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The oral cavity or mouth is responsible for the intake of food. It is lined
by a stratified squamous oral mucosa with keratin covering those areas
subject to significant abrasion, such as the tongue, hard palate and roof of the
mouth. Mastication refers to the mechanical breakdown of food by chewing
and chopping actions of the teeth. The tongue, a strong muscular organ,
manipulates the food bolus to come in contact with the teeth. It is also the
sensing organ of the mouth for touch, temperature and taste using its
specialized sensors known as papillae.
Insalivation refers to the mixing of the oral cavity contents with salivary gland
secretions. The mucin (a glycoprotein) in saliva acts as a lubricant. The oral
cavity also plays a limited role in the digestion of carbohydrates. The enzyme
serum amylase, a component of saliva, starts the process of digestion of
complex carbohydrates. The final function of the oral cavity is absorption of
small molecules such as glucose and water, across the mucosa. From the
mouth, food passes through the pharynx and esophagus via the action of
swallowing.
Salivary Glands
Three pairs of salivary glands communicate with the oral cavity. Each
is a complex gland with numerous acini lined by secretory epithelium. The
acini secrete their contents into specialized ducts. Each gland is divided into
smaller segments called lobes. Salivation occurs in response to the taste,
smell or even appearance of food. This occurs due to nerve signals that tell
the salivary glands to secrete saliva to prepare and moisten the mouth. Each
pair of salivary glands secretes saliva with slightly different compositions.
Parotids: The parotid glands are large, irregular shaped glands located under
the skin on the side of the face. They secrete 25% of saliva. They are situated
below the zygomatic arch (cheekbone) and cover part of the mandible (lower
jaw bone). An enlarged parotid gland can be easier felt when one clenches
their teeth. The parotids produce a watery secretion, which is also rich in
proteins. Immunoglobins are secreted help to fight microorganisms and a-
amylase proteins start to break down complex carbohydrates.
Submandibular: The submandibular glands secrete 70% of the saliva in the
mouth. They are found in the floor of the mouth, in a groove along the inner
surface of the mandible. These glands produce a more viscid (thick)
secretion, rich in mucin and with a smaller amount of protein. Mucin is a
glycoprotein that acts as a lubricant.
Sublingual: The sublinguals are the smallest salivary glands, covered by a
thin layer of tissue at the floor of the mouth. They produce approximately 5%
of the saliva and their secretions are very sticky due to the large concentration
of mucin. The main functions are to provide buffers and lubrication.
Esophagus
Stomach
Small Intestine
Large Intestine
The large intestine is horseshoe shaped and extends around the small
intestine like a frame. It consists of the appendix, caecum, ascending,
transverse, descending and sigmoid colon, and the rectum. It has a length of
approximately 1.5m and a width of 7.5cm. The caecum is the expanded
pouch that receives material from the ileum and starts to compress food
products into faecal material. Food then travels along the colon. The wall of
the colon is made up of several pouches (haustra) that are held under tension
by three thick bands of muscle (taenia coli).
The rectum is the final 15cm of the large intestine. It expands to hold fecal
matter before it passes through the anorectal canal to the anus. Thick bands
of muscle, known as sphincters, control the passage of feces. The mucosa of
the large intestine lacks villi seen in the small intestine. The mucosal surface
is flat with several deep intestinal glands. Numerous goblet cells line the
glands that secrete mucous to lubricate fecal matter as it solidifies. The
functions of the large intestine can be summarized as:
1. The accumulation of unabsorbed material to form feces.
2. Some digestion by bacteria. The bacteria are responsible for the formation
of intestinal gas.
3. Reabsorption of water, salts, sugar and vitamins.
Liver
Gall Bladder
Pancreas