Only the looks change, but not the value.
1/2 = 3/6 = 5/10 = 50/100 = .5 = 50%
3 1/4 = 3.25 = 3 2/8 = 13/4 = 325%
5 = 500% = 5/1 = 50/10 = 5 0/1 = 4 1/1
8^100
I think you get the idea. A number
8
can morph from a whole number or
800% 8/1
decimal to a fraction to a mixed number
to a percent to a scientific number to an
algebraic expression. The number never
16
7
really changes. It only changes how it
3
looks.
2
Sometimes Morph is the result of
3
another Action. For example, to Morph
1/2 into 3/6 requires the Shift Action.
8+0i
Action 10: Sub 
This is just like calling in a substitute in a football or basketball or hockey game.
Someone off the bench with the same kind of jersey can sub for someone on the field with
a matching jersey. They are on the same team, so in that sense they are equal and can
be traded for each other. The parallel does not quite hold up all the time because usually
the player off the bench is not as skilled as the starting player on the field, but no parable
is perfect! But in one sense this works, because player A comes off the field because he is
probably tired or can’t do the thing the coach wants done on the next play. So we can say
player B is equal, but better.
Likewise, we make a substitution in some problems because the new object we bring
in is equal, but better. It must be equal, but it also makes things easier.
-3x+6y=11 and x=7
therefore, -3*7+6y=11
So, you may replace object A with object B at any time, if both have equal value.
When object A goes in, all of object B must go out. You never leave part of a player on
the field! For example, 3x+5y=-7 and x=4, therefore we can take x out and put 4 in its
place. 3*4+5y=-7 The wrong way to do the substitution is to leave in the x, like this
3*4x+5y=-7 One way to look at this is that the big equation is the field and the sub
statement is the bench. Coach is telling us to sub x for 4. That means x must come out.
5x2+4x-13
you are also told that x=y+1.
So wrap player with ( ) then sub
5(x)2+4(x)-13
5(y+1)2+4(y+1)-13
Rule Sheet
Understanding and deadlines to get things done and arbitrary requirements of a system
out of our control do not always line up. We also sometimes need a quick reminder of
what to do in a pinch. The Rule Sheet on the next two pages condenses the Actions
and their applications to numbered rules and examples for easy reference. Reinforcing
the rules as well as the Actions with each new problem will help students. Sometimes
understanding leads to concrete achievement and sometimes the performance must
precede understanding.
A printable pdf file on regular letter sized paper is available on the ActionAlgebra.com
website. Print one for each student!

 
 
  
  
   
 
  

  

  

   
   

 
 
  

  
 
      



      



 
    
  
 

      

 
       
     
 
    
 
                 
             
     


 
   
 
    

    
   
      




 
 

 



  

   


 
 

 

 



   



      
 

 




 



  
  
  

 



    
     


 


  

   



 

  


 
 

        
  

 
 
 
  
 


  
    
 
   
 
 

       

 
 
     
    



 
 
 
  

 

  
      
    
       
 
  
196 Action Algebra
Goals & Methods

I have presented to you the mental framework of math. That alone, combined with
almost any curriculum will provide solid understanding for almost all students and help
them meet graduation requirements. But I have more in mind than that. Let me explain
the thinking that led me to my goals and the methods to reach them.
I think it would be good if every student in the world could understand and pass
Algebra II. The level of education and achievement that would entail would be astounding.
The level of personal development and growth in thinking skills would be phenomenal. I
would love to see such a thing happen, but I am also realistic.
I am also a human realizing that everyone else is human with their own unique
strengths and weaknesses, gifts and interests. Is Algebra II really needed by everyone? My
real dream is that our system of education become more like a network of gardens rather
than assembly lines in manufacturing plants. Yet, I am realistic about that, too.
So my goal for this math presentation has been to make arithmetic and algebra as
connected and understandable as possible, so that every teacher and student in their
personal situations can gain as much benefit as possible. Last I checked, understanding
never hurt anyone! It helps relieve the suffering of the non-math types and it helps
accelerate the progress of those with a knack for math.
Encrypted Education
Computer experts tell us that the best way to keep a password secret is to make the
encrypted code look as random as possible. The purpose is to hide the pattern you used
to encode the password. Randomness is the key to encryption, which is the science of
confusion.
Education is the opposite of encryption. Education tries to make things plain. It does
not try to bury or hide information, but tries to make it known to everyone. Therefore,
randomness is the enemy of education. Randomness encrypts, while education makes
things clear and brings them out into the open.
In my experience as a student and then as a teacher for over 20 years, math was mostly
a random presentation. Topics were organized into chapters, but the topics themselves
were mostly disconnected collections of rules and steps. There was no unifying model,
no basic set of principles applied in a systematic way from start to finish. Many students
Goals & Methods 197
and teachers alike see math as a random collection of problems and rules and techniques.
Therefore, to them, math is encrypted. It is locked in a secret code without a key.
What we need is a model for math based on the patterns that repeat themselves and
simplify and connect all the steps and rules. If that model includes all the basic patterns
then it will be the key to a more efficient, understandable, and enjoyable math experience.
Patterns slay the randomness dragons of arbitrary drills and warm fuzzy guesswork. A
model based on patterns is a great need and the true solution for math education.
What Is Understanding?
Understanding is the result of education, which is the opposite of encryption. So
understanding is a connected framework of concepts and practices. Understanding is
“getting the big picture.” It is organized and makes sense. It is a living tree with branches
and leaves, not a pile of dead leaves blowing away in the wind. Therefore, understanding
is not the “do it and forget it” method of training.
While a student needs to learn how to “do it” now, they should also be learning
the underlying concepts and similarities so they can transfer their understanding to new
problems and situations. This book takes both approaches. It teaches the concepts that
explain why, but it also teaches the rules that tell how. And both concepts and rules are
held together in the Action framework.
Purposely, the Action framework is not “pure math” communicated to the logical level
of the university professor. Young students
don’t think in that manner. There is a
logical development, but not in a strictly Which student has the greater chance
formal way like one might find in
of success: the one who tries to
geometry proofs. More often, kids (and
adults) think in analogies. “This is like memorize a collection of 1000 rules
that.” This can be good enough for a or the one who seeks to understand a
while so that a habit can be established, system of 10 Actions?
which lowers stress levels, which then
unblocks the understanding and
connections are made. In short, this book is written for teachers and parents of elementary
and high school students who are not ready at the same time for the same concept, not for
college professors.
Now for a quick note for any professors who may happen to pick up this book. The
vast majority of American students are not graduating from high school with a solid
understanding of the math they “passed.” Before lamenting the lack of “pure math”
198 Action Algebra
students entering college, we first have to increase the quantity and quality of students
graduating from high school. This will increase the pool of college freshmen who can be
taught “pure math,” and if those students have a framework of understanding from which
to work, then the job of the math professor will be much easier and more fruitful. The high
school graduate’s math understanding might not be “perfect,” but it will be correct and
complete. One other note, most students do not go on to math-intensive professions, so
a practical approach is more helpful more often than a theoretical one.
Readiness
Just as important as teaching in a conceptual way is the student’s ability to perceive
concepts. Just because we set a standard for a certain age group does not mean everyone
at that age is ready to comprehend. Students vary widely and even a single student goes
through spurts of slow and rapid growth. Kids are kids, not cars on an assembly line.
Math is mostly an abstract mental framework of dealing with the universe. Most of
math is beyond the young, immature
mind. We will actually get farther
You know what happened when I took the with most students by waiting a few
math books from grade 2 through Algebra years beyond the standard age of 6
1 and tore out all the duplicate lessons? I or 7 to start formal, abstract math
education. Before that time, most
was left with just two years of content! If
children will gain more by putting the
we teach for mastery, then keep students paper and pencil away and doing
thoroughly reviewed, there is plenty of math with real objects, money, and
time for them to learn and understand. large visuals on large whiteboards.
However, I know that proposal is
considered too radical and politically
incorrect in this time of pre-school mania. Therefore, I have tried to structure the math
sequence and strategies to accommodate this force-feeding of young minds capable of
cheerfully memorizing what it does not understand. (How we enjoy the early, easy years
when children live to please and impress adults!) At least I hope the teacher/parent will
understand the concept involved and periodically come back to first principles so that
comprehension will catch up with rote learning.
We as parents have too much anxiety about our young children. What’s the rush?
They are kids only once and when your child reaches the middle grades most parents will
be unable and/or unwilling to be fully involved with him/her. I have seen this over and
over again in families and classrooms and it is really sad. This is one reason I have sought
Goals & Methods 199
ways to shorten the time to learn math. Even if we don’t lessen the time requirements, I
want to help relieve the pressure on the student.
We as teachers have too much pressure to hand out grades, churn the kids through the
system, and make them look good, thereby making us look good. But who really takes the
time to care about the youth, help them to figure out their purpose, plan, and priorities in
life? We enable our youth in their immaturity by constantly telling them what to do, rather
than teaching them why.
We as administrators and policy makers have too much ignorance about what
constitutes true education. We are too focused on keep the money flowing and the gears
of the system of turning. After all, what has “worked” for generations should work for us
if we only do the same thing faster and more intensely!
Sigh. While the wheel of life keeps grinding, the students in the garden grow up
deformed and malnourished. Then we wonder what is wrong with their generation and
why the garden is not green.
What does this have to do with math? Everything! Why and how do we teach what
math to which students?! Motivation is the ignition switch for the engine of the mind.
Arbitrary requirements--no matter how good--only work for little minds until they begin
to understand or sense that they arbitrary. Is it really human and educationally sensible
that everyone do everything at the same time? or is it just arbitrarily convenient? Yes,
tracking helps, but that deals with years, what about from week to week and day to day?
Resources
Action Algebra is more than just this book. To individualize learning as far as practical
and provide a manageable system for the teacher is the other goal. A framework of
understanding must be communicated, practiced, and assessed. Therefore, this book is
just the core of a complete curriculum.
Arithmetic and Algebra are the foundation for word problems, geometry, statistics,
trigonometry, science, and advanced math. Over time, the plan is to extend the thinking
of Action Algebra into all these areas.
Resources such as virtually unlimited worksheets to broaden or advance or review
students at different learning paces are one key tool. One textbook does not fit all. The
worksheets provide more than fill in the blank answers. Multiple choice, true-false, and
answer columns provide test preparation and are easy to grade. Step by step solutions
keyed to Actions are also provided where appropriate.
A short video to explain and demonstrate each worksheet is another needed resource.
Sometimes teachers need to be in five places at once. I wish I had them years ago.
200 Action Algebra
An interactive computer program that does more than drill and reward with game time
is also needed. I envision a program where the student “builds” solutions with “tools” in a
simulation of real life. All of these resources are, or will be, available on the website.
One of the major observations that led me to the development of this approach was
upper grade school students fighting the idea of negative numbers as if they were an evil
impossibility. This is what happens when teachers have never been taught a framework
from which to teach. To “get by” and to get kids through this year’s test, shortcuts are
shortcutted even more and conceptual comprehension is the first item to be jettisoned.
This has a huge effect in later years. At that time, to combat those symptoms, middle grade
teachers hack their own solutions to their own problems and so math education becomes
an incomprehensible mess of rote memorization and a bag of random tricks.
Knowing this cycle will not be broken overnight, if ever, I am creating the resources I
wish I had all the years of my classroom
teaching. Sometimes a student was ready to
What I memorize I soon forget, forge ahead, while others needed more time
but what I understand and review with a topic. One book with only one or two
pages of practice and only one or two
becomes a part of me forever. approaches was not enough.
Some of these resources I was able to create
while still in the classroom and whenever I
had them, they helped. Having different forms of a test not only stopped cheating, it
encouraged many students to try again and better their score and increase their ability. It
helped them overcome their fear of tests, because they ended up taking so many the tests
became very familiar and lost their intimidation. Now that I have multiple choice tests in
my arsenal, my effectiveness is increased to help them conquer standardized tests.
The general strategy is to start with something real and relevant to the student (or
at least visual in some cases) to root the concept in reality. Then the theory is explained
and demonstrated. Plenty of practice and review is the next step until the student feels
confident and accurate. Next, applications such as word problems are a good way to
broaden the understanding and add interesting review.
My goal is always to get the student through the homework as quickly as possible to
the chapter and cumulative reviews (which I have in endless supply). At that point students
often ask for more homework covering particular weaknesses they have discovered. So I
guide them through the chapter, but then they guide themselves (to a large degree) through
test preparation and test re/taking. This is far more esteem and knowledge building then
standing over them with the big stick.
Goals & Methods 201
My Student Is Stuck!
It happens to all of us sooner or later when we learn something new. We hit a plateau.
We get stuck on a level and we can’t seem to advance any higher. What do I do as a
teacher when my student(s) just can’t seem to master a test after re-taking it ten times?
First, think about what you would do if it happened to you as an adult. You would take
a break. You would do something different for a while to get your mind off of it before
attacking it again later. So why not allow your students do the same thing?
But, you say, it is time for math class and everyone needs to do math. I can’t have
everybody doing their own thing at their own time, that would be chaos. Yes, I agree,
especially if the kids have low self-discipline. So what I do is let the student review some
easier math or have them “go sideways” by doing word problems and other applications.
You can do this if you have sufficient resources, like the worksheets. Print them on demand
or have some printed ahead of time.
But just as often, I will record the grades (usually the best 2 or 3 in a series of re-
takes; I never let them take just one) and let them move on. I have discovered that the
next step “seals in” the previous step. It gives the student perspective so they start seeing
the relevance of the previous step. Also, when I later let them return to the original test, it
seems easier to them.
You might be thinking, he allows his students too many re-takes! Because I have the
resources to do it, this is a good thing. Whether they ace the first test or fail five in a row,
they get earnest practice. Homework is often yawned at, but trying to pass a test draws
forth effort and concentration. In the end, I really don’t care how many homework pages
or tests the student did, once they know it, they know it. If their knowledge seems shaky,
that is why I have lots of later review tests they also have to pass. Let’s face it, at can’t do
any worse than the teach, forget, re-teach, forget cycle that is so common.
A true story.
In grade school my teachers sent me to the upper grades when it came time for math.
I enjoyed it and was good at it. But a funny thing happened when I started algebra. All
the x’s and y’s knocked the times table clear out of my head. I could not remember my
multiplication facts. I had to take out paper and pencil every time, instead of just recalling.
After several weeks of that, my times table came back and coexisted peacefully with
algebra, but it was very frustrating until that time. So that experience taught me the value
of repetition, perseverance, and the next step sealing in the previous step. I never forgot
my times table again!
202 Action Algebra
Pre-Formal Math
The best way to prepare concrete thinking children is to use concrete things. (“Concrete”
as in real objects, not “cement!”) Very few children reach abstract conceptualization by
the age of 7, which is the standard age of entry to first grade. Once there, they are made
to sit all day and work with pencil and paper and fine motor movements. Everyone does
the same worksheet at the same time, ready or not. Sure, they are “capable” of doing this,
but in just a few years, or less, they start to lose motivation, hate school, and burn out. It is
because they are doing without really learning. Children are more like flowers in a garden
and less like cars in a factory than we like to admit.
I realize the system will probably never change, but there are things we can do within
the system to make it better for our children
under the ages of 8 to 10. One big contribution
we can make is to replace a portion of the My real dream is that our system
formal teaching we do with pre-formal of education become more like a
teaching. I purposely use the [invented?] word
“pre-formal” instead of “informal.” Informal
network of gardens rather than
gives me the impression of unplanned, assembly lines in factories.
unguided, uncontrolled. That is certainly not
what we want. On the other hand, we want to
reach the child where s/he is at, which is at the concrete, hands-on level. Pre-formal
seems to get at this goal better than the other word.
Therefore, in this section I will give several of many possibilities to engage children
through their natural mode of learning and motivation. It is crucial to keep their motivation
and interest in math as high as possible in the early years, because I have seen hundreds of
times where the middle school years wipe out their early gains. The more we push kids in
the early years the more we lose in the later years. We want to find the right pace for each
child, but in general, too slow is better than too fast and too late is better than too early.
Manipulatives, games, and large visuals tend to help us avoid those errors.
Activities
The first test of readiness is when the child understands the concept of numbers. It is
one thing to recognize two hands and two feet, but they don’t comprehend “two-ness”
until they can set aside two of any object you call for. The objects should be of any size,
shape, color (maybe flavor and smell, also!). You want to verify that they understand two-
ness, three-ness, etc... apart from any other properties.
Goals & Methods 203
Different areas of the brain develop in different ways at different times. Quantity
recognition may come after comparison for some children. By showing them how to
arrange a random pile of objects into a single, straight line, they can then compare the
lengths of the lines they have made to determine which has more and which has less.
They do not need to know how to count or how to name numbers to do this. They are
simply comparing bigger and smaller.
When you think they have mastered both counting and comparing, test them by
having them tell you which line has more objects: a line of 10 golf balls, or a line of 3
inflated balloons.
After basic counting and imprecise comparisons, they should be ready to be introduced
to money. Not only is this an excellent preparation for formal math, but it is a life skill of
great value! The number system with place value can be taught using dollars, dimes, and
pennies. Have your student give you 10 pennies and give them 1 dime in return. Help
them to understand the idea of “packed value” (which leads to place value) in the dime.
Even though it is just one coin, that coin has as much value packed into it as a stack of
10 pennies. Take them to the store and let them buy X pieces of gum using pennies,
then the same number of pieces of gum using dimes. If the clerk can be brought into the
scenario ahead of time, s/he can help add validity and confirmation to your teaching.
Keep emphasizing the importance of pennies, dimes, and dollars as you prepare them
to understand the decimal system. You are teaching them in parables until the necessary
neurons connect to enable them to generalize and transfer the idea of place value to many
other situations. You can use nickels and quarters, also, but explain that they are only
helpers for convenience.
Like five fingers on one hand, nickels can be a bridge to adding up to ten for those
children who get confused by too many items. Two groups of five looks more manageable
than a big group of ten. This actually has merit because many studies have shown our
short term memories are usually in the range of 5 to 7 items.
Remember we are focusing on children of age 7 or so, definitely under 10. So many
of them will be so concrete in their thinking that they will need to count on their fingers or
use objects. This is all right at that stage. I have seen a few algebra students still use their
fingers, but it fades away. So I see little need for setting an arbitrary date when kids must
stop using their fingers.
However, I agree in the long run, that dependency on fingers is not best. To get them
through that stage as quickly as possible, you might try having them count with pennies
and dimes from the very beginning. This involves a little extra work than just tapping
fingers, but the extra work should encourage them to learn to use their heads as soon as
possible.
Money can not only help you teach counting and place value (once the child gets
204 Action Algebra
above 10), but it can easily and naturally show the four basic operations.
Adding is counting one pile of coins, then continuing without starting over at 0 with
another pile of coins for the total or sum of the two piles.
Subtracting can be approached in two ways. After counting the total of a pile, the child
can count backwards with each coin removed. Where the downward count stops is the
number of coins in the pile. (The discard pile can be added back in for verification.)
After taking an amount away from the main pile counting could begin at 0 and go
up to the total of the pile. Continued counting of the discard pile brings them back to the
original total which verifies the subtraction of the discard from the main pile.
Lining up the coins in the pile in number line like fashion prepares students for their
first formal math lessons. Without moving any coins, your fingers could simply touch the
total and the “discarded” coins so they can see the two numbers adding to make the total.
This is also a step up in organized thinking leading to full abstract capabilities.
Multiplying and dividing can be shown by arranging coins in a rectangular grid. A grid
of 3 by 4 pennies shows that 3^4=12 and 4^3=12 and 12_4=3 and 12_3=4. This
method also prepares them for the 2 dimensional graphs with x and y axes so commonly
used in graphing.
The rectangular grid of coins is also a great way to introduce skip counting which is the
prelude to multiples and common multiples so critical to fractions and algebra factoring.
So you see, all the basics of arithmetic can be taught without the rigid scheduling and
confinement of small motor movement worksheets for the entire class. If you periodically
have your students individually explain what they are doing and why it works, you can
achieve almost the same formal results, while maintaining interest and impressing practical,
relevant understanding.
Playing store or bank or Monopoly (my favorite!) can be just playing a game or it can
be quite educational if you participate, guide, challenge, and ask for feedback. Another tip
on teaching through games is a fabulous website called Let’s Play Math! Type this address
into your browser-- http://letsplaymath.net
Whiteboards and Vinyl

One technique that highly recommend to teachers and parents at all levels is the
personal use of large whiteboards. If you only have one, let the students do their work on
it and then write down or tell you their answer. There is something about the large motor
movements that do not take energy away from many students like fine motor movements
do. Believe it or not, I discovered this trick during one of my pre-calculus classes with high
school seniors.
Goals & Methods 205
There was particularly nervous girl who just had to get everything right or her life
would fall apart, so it seemed. Sitting down next to her and explaining and demonstrating
and then having her show it back to me just was not working. Finally, in desperation
(didn’t someone say desperation is the mother of invention, or something like that?!) I told
her to take my marker and do it on the whiteboard while I remained seated.
Lo and behold, she breezed through the problem with no mistakes! I had her try a new
problem and she succeeded there, also. I tried it with other students and difficulties and
found the time to understanding and mastery was greatly reduced. It was not a panacea
for every case, but average progress was always increased, doubled or tripled even!
Years later I got the idea of cutting a smooth, white showerboard from the hardware
store into 8.5x11 sections and drilling holes for a 3-ring binder. This idea helped a few
students, but not like a large whiteboard. So now, to increase access, I use whiteboards
about 2’x2’ or larger. These are not really portable by the student, but they can be stored
easily in a classroom.
My latest improvement on this idea is thick, clear PVC vinyl from a fabric store. It is
commonly used to cover dining tables. I can roll it up and take it with me. I can also put
large graph paper behind it and write on the plastic and keep my paper re-usable at the
same time.
206 Action Algebra
Grade Sheets
A regular grade book with one sheet per class did not work for me when I wanted to
individualize my math class. It could not handle variations in the versions or numbers
of assignments the students did. Incompletes or blanks just scattered information over
several sheets in the book and it was hard to see what a student was doing. Software was
no better with its limited screens designed like a gradebook.
What I really needed was a sheet for each student. The next three pages show what I
came up with for each class. The overall progress on the sheet determines the grade.
Each class worked out nicely with four chapters each followed by a fifth column for
the final test itself. Abbr. is the abbreviation you create to label an assignment. Acronyms
based on first letters in the title usually work well. Vers. is the three letter version code in
the upper right of each sheet.
Homework can be tracked as well, but I just gave a standard percentage of the grade
when the student showed me completed homework for the chapter. Most of the grading
was done by the students individually or in a group led by me. It was the tests that I was
mainly after.
I wanted to know what test a student took and when. I did not have all the unlimited
worksheets like I do now and so I had to be more careful how soon a student repeated a
test. I found about ten versions was usually enough. Faster students don't need that many
before moving on, and slower students can't remember all the problems and answers even
if they do repeat one they already had.
I usually required three 80's or two 90's before letting a student move on to the next
chapter. Although, since I was always constrained by a school imposed curriculum, I could
not always enforce that policy. My usual compromise was to move the group as fast as
possible through the chapter to leave as much time as possible for testing at the end.
The importance and power of tests cannot be over emphasized. These really woke
up the student and caused him/her to ask questions. Especially when they saw they were
almost to the next level, they wanted to try harder. That is the point at which I could get
overwhelmed as a teacher. There were not enough of me to go around! That is why I
make all the videos.
Progress once in a while cannot proceed in a straight line from chapter to chapter. Let
the student go ahead or sideways with applications for a while, then bring them back.
Before deciding, it helps to check verbally to see if the hang-up is one of understanding
or one of inaccuracy in the writing of the mechanical details.
Student:
Numbers Combine Multiply Divide ARITHMETIC
Date Abbr. Vers. Score Date Abbr. Vers. Score Date Abbr. Vers. Score Date Abbr. Vers. Score Date Abbr. Vers. Score
Student:
Numbers Combine Multiply Divide ARITHMETIC
Student:
Polynomials Linear Equations Quadratic Equations Other Equations ALGEBRA
About the author
Ed Lyons has taught math, computers, and other subjects at the
middle and high school levels for over 20 years. He is an avid backpacker,
skier, and nature photographer, but his favorite experiences are when his
students’ eyes light up when they learn something new.
Lyons earned his Bachelors degree in Secondary Education and his
Masters degree in E-learning Education. Out of the regular classroom,
he is now a speaker, consultant, and programmer turning the Action
Algebra curriculum into an interactive computer experience. His contact
information is on his website at ActionAlgebra.com

Action Algebra

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A Model for Math

and a Handbook for

Royal Lyon Publications

Copyright ©2010 by Ed Lyons

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Printed in the United States of America

First printing, June 2010

Corrections and additions are posted at our website:

Arithmetic to Algebra In Just Ten Minutes!

Value Change Needs Counterchange

First Calculate the Complicated

Changing Looks does not Change Value

term + term term + term

factor ^ factor factor ^ factor factor ^ factor factor ^ factor

6^9 8xy -2(5+6x)

3*8-5*7 6x+0-24y 9-7(4+9y)

1) Benefits of a Number System Line

2) Translating Numbers and Words

3) Numbers are arrows

+4 is greater than -8,

7.25 1.33... 0.09 .1

8.9% 6% 9 1/5% 30.18%

6) Parts of compound numbers

Frontnum Tag Unit

7) Adding on a Number Line 

Arrows lined up in the same direction, head to tail, is adding

8) Subtracting on a Number Line 

Subtracting lines up arrows in opposite directions, head to tail

9) Adding Stacked Numbers 

10) Subtracting Stacked Numbers 

-19 -59 -269

11) Combining Stacked Integers 

+7 +7 -7 -7 +15 +15 -15 -15

1) Always write largest number on top

one process of combining that ALWAYS works, even in algebra.

1) Find sign of largest number

12) Series of Signs 

13) Combining Series of Signs 

4--7 = +4+7 -=- NOPE--

14) Combining Big Integers 

4--7 = +4+7 = +11

-8+-4 = -8-4 = -12

11+(+2) = +11+2 = +13

15) Combining Decimals 

16) Combining Tags 

-400. -28. +5.10 -75.30

17) Multiplying on a Grid 

we use multiplication, then we know

about is whether I should multiply or combine. My question is answered as soon as I

Multiplying lets us work with more than one kind

What dividing really is

18) Learning the Times Table 

19) Learning Multiples 

2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, ...

5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, ...

7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, ...

11, 22, 33, 44, 55, 66, ...

20) Negative Numbers on a Grid 

-6+(-4) becomes -6-4

-2+5 = -7 but -2*+5 = -10

+1-8 = -7 but +1^-8 = -8

-3-6 = -9 but -3(-6) = -18

-4+9 = +5 but (-4)(+9) = -36

38-57 6x+0-24y 9-7(4+9y)

1 5 3 12 54 3*3 2+20+9 31

4^1059^107 2^105 7^10-8

3^1057^102 = 37105102 = 21^107 3^x57^x2 = 37x5x2 = 21^x7