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Chapter 2 Solutions

Engineering and Chemical Thermodynamics

Wyatt Tenhaeff
Milo Koretsky

Department of Chemical Engineering


Oregon State University

koretsm@engr.orst.edu
2.1
There are many possible solutions to this problem. Assumptions must be made to solve the
problem. One solution is as follows. First, assume that half of a kilogram is absorbed by the
towel when you dry yourself. In other words, let

mH 2 O  0.5 kg

Assume that the pressure is constant at 1.01 bar during the drying process. Performing an energy
balance and neglecting potential and kinetic energy effects reveals

qˆ  hˆ

Refer to the development of Equation 2.57 in the text to see how this result is achieved. To find
the minimum energy required for drying the towel, assume that the temperature of the towel
remains constant at T  25 º C  298.15 K . In the drying process, the absorbed water is
vaporized into steam. Therefore, the expression for heat is

qˆ  hˆH
v
O
 hˆH
l
O
2 2

where is hˆH
v
O
is the specific enthalpy of water vapor at P  1.01 bar and T  298.15 K and
2

hˆ l
H 2O
is the specific enthalpy of liquid water at P  1.01 bar and T  298.15 K . A hypothetical
path must be used to calculate the change in enthalpy. Refer to the diagram below

P
liquid hˆ vapor
1 atm
P = 1 [atm]
hˆ1 hˆ3

P sat
3.17 kPa
hˆ2

liquid vapor

By adding up each step of the hypothetical path, the expression for heat is

qˆ  h1  h2  h3



 hˆ l ,sat 25 º C  hˆ l
H 2O  25 º C, 1.01 bar  hˆHv,satO 25 º C  hˆHl ,satO 25 º C
H 2O

 hˆHv O 25 º C, 1.01 bar   hˆHv ,sat


O 25 º C 
2 2

2 2



2



However, the calculation of heat can be simplified by treating the water vapor as an ideal gas,
which is a reasonable assumption at low pressure. The enthalpies of ideal gases depend on
temperature only. Therefore, the enthalpy of the vapor change due to the pressure change is
zero. Furthermore, enthalpy is weakly dependent on pressure in liquids. The leg of the
hypothetical path containing the pressure change of the liquid can be neglected. This leaves

qˆ  hˆH
v
2O
25 º C, 3.17 kPa   hˆHl 2 O 25 º C, 3.17 kPa 

From the steam tables:

 kJ 
hˆH
v, sat
O
 2547 .2  kg  (sat. H2O vapor at 25 ºC)
2
 
 kJ 
hˆH
l , sat
O
 104.87  kg  (sat. H2O liquid at 25 ºC)
2
 

which upon substitution gives

 kJ 
q̂  2442.3  
 kg 

Therefore,

  kJ  
Q  0.5 kg 2442.3     1221.2 kJ 
  kg  

To find the efficiency of the drying process, assume the dryer draws 30 A at 208 V and takes 20
minutes (1200 s) to dry the towel. From the definition of electrical work,

W  IVt  30 A208 V1200 s  7488 kJ

Therefore, the efficiency is

Q   1221.2 kJ  
  100 %   100 %  16.3%
W   7488 kJ  

There are a number of ways to improve the drying process. A few are listed below.
 Dry the towel outside in the sun.
 Use a smaller volume dryer so that less air needs to be heated.
 Dry more than one towel at a time since one towel can’t absorb all of the available
heat. With more towels, more of the heat will be utilized.

3
2.3
In answering this question, we must distinguish between potential energy and internal energy.
The potential energy of a system is the energy the macroscopic system, as a whole, contains
relative to position. The internal energy represents the energy of the individual atoms and
molecules in the system, which can have contributions from both molecular kinetic energy and
molecular potential energy. Consider the compression of a spring from an initial uncompressed
state as shown below.

Since it requires energy to compress the spring, we know that some kind of energy must be
stored within the spring. Since this change in energy can be attributed to a change of the
macroscopic position of the system and is not related to changes on the molecular scale, we
determine the form of energy to be potential energy. In this case, the spring’s tendency to restore
its original shape is the driving force that is analogous to the gravity for gravitational potential
energy.

This argument can be enhanced by the form of the expression that the increased energy takes. If
we consider the spring as the system, the energy it acquires in a reversible, compression from its
initial uncompressed state may be obtained from an energy balance. Assuming the process is
adiabatic, we obtain:

E  Q  W  W

We have left the energy in terms of the total energy, E. The work can be obtained by integrating
the force over the distance of the compression:

1
W   F  dx   kxdx  kx2
2
Hence:

1 2
E  kx
2

We see that the increase in energy depends on macroscopic position through the term x.

It should be noted that there is a school of thought that assigns this increased energy to internal
energy. This approach is all right as long as it is consistently done throughout the energy
balances on systems containing springs.

4
2.4
For the first situation, let the rubber band represent the system. In the second situation, the gas is
the system. If heat transfer, potential and kinetic energy effects are assumed negligible, the
energy balance becomes

U  W

Since work must be done on the rubber band to stretch it, the value of the work is positive. From
the energy balance, the change in internal energy is positive, which means that the temperature
of the system rises.

When a gas expands in a piston-cylinder assembly, the system must do work to expand against
the piston and atmosphere. Therefore, the value of work is negative, so the change in internal
energy is negative. Hence, the temperature decreases.

In analogy to the spring in Problem 2.3, it can be argued that some of the work imparted into the
rubber band goes to increase its potential energy; however, a part of it goes into stretching the
polymer molecules which make up the rubber band, and the qualitative argument given above
still is valid.

5
2.5
To explain this phenomenon, you must realize that the water droplet is heated from the bottom.
At sufficiently high temperatures, a portion of the water droplet is instantly vaporized. The
water vapor forms an insulation layer between the skillet and the water droplet. At low
temperatures, the insulating layer of water vapor does not form. The transfer of heat is slower
through a gas than a liquid, so it takes longer for the water to evaporate at higher temperatures.

6
2.6

Apartment Surr.
HOT
System

Fridge

+
W -

If the entire apartment is treated as the system, then only the energy flowing across the apartment
boundaries (apartment walls) is of concern. In other words, the energy flowing into or out of the
refrigerator is not explicitly accounted for in the energy balance because it is within the system.
By neglecting kinetic and potential energy effects, the energy balance becomes

U  Q  W

The Q term represents the heat from outside passing through the apartment’s walls. The W term
represents the electrical energy that must be supplied to operate the refrigerator.

To determine whether opening the refrigerator door is a good idea, the energy balance with the
door open should be compared to the energy balance with the door closed. In both situations, Q
is approximately the same. However, the values of W will be different. With the door open,
more electrical energy must be supplied to the refrigerator to compensate for heat loss to the
apartment interior. Therefore,

Wajar  Wshut

where the subscript “ajar” refers the situation where the door is open and the subscript “shut”
refers to the situation where the door is closed. Since,

Qajar  Qshut
U ajar  Qajar  Wajar  U shut  Qshut  Wshut
 Tajar  Tshut

The refrigerator door should remain closed.

7
2.7
The two cases are depicted below.

Let’s consider the property changes in your house between the following states. State 1, when
you leave in the morning, and state, the state of your home after you have returned home and
heated it to the same temperature as when you left. Since P and T are identical for states 1 and 2,
the state of the system is the same and U must be zero, so

U  Q  W  0

or

Q W

where -Q is the total heat that escaped between state 1 and state 2 and W is the total work that
must be delivered to the heater. The case where more heat escapes will require more work and
result in higher energy bills. When the heater is on during the day, the temperature in the system
is greater than when it is left off. Since heat transfer is driven by difference in temperature, the
heat transfer rate is greater, and W will be greater. Hence, it is cheaper to leave the heater off
when you are gone.

8
2.8
The amount of work done at constant pressure can be calculated by applying Equation 2.57

H  Q

Hence,

H  Q  mhˆ

where the specific internal energy is used in anticipation of obtaining data from the steam tables.
The mass can be found from the known volume, as follows:

  3 
1L 0.001 m 
  L  
 1.0 kg 
V
m 
vˆ   m3  
 0.0010  
 
  kg  

As in Example 2.2, we use values from the saturated steam tables at the same temperature for
subcooled water at 1 atm. The specific enthalpy is found from values in Appendix B.1:
       kJ 
 kg 
 kJ 
 kg 
 kJ 
uˆ  uˆl ,2 at 100 o C  uˆl ,1 at 25 o C  419.02    104.87    314.15  
 kg 
Solve for heat:
  kJ  
Q  muˆ  1.0 kg 314.05     314.15 kJ 
  kg  
and heat rate:

314.15 kJ 
 0.52 kW 
Q
Q  
 60 s 
t
10 min. 
 min 

This value is the equivalent of five strong light bulbs.

9
2.9

(a)
From Steam Tables:

 kJ 
uˆ1  2967.8   (100 kPa, 400 ºC)
 kg 
 kJ 
uˆ 2  2659.8   (50 kPa, 200 ºC)
 kg 

 kJ 
uˆ  uˆ 2  uˆ1  308.0  
 kg 

(b)
From Equations 2.53 and 2.63

T2 T2
u  u 2  u1   cv dT   cP  R dT
T1 T1

From Appendix A.2

cP  R( A  BT  CT 2  DT 2  ET 3 )

 
T2
u  R  A  BT  CT 2  DT  2  ET 3  1 dT
T1

Integrating

 B C 1 1 E 
u  R ( A  1)(T2  T1 )  (T2 2  T12 )  (T23  T13 )  D(  )  (T2 4  T14 )
 2 3 T2 T1 4 

The following values were found in Table A.2.1

A  3.470
B  1.45  10  3
C0
D  1.21 10 4
E0

Substituting these values and using

10
 J 
R  8.314 
 mol  K 
T1  (400  273.15 K)  673.15 K
T2  (200  273.15 K)  473.15 K

provides

 J 
u  5551 
 mol 
  J   1[mol H 2 O]  1000 g  1 kJ   kJ 
uˆ    5551        308.1  
  mol   18.0148 [g H 2 O]  1 kg  1000 J   kg 

The values in parts (a) and (b) agree very well. The answer from part (a) will serve as the basis
for calculating the percent difference since steam table data should be more accurate.

 308  308.1
% Difference  100 %  0.03%
 308.0

11
2.10
(a)
Referring to the energy balance for closed systems where kinetic and potential energy are
neglected, Equation 2.30 states

U  Q  W

(b)
Since internal energy is a function of temperature only for an ideal gas (Equation 2.4) and the
process is isothermal

U  0

According to Equation 2.77

P  P 
W  nRT ln  2   n1RT1 ln  2 
 P1   P1 

From the ideal gas law:

n1RT1  P1V1
P 
W  P1V1 ln  2 
 P1 

Substitution of the values from the problem statement yields

    5 bar 
W  8  105 Pa 2.5  10  3 m 3 ln  
 8 bar 
W  940 J 

The energy balance is

0 J  Q W
 Q  940 J 

(c)
Since the process is adiabatic

Q0

The energy balance reduces to

U  W

12
The system must do work on the surroundings to expand. Therefore, the work will be negative
and

U  0
T2
U  n  cv T  0
T1
 T2  T1
T2 will be less than 30 ºC

13
2.11

(a)
(i).
1 Path B
3

P [bar]

Pa
th
2

A
2
1

0.01 0.02 0.03


3
v [m /mol]

(ii).
Since internal energy is a function of temperature only for an ideal gas (Equation 2.4) and the
process is isothermal

u  0

Equation 2.48 states that enthalpy is a function of temperature only for an ideal gas. Therefore,

h  0

Performing an energy balance and neglecting potential and kinetic energy produces

u  q  w  0

For an isothermal, adiabatic process, Equation 2.77 states

P 
W  nRT ln  2 
 P1 

or

W P 
w  RT ln  2 
n  P1 

Substituting the values from the problem statement gives

14
  J   1 bar 
w   8.314   (88  273.15) K ln  
  mol  K    3 bar 
 J 
w  3299 
 mol 

Using the energy balance above

 J 
q  w  3299 
 mol 

(b)
(i). See path on diagram in part (a)

(ii).
Since the overall process is isothermal and u and h are state functions

u  0
h  0

The definition of work is

w   PE dv

During the constant volume part of the process, no work is done. The work must be solved for
the constant pressure step. Since it is constant pressure, the above equation simplifies to

w   PE  dv   PE (v2  v1 )

The ideal gas law can be used to solve for v 2 and v1

  J  mol  
 8.314  (88  273.15) K 
RT2   K    m3 
v2    0.030  
P2 1 10 5 Pa  mol 
  J  mol  
 8.314  (88  273.15) K 
RT1   K    m3 
v1    0.010  
P1 3  10 5 Pa  mol 

Substituting in these values and realizing that PE  P1 since the process is isobaric produces

15
  m3   m3  
w  (3  105 Pa) 0.030    0.010  
 
  mol   mol  
 J 
w  6000 
 mol 

Performing an energy balance and neglecting potential and kinetic energy results in

u  q  w  0
 J 
 q  w  6000 
 mol 

16
2.12
First, perform an energy balance. No work is done, and the kinetic and potential energies can be
neglected. The energy balance reduces to

U  Q

We can use Equation 2.53 to get

T2
Q  n  cv dT
T1

which can be rewritten as

T2
Q  n  c P dT
T1

since the aluminum is a solid. Using the atomic mass of aluminum we find

5 kg
n  185.3 mol
 kg 
0.02698 
 mol 

Upon substitution of known values and heat capacity data from Table A.2.3, we get

  J 
 
323.15 K
Q  185.3 mol  8.314     2.486  1.49  10 3 T dT
  mol  K  294.15 K
Q  131.61 kJ

17
2.13
First, start with the energy balance. Potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected.
Therefore, the energy balance becomes

U  Q  W

The value of the work will be used to obtain the final temperature. The definition of work
(Equation 2.7) is

V2
W    PE dV
V1

Since the piston expands at constant pressure, the above relationship becomes

W   PE V2  V1 

From the steam tables

 m3 
vˆ1  0.02641   (10 MPa, 400 ºC)
 kg 


 m3  
V1  m1v1  (3 kg) 0.02641 
ˆ

   0.07923 m

3
 
  kg  

Now V2 and v2 are found as follows

V2  V1 
W
PE
 0.07923 m3 
 748740 J
6
2.0  10 Pa
 0.4536 m3  
V
vˆ2  2 
0.4536 m3    m3 
 0.1512  
m2 3 kg   kg 

Since v̂2 and P2 are known, state 2 is constrained. From the steam tables:

  3 
T2  400 º C  20 bar, 0.1512  m  
 
  kg  

Now U will be evaluated, which is necessary for calculating Q . From the steam tables:

18
 kJ    3 
uˆ 2  2945.2    20 bar, 0.1512  m  
 kg   
  kg  
 kJ 
uˆ1  2832.4   100 bar, 400 º C
 kg 

  kJ   kJ  
U  m1 uˆ 2  uˆ1   3 kg 2945.2    2832.4     338.4 kJ 
  kg   kg  

Substituting the values of U and W into the energy equation allows calculation of Q

Q  U  W
Q  338400 [J]   748740 J  1.09 106 J

19
2.14
In a reversible process, the system is never out of equilibrium by more than an infinitesimal
amount. In this process the gas is initially at 2 bar, and it expands against a constant pressure of
1 bar. Therefore, a finite mechanical driving force exists, and the process is irreversible.

To solve for the final temperature of the system, the energy balance will be written. The piston-
cylinder assembly is well-insulated, so the process can be assumed adiabatic. Furthermore,
potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. The energy balance simplifies to

U  W

Conservation of mass requires

n1  n2
Let n  n1  n2

The above energy balance can be rewritten as

T2 V2
n  cv dT    PE dV
T1 V1

Since cv and PE are constant:

ncv T2  T1    PE V2  V1 

V2 and T1 can be rewritten using the ideal gas law

nRT2
V2 
P2
PV
T1  1 1
nR

Substituting these expressions into the energy balance, realizing that PE  P2 , and simplifying
the equation gives

 5 
 P2  P1 V1
T2  
2 
7
nR
2

Using the following values

20
P1  2 bar 
P2  1 bar 
V1  10 L
n  1.0 mol 
 L  bar 
R  0.08314 
 mol  K 

results in

T2  206 K

To find the value for work, the energy balance can be used

W  U  ncv T2  T1 

Before the work can be calculated, T1 must be calculated

PV
T1  1 1 
2 bar 10 L  241 K 
1 mol 0.08314  L  bar  
nR
  mol  K  

Using the values shown above

W  727 J

21
2.15
The maximum work can be obtained through a reversible expansion of the gas in the piston.
Refer to Section 2.3 for a discussion of reversible processes. The problem states that the piston
assembly is well-insulated, so the heat transfer contribution to the energy balance can be
neglected, in addition to potential and kinetic energy effects. The energy balance reduces to

U  W

In this problem, the process is a reversible, adiabatic expansion. For this type of process,
Equation 2.90 states

W
1
P2V2  P1V1 
k 1

From the problem statement (refer to problem 2.13),

P1  2 bar 
V1  10 L
P2  1 bar 

To calculate W, V2 must be found. For adiabatic, reversible processes, the following


relationship (Equation 2.89) holds:

PV k  const

where k is defined in the text. Therefore,

1
P k
V2   1 V1k 
 P2 

c 7
Noting that k  P  and substituting the proper values provides
cv 5

V2  16.4 L

Now all of the needed values are available for calculating the work.

W  9 L  bar   900 J

From the above energy balance,

U  900 J

22
The change in internal energy can also be written according to Equation 2.53:

T2
U  n  cv dT
T1

Since cv is constant, the integrated form of the above expression is

5 
U  n R T2  T1 
2 

Using the ideal gas law and knowledge of P1 and V1 ,

T1  240.6 K

and

T2  197.3 K

The temperature is lower because more work is performed during the reversible expansion.
Review the energy balance. As more work is performed, the cooler the gas will become.

23
2.16
Since the vessel is insulated, the rate of heat transfer can be assumed to be negligible.
Furthermore, no work is done on the system and potential and kinetic energy effects can be
neglected. Therefore, the energy balance becomes

uˆ  0

or
uˆ2  uˆ1

From the steam tables

 kJ 
uˆ1  2619.2   (200 bar, 400 ºC)
 kg 
 kJ 
 uˆ 2  2619.2  
 kg 

The values of û 2 and P2 constrain the system. The temperature can be found from the steam
tables using linear interpolation:

  kJ  
T2  327.5 º C 100 bar , uˆ 2  2619.2   
 
  kg  

Also at this state,

 m3 
vˆ2  0.02012  
 kg 

Therefore,



 m3  
Vvessel  mv2  1.0 kg  0.02012     0.020 m

 
3

  kg  

24
2.17

Let the entire tank represent the system. Since no heat or work crosses the system boundaries,
and potential and kinetic energies effects are neglected, the energy balance is

u  0

Since the tank contains an ideal gas

T2  T1  0
T2  T1  300 K

The final pressure can be found using a combination of the ideal gas law and conservation of
mass.

T1 T
 2
P1V1 P2V2

We also know

V2  2V1

Therefore,

P
P2  1  5 bar
2

25
2.18
(a)
First, as always, simplify the energy balance. Potential and kinetic energy effects can be
neglected. Therefore, the energy balance is

U  Q  W

Since, this system contains water, we can the use the steam tables. Enough thermodynamic
properties are known to constrain the initial state, but only one thermodynamic property is
known for the final state: the pressure. Therefore, the pressure-volume relationship will be used
to find the specific volume of the final state. Since the specific volume is equal to the molar
volume multiplied by the molecular weight and the molecular weight is constant, the given
expression can be written

Pvˆ1.5  const

This equation can be used to solve for v̂2 .

1
 P  1.5
vˆ2    1 vˆ11.5 
  P2  

Using

P1  20 bar 

vˆ1 
 
1.0 m 3  m3 
 0.1  
10 kg   kg 
P2  100 bar 

gives

 m3 
vˆ2  0.0342  
 kg 

Now that the final state is constrained, the steam tables can be used to find the specific internal
energy and temperature.

T2  524.7 K 
 kJ 
uˆ 2  3094.6  
 kg 

To solve for the work, refer to the definition (Equation 2.7).

26
V2
W    PE dV
V1
or
vˆ 2
wˆ    PE dvˆ
vˆ1

Since the process is reversible, the external pressure must never differ from the internal pressure
by more than an infinitesimal amount. Therefore, an expression for the pressure must be
developed. From the relationship in the problem statement,

Pvˆ1.5  P1vˆ11.5  const

Therefore, the expression for work becomes

vˆ 2 vˆ 2
P1vˆ11.5 1
wˆ    dvˆ   P1vˆ11.5  vˆ1.5 dvˆ
ˆ1.5
vˆ1 v vˆ1

Integration and substitution of proper values provides

 bar  m 3   kJ 
wˆ  2.840    284  
 kg   kg 
  kJ  
W  10 kg 284     2840 kJ 
  kg  

A graphical solution is given below:

27
To solve for Q , U must first be found, then the energy balance can be used.

  kJ   kJ  
U  muˆ 2  uˆ1   10 kg 3094.6    2602.8     4918 kJ 
  kg   kg  

Now Q can be found,

Q  U  W  4918 kJ  2840 kJ  2078 kJ

(b)
Since the final state is the same as in Part (a), U remains the same because it is a state function.
The energy balance is also the same, but the calculation of work changes. The pressure from the
weight of the large block and the piston must equal the final pressure of the system since
mechanical equilibrium is reached. The calculation of work becomes:

vˆ 2
W  mPE  dvˆ
vˆ1

All of the values are known since they are the same as in Part (a), but the following relationship
should be noted

PE  P2

Substituting the appropriate values results in

W  6580 kJ

Again we can represent this process graphically:

28
Now Q can be solved.

Q  U  W  4918 kJ  6580 kJ  1662 kJ

(c)
This part asks us to design a process based on what we learned in Parts (a) and (b). Indeed, as is
characteristic of design problems there are many possible alternative solutions. We first refer to
the energy balance. The value of heat transfer will be zero when

U  W

For the same initial and final states as in Parts (a) and (b),

W  U  4918 kJ

There are many processed we can construct that give this value of work. We show two
alternatives which we could use:

Design 1:
If the answers to Part (a) and Part (b) are referred to, one can see that two steps can be used: a
reversible compression followed by an irreversible compression. Let the subscript “i" represent
the intermediate state where the process switches from a reversible process to an irreversible
process. The equation for the work then becomes

 vˆi 
dvˆ  4918000 J 
 1
W  m  P2 (vˆ2  vˆi )  P1vˆ1 
1.5
 1 .5 
 vˆ1 vˆ 

Substituting in known values (be sure to use consistent units) allows calculation of v̂i :

 m3 
vˆi  0.0781  
 kg 

The pressure can be calculated for this state using the expression from part (a) and substituting
the necessary values.

1.5
v 
Pi  P1  1 
 vi 
Pi  29.0 bar 

29
Now that both Pi and v̂i are known, the process can be plotted on a P-v graph, as follows:

Design 2:
In an alternative design, we can use two irreversible processes. First we drop an intermediate
weight on the piston to compress it to an intermediate state. This step is followed by a step
similar to Part (b) where we drop the remaining mass to lead to 100 bar external pressure. In this
case, we again must find the intermediate state. Writing the equation for work:

W  m Pi (vˆi  vˆ1 )  P2 (vˆ2  vˆi )  4918000 J

However, we again have the relationship:

1.5
v 
Pi  P1  1 
 vi 

Substitution gives one equation with one unknown vi:

  v1 
1.5

W  m  P1   (vˆi  vˆ1 )  P2 (vˆ2  vˆi )  4918000 J 
  vi  

There are two possible values vi to the above equation.

Solution A:

 m3 
vˆi  0.043  
 kg 

30
which gives

Pi  70.8 bar 

This solution is graphically shown below:

Solution B

 m3 
vˆi  0.0762  
 kg 

which gives

Pi  30.0 bar 

This solution is graphically shown below:

31
2.19

(a)
Force balance to find k:

Fspring=kx Fatm=PatmA

Piston

Fmass=mg
Fgas=PgasA

mg
Pga s  Patm  A  kx
A

since V=Ax
mg
Pgas  Patm  A  kV
A2

since V is negative. Now solve:

2  105 Pa  1 105 Pa 
2040 kg 9.81 m/s 2   k 0.02 m3 
0.1 m 2 0.1 m2 2
N
 k  5.0110 4  
m

Work can be found graphically (see P-V plot) or analytically as follows: Substituting the
expression in the force balance above:

 mg dV
W A   Patm  A  kV
A 2 
Vf V f
 mg  kV
W A    Patm  dV   d V 
Vi
 A 
Vi A 2

 5

W A  3.00 10 Pa 0.03  0.05 m  2

 
5.0110 4 N/m  0.02 m 3  0 2 
2
 
0.1 m 2
2 
  2
 

32
W A  5 103 J

0.5kJ
-W = 10squares square = 5 kJ
3
k V
P [bar]
2
A

2
mg
2 A
Work

1
1

Patm

0.01 0.03 0.05


V [m 3]

(b)
You need to find how far the spring extends in the intermediate (int) position. Assume
PVn=const (other assumptions are o.k, such as an isothermal process, and will change the answer
slightly). Since you know P and V for each state in Part (a), you can calculate n.

n n
 V 0.03 m3 
 V i  10 5 Pa
Pi
or   n  1.35
Pf  f  2 10 5 Pa 0.05 m3 

Now using the force balance

mg
Pgas,int  Patm  A  kV
A2

with the above equation yields:

 P mg k Vint  V i 
V n
Pint  Pi V i atm  A 
int A2

This last equality represents 1 equation. and 1 unknown (we know k), which gives

Vint  0.0385 m3

Work can be found graphically (see P-V plot) or analytically using:

33
V int Vf
W B   PgasdV   PgasdV
Vi Vint

expanding as in Part (a)

V
int Vint f V V if
 
W B   2 10 N2   3 10 m2 
5 6 N 5 N 6 N
dV   5 10 Vd  V   dV   5 10 5 V d V 
m  m
5
m
Vi V i Vint Vint

Therefore,

WB  3.85 kJ

just like we got graphically.

3
P [bar]

2 mg
2 A

mg
A

1
1
Work
Patm

0.01 0.03 0.05


V [m 3]

(c)
The least amount of work is required by adding differential amounts of mass to the piston. This
is a reversible compression. For our assumption that PVn = const, we have the following
expression:

Vf Vf
const
WC , rev   Pgas dV   V 1.35 dV
Vi Vi

Calculate the constant from the initial state

34
 
const.  1105 Pa 0.05 m3 1.35  1.75 103
Therefore,

.03
3 dV 0.35 .03
 2800 J
3
WC,rev   1.75 10   1.7510
0.35 V
V 1.35 .05
.05

35
2.20
Before this problem is solved, a few words must be said about the notation used. The system
was initially broken up into two parts: the constant volume container and the constant pressure
piston-cylinder assembly. The subscript “1” refers to the constant volume container, “2” refers
the piston-cylinder assembly. “i" denotes the initial state before the valve is opened, and “f”
denotes the final state.

To begin the solution, the mass of water present in each part of the system will be calculated.
The mass will be conserved during the expansion process. Since the water in the rigid tank is
saturated and is in equilibrium with the constant temperature surroundings (200 ºC), the water is
constrained to a specific state. From the steam tables,

 kJ 
vˆ1l, i  0.001156  
 kg 
 kJ 
vˆ1v, i  0.12736  
 kg 
 kJ 
uˆ1l, i  850.64   (Sat. water at 200 ºC)
 kg 
 kJ 
uˆ1v, i  2595.3  
 kg 
P sat  1553.8 kPa 

Knowledge of the quality of the water and the overall volume of the rigid container can be used
to calculate the mass present in the container.

   
V1  0.05m1 vˆ1l,i  0.95m1 vˆ1v,i

 
Using the values from the steam table and V1  0.5 m3 provides

m1  4.13 kg

Using the water quality specification,

m1v  0.95m1  3.92 kg 


m1l  0.05m1  0.207 kg 

For the piston-cylinder assembly, both P and T are known. From the steam tables

36
 m3 
ˆv2, i  0.35202  
 kg  (600 kPa, 200 ºC)
 kJ 
uˆ 2, i  2638.9  
 kg 

Enough information is available to calculate the mass of water in the piston assembly.

m2  2  0.284 kg
V
vˆ2

Now that the initial state has been characterized, the final state of the system must be determined.
It helps to consider what physically happens when the valve is opened. The initial pressure of
the rigid tank is 1553.8 kPa. When the valve is opened, the water will rush out of the rigid tank
and into the cylinder until equilibrium is reached. Since the pressure of the surroundings is
constant at 600 kPa and the surroundings represent a large temperature bath at 200 ºC, the final
temperature and pressure of the entire system will match the surroundings’. In other words,

 kJ 
uˆ f  uˆ 2, i  2638.9   (600 kPa, 200 ºC)
 kg 

Thus, the change in internal energy is given by

U  (m2  m1v,i  m1l,i )uˆ f  m2uˆ2,i  m1v,i uˆ1v,i  m1l,i uˆ1l,i

Substituting the appropriate values reveals

U  541.0 kJ

To calculate the work, we realize the gas is expanding against a constant pressure of 600 kPa
(weight of the piston was assumed negligible). From Equation 2.7,

Vf
W   PE  dV   PE (V f  Vi )
Vi

where

PE  600000 Pa 
 
V f  (m2  m1v,i  m1l,i )vˆ2,i  1.55 m 3

   
Vi  0.1 m 3  0.5 m 3  0.6 m 3  

37
Note: vˆ2, i was used to calculate V f because the temperature and pressure are the same
for the final state of the entire system and the initial state of the piston-cylinder assembly.

The value of W can now be evaluated.

W  570 kJ

The energy balance is used to obtain Q.

Q  U  W  541.0 kJ   570 kJ  1111 kJ

38
2.21
A sketch of the process follows:

The initial states are constrained. Using the steam tables, we get the following:

State 1,A State 1,B


p 10 [bar] 20 [bar]
T 700 [oC] 250 [oC]
v 0.44779 [m3/kg] 0.11144 [m3/kg]
u 3475.35 [kJ/kg] 2679.58 [kJ/kg]
V 0.01 m3 0.05 m3
V
m 0.11 [kg] 0.090 [kg]
v

All the properties in the final state are equal. We need two properties to constrain the system:
We can find the specific volume since we know the total volume and the mass:

v2 
V1, A  V1, B

 
0.06 m 3  m3 
 0.30  
m1, A  m1, B 0.20 kg   kg 

We can also find the internal energy of state 2. Since the tank is well insulated, Q=0. Since it is
rigid, W=0. An energy balance gives:

U  Q W  0
Thus,

U 2 U1  m1,A u1, A  m1,Bu1,B


or

U 2 m1, Au1, A  m1, B u1, B  kJ 


u2    3121  
m2 m1, A  m1, B  kg 

We have constrained the system with u2 and v2, and can find the other properties from the steam
Tables. Very close to

T2 = 500 [oC] and P2 = 1200 [kPa]

Thus,

39
  m3  
V2, A  v2, A m2, A   0.30   0.09 kg   0.267 m and
 
  kg  

x  0.267  0.1  0.167 m

40
2.22
We start by defining the system as a bubble of vapor rising through the can. We assume the
initial temperature of the soda is 5 oC. Soda is usually consumed cold; did you use a reasonable
estimate for T1? A schematic of the process gives:

where the initial state is labeled state 1, and the final state is labeled state 2. To find the final
temperature, we perform an energy balance on the system, where the mass of the system (CO2 in
the bubble) remains constant. Assuming the process is adiabatic and potential and kinetic energy
effects are negligible, the energy balance is

u  w

Expressions for work and internal energy can be substituted to provide

cv T2  T1    PE dv   PE v2  v1 

where cv = cP – R. Since CO2 is assumed an ideal gas, the expression can be rewritten as

T T   PT 
cv T2  T1    PE R  2  1    R T2  2 1 
 P2 P1   P1 

where the equation was simplified since the final pressure, P2, is equal to the external pressure,
PE. Simplifying, we get:

 R  RP 
T2 1    T1 1  2 
 cv   cv P1 
or

 RP  c
T2  T1 1  2  v  237 K
 cv P1  c P

41
2.23
The required amount of work is calculated as follows:

W  PV

The initial volume is zero, and the final volume is calculated as follows:

V  πr 3  π 0.5 ft 3  1.54 ft 3  0.0436 m3


4 4
3 3

Assuming that the pressure is 1 atm, we calculate that

  
W  1.01325 105 Pa 0.0436 m3  0 m3  4417 J

This doesn’t account for all of the work because work is required to stretch the rubber that the
balloon is made of.

42
2.24

(a)
Since the water is at its critical point, the system is constrained to a specific temperature,
pressure, and molar volume. From Appendix B.1

 m3 
vˆc  0.003155  
 kg 

Therefore,

m
V

 
0.01 m 3
 3.17 kg 
vˆc  m3 
0.003155  
 kg 

(b)
The quality of the water is defined as the percentage of the water that is vapor. The total volume
of the vessel can be found using specific volumes as follows

V  ml vˆl  mv vˆ v  1  x mvˆl  xm vˆ v

where x is the quality of the water. To solve for the quality, realize that starting with saturated
water at a pressure of 1 bar constrains the water. From the steam tables,

 m3 
vˆ v  1.6940  
 kg 
(sat. H2O at P = 1 bar)
 m3 
ˆv l  0.001043  
 kg 

Now the quality can be found

x  0.00125

Thus, the quality of the water is 0.125%.

(c)
To determine the required heat input, perform an energy balance. Potential and kinetic energy
effects can be neglected, and no work is done. Therefore,

U  Q

43
where


U  muˆ 2  1  x muˆ1l  xm uˆ1v 
From the steam tables

 kJ 
uˆ 2  2029.58   (H2O at its critical point)
 kg 
l
 m3 
u1  417.33 
ˆ 
 kg 
(sat. H2O at P=1 bar)
 m3 
uˆ1v  2506.1  
 kg 

Evaluation of the expression reveals

U  5102.6 kJ  5.10 106 J

44
2.25

(a)
Consider the air in ChE Hall to be the system. The system is constant volume, and potential and
kinetic energy effects can be neglected. Furthermore, disregard the work. The energy balance is

du
 q
dt

since the temperature of the system changes over time. Using the given expression for heat
transfer and the definition of dU , the expression becomes

cv dT
 hT  Tsurr 
dt

We used a negative sign since heat transfer occurs from the system to the surroundings. If cv is
assumed constant, integration provides

cv ln T  Tsurr   ht  C

where C is the integration constant. Therefore,

 h 
 t
 c 
T  Tsurr  C1e  v 

where C1 is a constant. Examining this equation reveals that the temperature is an exponential
function of time. Since the temperature is decreasing, we know that the plot of temperature vs.
time shows exponential decay.

T0
Temperature

Tsurr
time

45
(b)
Let time equal zero at 6 PM, when the steam is shut off. At 6 PM, the temperature of the hall is
22 ºC. Therefore,

 h 
 t
 c 
T  Tsurr  C1e  v 

22 º C  2 º C  C1e (0)
C1  20 º C

After 10 PM, ( t  4 hr ), the temperature is 12 ºC.

 h 
  ( 4 hr) 
12 º C  2 º C  20 º Ce
 c 
 v 

h
  0.173 hr -1
cv

At 6 AM, t  12 hr . Substitution of this value into the expression for temperature results in

T  4.5 º C

46
2.26
The gas leaving the tank does flow work as it exits the valve. This work decreases the internal
energy of the gas – lowering the temperature. During this process, water from the atmosphere
will become supersaturated and condense. When the temperature drops below the freezing point
of water, the water forms a solid.

Attractive interactions between the compressed gas molecules can also contribute to this
phenomena, i.e., it takes energy to pull the molecules apart as they escape; we will learn more of
these interactions in Chapter 4.

47
2.27
Mass balance

dm
 m in  m out  m in
dt

Separating variables and integrating:

m2 t

 dm   m in dt
m1 0

or
t
m2  m1   m in dt
0

Energy balance
Since the potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected, the open system, unsteady state
energy balance is

 dU 
    m out hout   m in hin  Q  W s
 dt  sys out in

The process is adiabatic and no shaft work is done. Furthermore, there is only one inlet stream
and not outlet stream. Therefore, the energy balance simplifies to

 dU 
   m in hin
 dt  sys

The following math is performed

U2 t t

 dU   m in hin dt  hin  m in dt
U1 0 0

U 2  U 1  m2 uˆ 2  m1uˆ1  m2  m1 hˆin

where the results of the mass balance were used. Both m2 and m1 can be calculated by dividing
the tank volume by the specific volume

48
V
m2 
vˆ2
V
m1 
vˆ1

Substitution of these relationships and simplification results in

uˆ2  hin  uˆ1  hin 


 0
vˆ2 vˆ1

From the steam tables:

 kJ 
uˆ1  2583.6  
 kg 
(sat. H2O vapor at 1 MPa)
 m3 
vˆ1  0.19444  
 kg 

 kJ 
hˆin  3177.2   (6 MPa, 400 ºC)
 kg 

There are still two unknowns for this one equation, but the specific volume and internal energy
are coupled to each other. To solve this problem, guess a temperature and then find the
corresponding volume and internal energy values in the steam tables at 6 MPa. The correct
temperature is the one where the above relationship holds.

T  600 º C : Expression = 4427.6


T  500 º C : Expression = 1375.9
T  450 º C : Expression = -558.6

Interpolation between 500 ºC and 450 ºC reveals that the final temperature is

T2  464.4 º C

49
2.28
We can pick room temperature to be 295 K

Tin  T1  295 K

Mass balance

dn
 n in  n out  n in
dt

Separating variables and integrating:

n2 t

 dn   nin dt
n1 0

or
t
n2  n1   nin dt
0

Energy balance
Neglecting ke and pe, he unsteady energy balance, written in molar units is written as:

 dU 
   nin hin  nout hout  Q  W
 dt  sys
The terms associated with flow out, heat and work are zero.

 dU 
   nin hin
 dt  sys

Integrating both sides with respect to time from the initial state where the pressure is 10 bar to
the final state when the tank is at a pressure of 50 bar gives:

U2 t t

 dU   ninhindt  hin  nindt


U1 0 0

since the enthalpy of the inlet stream remains constant throughout the process. Integrating and
using the mass balance above:

n2u2  n1u1  n2  n1 hin

50
Now we do some math:

n2u2  n1u1  n2  n1 hin

n2 u2  hin   n1 u1  hin 

By the definition of h

hin  uin  Pinvin  uin  RTin  u1  RT1

so

n2 u2  u1   n2 RT1  n1u1  u1   n1R T1

n2cv T2  T1   n2 RT1  n1RT1

3
Since cv  c P  R  R
2

3
n2 T2  T1  n2T1  n1T1
2

or
3n2T2  5n2T1  2n1T1

dividing by n1:

n n
3 2 T2  5 2 T1  2T1
n1 n1

Using the ideal gas law:

n2 P2T1

n1 P1T2

so
P T  P T 
3 2 1 T2  5 2 1 T1  2T1
 P1T2   P1T2 

or

51
P T 
5 2 1 
T2   P1   434 [K]
  P2  
3   2
  P1  

(b) Closed system

u  q  w  q

uˆ 
cv
T2  T1   5R T2  T1   28.9  kJ 
MW 2MW  kg 

 kJ 
q  28.9  
 kg 

(c) P2T2  P3T3


P3  2 2  34 bar 
PT
T3

52
2.29
Mass balance

dn
 n in  n out  n in
dt

Separating variables and integrating:

n2 t

 dn   nin dt
n1  0 0

or
t
n2   nin dt
0

Energy balance
Neglecting ke and pe, the unsteady energy balance, in molar units, is written as:

 dU 
   nin hin  nouthout  Q  W
 dt  sys

The terms associated with flow out and heat are zero.

 dU 
   nin hin  W
 dt  sys

Integrating both sides with respect to time from the empty initial state to the final state gives:

U2 t t t

 dU   nin hin dt   W dt  hin  nin dt  W  hin n2  W


U1 0 0 0

since the enthalpy of the inlet stream remains constant throughout the process. The work is
given by:

W  n2 Pext (v2  v1 )  n2 Pext v2

53
n2u2  n2 hin  Pext v2 

Rearranging,

u2  hin  Pext v2  uin  Pinvin  Pext v2

u2  uin  Pinvin  Pext v2

P T
cv T2  Tin   RTin  R ext 2
P2
so

T2 
cv  R  Tin  333 K 
 P 
 cv  ext R 
 P2 

54
2.30
valve maintains
pressure in system
constant

v
T1 = 200 oC
x1 = 0.4
V = 0.01 m3

Mass balance

dm
 m in  m out  m out
dt

Separating variables and integrating:

m2 t

 dm   m outdt
m1 0

or
t
m2  m1    m outdt
0

Energy balance

 dU 
   m outhˆout  Q
 dt  sys

Integrating

 
m2 uˆ 2 t t t

 dU    m outhˆout  Q dt  hˆout  m outdt   Q dt


m1uˆ1 0 0 0

Substituting in the mass balance and solving for Q

Q  m2uˆ2  m1uˆ1  m2  m1 hˆout

55
We can look up property data for state 1 and state 2 from the steam tables:

 m3 
vˆ1  (1  x)vˆ f  xvˆg  0.6  .001  0.4  0.1274  0.051  
 kg 
 m3 
vˆ2  0.1274  
 kg 

So the mass in each state is:

m1 
V1

 
0.01 m3
 0.196 kg 
vˆ1  m3 
0.051  
 kg 

m2 
V2

 
0.01 m3
 0.0785 kg 
vˆ2  m3 
0.1274  
 kg 

m2  m1  0.1175 kg

And for energy and enthalpy

 kJ 
uˆ1  (1  x)uˆ f  xuˆ g  0.6  850.64  0.4  2597.5  1549  
 kg 

 kJ 
uˆ2  2595.3  
 kg 

 kJ 
hˆout  2793.2  
 kg 

Solving for heat, we get

Q  m2uˆ2  m1uˆ1  m2  m1 hˆout  228 kJ

56
2.31
Consider the tank as the system.

Mass balance

dm
 m in  m out  m in
dt

Separating variables and integrating:

m2 t

 dm   m in dt
m1 0

or
t
m2  m1   m in dt
0

Energy balance
Since the potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected, the open system, unsteady state
energy balance is

 dU 
    m out hout   m in hin  Q  W s
 dt  sys out in

The process is adiabatic and no shaft work is done. Furthermore, there is only one inlet stream
and not outlet stream. Therefore, the energy balance simplifies to

 dU 
   m in hin
 dt  sys

The following math is performed

U2 t t

 dU   m
U1  0 0
h dt  hin  m in dt
in in
0

U 2  m2 uˆ 2  m2 hˆin

where the results of the mass balance were used. Thus,

uˆ 2  hˆin

From the steam tables

57
 kJ 
uˆ 2  3632.5   (9 MPa, 800 ºC)
 kg 

so

 kJ 
hˆin  3632.5  
 kg 

We can use the value of hin and the fact that the steam in the pipe is at 9 MPa to find the
temperature.

Tin  600 º C

58
2.32

(a)
First, the energy balance must be developed. Since the problem asks how much energy is stored
in the battery after 10 hours of operation, the process is not steady-state. Let the battery be the
system. Potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. Furthermore, heating of the
battery as it is charged can be ignored. The energy balance is

 dU 
   Q  W s
 dt  sys

No shaft work is performed, but electrical is supplied to the battery, which must be accounted for
in W s . The value of Q is given explicitly in the problem statement. Both of these values remain
constant over time, so integration provides


U  Q  W s t 
From the problem statement

W s  5 kW 
Q  1 kW 
t  36000 s

Substituting these values allows the calculation of the amount of energy stored:

U  144,000 kJ  144 MJ

(b)
To calculate the velocity of the falling water, an energy balance must be developed with the
water passing through the electricity generator (probably a turbine) as the system, where the

water enters with a velocity V1 and leaves with a negligible velocity, which will be approximated
as 0. Assume that potential energy changes can be neglected. Furthermore, assume that the
temperature of the water does not change in the process, so the change in internal energy is zero.
Also, view the process as adiabatic. The energy balance reduces to

E K  W river

where W river is the power of the flowing water. The actual power being provided by the stream
can be calculated using the efficiency information. Let  represent the efficiency.

59
W
  s
Wriver
W 5 kW 
W river  s   10 kW 
 0.5

The value of W river should be negative since the water is supplying work that is stored electrical
energy. Therefore, the energy balance becomes

E K  10000 W

This expression can be rewritten as


1 2 2
2

m V2 V1  10000 W

From the problem statement and the assumptions made,

 kg 
m  200  
 s 
 m
V2  0  
s

Therefore,

 m
V1  10  
s

There are a number of reasons for the low conversion efficiency. A possible potential energy
loss inherent in the design of the energy conversion apparatus decreases the efficiency. Heat is
lost to the surroundings during conversion. Some of the energy is also lost due to friction (drag)
effects.

60
2.33
Considering the turbine to be the system, rearrangement of the steady-state, open system energy
balance provides

 nout (h  ek  e p )out   nin (h  ek  e p )in  Q  W s


out in

Performing a mass balance reveals

nin  n1  nout  n 2

Assuming the rate of heat transfer and potential energy effects are negligible and realizing that
there is one inlet and one outlet allows the simplification of the above equation to

W s  n 2 h2  h1   eK , 2  eK ,1 

h2  h1  can be rewritten using Equations 2.58 and Appendix A.2

h2  h1    c p dT  R  A  BT  CT 2  DT  2  ET 3 dT
T2

T1

 
Since the quantity ek ,2  ek ,1 is multiplied by n , it is rewritten as follows for dimensional
homogeneity

ek ,2 
 2 2
 ek ,1   ( MW ) air V2  V1
1
2

To solve for n , the ideal gas law is used

P2V2  n 2 RT21
P V
n 2  2 2
RT2

To solve for the volumetric flow rate, the fluid velocity must be multiplied by the cross-sectional
area

 D2 2V2 
V2  
 

 4 

The energy balance is now

61
 D 2V   T2 
 

Ws 
P2 
RT2 
2 2  
4   

R A  BT  CT 2
 DT 2
 ET3
dT
 1

 2

( MW )   2 2
air 2  V1
V 


 T1  
Substituting values from Table A.2.1 and the problem statement results in

W  4.84 106 [W]  -4.84 [MW]

62
2.34
First, a sketch of the process is useful:

30 bar 20 bar

100 oC 150 oC

To find the heat in we will apply the 1st law. Assuming steady state, the open system energy
balance with one stream in and one stream out can be written:

0  n h1  h2   Q

which upon rearranging is:

Q
 h2  h1
n

Thus this problem reduces to finding the change in the thermodynamic property, enthalpy from
the inlet to the outlet. We know 2 intensive properties at both the inlet and outlet so the values
for the other properties (like enthalpy!) are already constrained. From Table A.2.1, we have an
expression for the ideal gas heat capacity:

cp
 1.424  14.394 10  3 T  4.392 10  6 T 2
R

with T in (K). Since this expression is limited to ideal gases any change in temperature must be
under ideal conditions. From the definition of heat capacity:

 
T2
Q
 h2  h1   1.424  14.394 10  3 T  4.392 10  6 T 2 dT
n
T1

By integrating and substituting the temperatures, we obtain:

Q  J 
 5590 
n  mol 

63
2.35
A schematic of the process follows:

To solve for W s / n we need a first law balance. With negligible eK and eP, the 1st law for a
steady state process becomes:

0  n h1  h2   Q  W s

If heat transfer is negligible,

W s
 h
n

We can calculate the change in enthalpy from ideal gas heat capacity data provided in the
Appendix.

 
T2 T2
W s
 h   c p dT R  1.213  28.785  10  3 T  8.824 10  6 T 2 dT
n
T1 T1

Integrate and evaluate:

W s  J 
 5358 
n  mol 

64
2.36

(a)
First start with the energy balance. Nothing is mentioned about shaft work, so the term can be
eliminated from the energy balance. The potential and kinetic energy effects can also be
neglected. Since there is one inlet and one outlet, the energy balance reduces to

Q  n 2 h2  n1h1

A mass balance shows

n 2  n1

so the energy balance reduces to

Q  n1 h2  h1 

Using the expressions from Appendix A.1, the energy balance becomes

 
T2
Q  n1R  A  BT  CT 2  DT  2  ET 3 dT
T1

Using

A  3.376
B  0.557  10  3
C 0
D  0.031 105
E 0
 J 
R  8.314 
 mol  K 
 mol 
n1  20 
 s 
T1  373.15 K 
T2  773.15 K 

gives

Q  245063 W  245.1 kW

65
(b)
To answer this question, think about the structure of n-hexane and carbon monoxide. N-hexane
is composed of 20 atoms, but carbon monoxide has two. One would expect the heat capacity to
be greater for n-hexane since there are more modes for molecular kinetic energy (translational,
kinetic, and vibrational). Because the heat capacity is greater and the rate of heat transfer is the
same, the final temperature will be less.

66
2.37
First start with the energy balance around the nozzle. Assume that heat transfer and potential
energy effects are negligible. The shaft work term is also zero. Therefore, the energy balance
reduces to

n2 (h  eK ) 2  n1 (h  eK )1  0

A mass balance shows

n1  n 2

On a mass basis, the energy balance is


1  
hˆ2  hˆ1  eˆK ,1  eˆK ,2  V12  V2 2
2

Since the steam outlet velocity is much greater than the velocity of the inlet, the above
expression is approximately equal to

 
1 
hˆ2  hˆ1   V2 2
2

The change in enthalpy can be calculated using the steam tables.

 J 
h1  2827.9 103   (10 bar, 200 ºC)
 kg 
 J 
h2  2675.5 103   (sat. H2O(v) at 100 kPa)
 kg 

Therefore,

 m
V2  552  
s

To solve for the area, the following relationship is used



AV2
m 
v̂2

From the steam tables

67
 m3 
ˆv2  1.6940  
 kg 

Now all but one variable is known.

 
A  3.07 10 3 m 2

68
2.38
First start with the energy balance around the nozzle. Assume that heat transfer and potential
energy effects are negligible. The shaft work term is also zero. Therefore, the energy balance
reduces to

n2 (h  ek ) 2  n1 (h  ek )1  0

The molar flow rates can be eliminated from the expression since they are equal. Realizing that
eK ,2  eK ,1 since the velocity of the exit stream is much larger than the velocity of the inlet
stream simplifies the energy balance to

h2  h1  ek ,2

Using Appendix A.2 and the definition of kinetic energy

 
T2
1 
h2  h1  R  A  BT  CT 2  DT  2  ET 3 dT   ( MW ) C3 H 8 V22
2
T1

From Table A.2.1

A  1.213
B  28.785  10  3
C  8.824  10  6
D0
E0

It is also important that the units for the molecular weight and universal gas constant are
consistent. The following values were used

 J 
R  8.314 
 mol  K 
 kg 
( MW ) C3H8  0.0441 
 mol 

Integration of the above expression and then solving for T2 provides

T2  419.2 K

69
2.39
First start an energy balance around the diffuser. Assume that heat transfer and potential energy
effects are negligible. The shaft work term is also zero. The energy balance reduces to

n2 (h  ek ) 2  n1 (h  ek )1  0

A mass balance reveals

n1  n 2

The molar flow rates can be eliminated from the expression. Using the definitions of enthalpy
and the kinetic energy, the equation can be rewritten as

 
T2
1  2 2
 c P dT  
2
( MW ) air V2  V1
T1

The temperature and velocity of the outlet stream are unknown, so another equation is needed to
solve this problem. From the conservation of mass,

   
 
P1V1 P1 A1V1 P2 A2V2
 
T1 T1 T2

where A2, the cross-sectional area of the diffuser outlet, is twice the area of the inlet. Therefore,

 1  P  T  
V2   1  2 V1
2  P2  T1 

Using Appendix A.2 and the above expression, the energy balance becomes

       2  
 
T2
2 1 1 P T
R  A  BT  CT  DT 2
 ET dT   ( MW ) air    1  2 V1   V12 
3
2   2  P2  T1   
T1  

Substituting values from the problem statement provides an equation with one unknown:

T2  381 K

Therefore,

 1  1 bar  381 K  m


V2    300 m/s   111  
2  1.5 bar  343.15 K  s

70
2.40
To find the minimum power required for the compressor, one must look at a situation where all
of the power is used to raise the internal energy of the air. None of the power is lost to the
surroundings and the potential and kinetic energy effects must be neglected. Therefore, the
energy balance becomes

0  n1h1  n2 h2  W s

Performing a mass balance reveals

n1  n 2

The energy balance reduces to

W s  n1 h2  h1 

Using Equation 2.58 and Appendix A.2, the equation becomes

 
T2
W s  n1R  A  BT  CT 2  DT  2  ET 3 dT
T1

Table A.2.1 and the problem statement provide the following values

A  3.355
B  0.575  10 3
C 0
D  1600
E0
 mol 
n1  50 
 s 
T1  300 K

To find the work, we still need T2. We need to pick a reasonable process to estimate T2. Since
the heat flow is zero for this open system problem, we choose an adiabatic, reversible piston
situation. For this situation,

PV k  const.

Since we are assuming the air behaves ideally, we can rewrite the equation as

71
k k
 n RT   n RT 
P1  1 1   P2  2 2 
 P1   P2 
P11 k T1k  P21 k T2k

Substituting values from the problem statement, we obtain

1 7 / 5  5/7
7 / 5 1bar 

T2  300 K    579 K
 10 bar 1 7 / 5 

Substitute this value into the expression for the work and evaluate:

W s  417.4 kW

72
2.41

(a)
Perform a mass balance:

n1  n 2  nout

Apply the ideal gas law:

P1V1 P2V2
  n out
RT1 RT2

Substitute values from the problem statement:

1105 5 103   2 105 2.5 103   nout


8.314373.15 8.314293.15
nout  0.366 mol/s 

(b)
No work is done on the system, and we can neglect potential and kinetic energy effects. We will
assume the process is also adiabatic. The energy balance reduces to

0   nin hin   n out hout


in out
nout hout  n1h1  n 2 h2   n1 hout  h1   n 2 hout  h2   0

We can calculate the enthalpy difference from the given ideal heat capacity:

 3.267  5.324  10   3.267  5.324  10 


Tout Tout
3 3
n1R T dT  n 2 R T dT  0
373.15 293.15

Again, we must calculate the molar flow rates from the ideal gas law. Upon substitution and
evaluation, we obtain

Tout  329 K

73
2.42

(a)
Since the temperature, pressure, and volumetric flow rate are given, the molar flow rate is
constrained by the ideal gas law.

  
Note: 1.67 10 8 m3 /s  1 cm 3 / min 
n 
 
PV 1.0135  10 5 Pa 1.67  10 8 m 3 /s

 
 7.45  10 7 mol/s 
RT 8.314 J/mol  K273.15 K 
To recap, we have shown

1 SCCM   7.45 10 7 mol/s 

(b)
Assumptions: N2 is an ideal gas
All power supplied by the power supply is transferred to the N2
Uniform temperature radially throughout sensor tube
Kinetic and potential energy effects negligible in energy balance

Let x represent the fraction of N2 diverted to the sensor tube, and n s represent the molar flow
rate through the sensor tube. Therefore, the total molar flow rate, ntotal , is
n
ntotal  s
x

We can use temperature and heat load information from the sensor tube to find the molar flow
rate through the sensor tube. First, perform an energy balance for the sensor tube:

H  n s hout  hin   Q

The enthalpy can be calculated with heat capacity data. Therefore,

Q
n s 
T2

 cP dT
T1

Now, we can calculate the total molar flow rate.

74
Q
ntotal 
T2
x  c P dT
T1

To find the flow rate in standard cubic centimeters per minute, apply the conversion factor found
in Part (a)

Q 
 1 SCCM  

vtotal (SCCM ) 
T2  7.45 10  7 mol/s  
 
x  c P dT
T1

(c)
To find the correction factor for SiH4, re-derive the expression for flow rate for SiH4 and then
divide it by the expression for N2 for the same power input, temperatures, and fraction of gas
diverted to the sensor tube.

Q 
 1 SCCM  

T2  7.45  10  7 mol/s   T2
 
x  c P, SiH 4 dT  c P, N 2
dT
vtotal, SiH 4 T1 T1
Factor   
vtotal, N 2 Q 
 1 SCCM  

T2
T2  7.45  10  7 mol/s  
 
 c P, SiH 4
dT
x  c P, N 2 dT T1
T1

If we assume that heat capacities are constant, the conversion factor simplifies:

c P, N 2
Factor 
c P, SiH 4

Using the values in Appendix A.2.2 at 298 K, we get

Factor  0.67

75
2.43

(a)
It takes more energy to raise the temperature of a gas in a constant pressure cylinder. In both
cases the internal energy of the gas must be increased. In the constant pressure cylinder work,
Pv work must also be supplied to expand the volume against the surrounding’s pressure. This is
not required with a constant volume.

(b)
As you perspire, sweat evaporates from your body. This process requires latent heat which cools
you. When the water content of the environment is greater, there is less evaporation; therefore,
this effect is diminished and you do not feel as comfortable.

76
2.44
From the steam tables at 10 kPa:

T(K) h
323.15 2592.6
h vs. T
373.15 2687.5
423.15 2783 60 00
473.15 2879.5 y = 0.000 3x
2
+ 1.624 1x + 203 5.7
50 00 2
523.15 2977.3 R =1

40 00
573.15 3076.5
673.15 3279.5 enthalpy, h 30 00

773.15 3489 S erie s1


20 00
P ol y. (Se ri es 1)
873.15 3705.4
10 00
973.15 3928.7
1073.15 4159.1 0
0 50 0 10 00 15 00 20 00
1173.15 4396.4
T
1273.15 4640.6
1373.15 4891.2
1473.15 5147.8
1573.15 5409.7

 dh   kJ   J 
cP     1.6241  0.0006624T  kg  K   3.516  0.001434T R  mol  K 
 dT  P    

Now compare the above values to those in Appendix A.2.

A B
Steam Tables 3.516 0.001434
Appendix A 3.470 0.001450
% difference 1.3 1.4

77
2.45
For throttling devices, potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. Furthermore, the
process is adiabatic and no shaft work is performed. Therefore, the energy balance for one inlet
and one outlet is simplified to

n1h1  n 2 h2

which is equivalent to

 1hˆ1  m
m  2 hˆ2

Since mass is conserved

hˆ1  m 2 hˆ2

From the steam tables:

 kJ 
hˆ1  3398.3   (8 MPa, 500 ºC)
 kg 
 kJ 
 hˆ2  3398.3  
 kg 

Now that we know û 2 and P2 , T2 is constrained. Linear interpolation of steam table data gives

T2  457 º C

78
2.46

(a)
An expression for work in a reversible, isothermal process was developed in Section 2.7.
Equation 2.77 is

P 
W  nRT ln  2 
 P1 

Therefore,

P 
w  RT ln  2 
 P1 

Evaluating the expression with

 J 
R  8.314 
 mol  K 
T  300 K 
P2  100 kPa 
P1  500 kPa 

gives

 J 
w  4014  
 kg 

(b)
Equation 2.90 states

w
R
T2  T1 
k 1

Since the gas is monatomic

5
cP   R
2
3
cv    R
2

and

79
5
k
3

T2 can be calculated by applying the polytropic relation derived for adiabatic expansions. From
Equation 2.89

PV k  const
 Pv k  const

By application of the ideal gas law

RT
v
P
Since R is a constant, substitution of the expression for P into the polytropic relation results in

P 1 k T k  const
 P11 k T 1 k  P2 1 k T2 k

This relation can be used to solve for T2 .

T2  157.6 K

Now that T2 is known, value of work can be solved.

 J 
w  1775.9  
 kg 

80
2.47

(a)
The change in internal energy and enthalpy can be calculated using

hˆ  hˆ l 1 atm, 100 º C  hˆ l 1 atm, 0 º C


uˆ  uˆ l 1 atm, 100 º C  uˆ l 1 atm, 0 º C

We would like to calculate these values using the steam tables; however, the appendices don’t
contain steam table data for liquid water at 0.0 ºC and 1 atm. However, information is provided
for water at 0.01 ºC and 0.6113 kPa. Since the enthalpy and internal energy of liquid water is
essentially independent of pressure in this pressure and temperature range, we use the steam
table in the following way

 kJ 
hˆ l 1 atm, 100 º C  419.02  
 kg 
 kJ 
hˆ l 1 atm, 0 º C  hˆ l 0.6113 kPa, 0.01 º C  0  
 kg 
 kJ 
uˆ l 1 atm, 100 º C  418.91  
 kg 
 kJ 
uˆ l 1 atm, 0 º C  uˆ l 0.6113 kPa, 0.01 º C  0  
 kg 

Therefore,

 kJ 
ĥ  419.02  
 kg 
 kJ 
û  418.91  
 kg 

(b)
The change in internal energy and enthalpy can be calculated using

hˆ  hˆ v 1 atm, 100 º C  hˆ l 1 atm, 100 º C


uˆ  uˆ v 1 atm, 100 º C  uˆ l 1 atm, 100 º C

From the steam tables

81
 kJ 
hˆ v  2676.0  
 kg 
 kJ 
hˆ l  419.02  
 kg 
 kJ 
uˆ v  2506.5  
 kg 
 kJ 
uˆ l  418.91  
 kg 

Therefore,

 kJ 
hˆ  2256.99  
 kg 
 kJ 
uˆ  2087.59  
 kg 

The change in internal energy for the process in Part (b) is 5.11 times greater than the change in
internal energy calculated in Part (a). The change in enthalpy in Part (b) is 5.39 times greater
than the change in enthalpy calculated in Part (a).

82
2.48
To calculate the heat capacity of Ar, O2, and NH3 the following expression, with tabulated values
in Table A.2.1, will be used,

cP
 A  BT  CT 2  DT  2  ET 3
R

where T is in Kelvin. From the problem statement

T  300 K

and from Table 1.1

 J 
R  8.314 
 mol  K 

To find the A-E values, Table A.2.1 must be referred to.

Formula A B 103 C 106 D 10 5 E 109


Ar - - - - -
O2 3.639 0.506 0 -0.227 0
NH3 3.5778 3.02 0 -0.186 0

The values are not listed for Ar since argon can be treated as a monatomic ideal gas with a heat
capacity independent of temperature. The expression for the heat capacity is

5
cP, Ar    R
2

Now that expressions exist for each heat capacity, evaluate the expressions for T  300 K .

 J 
c P, Ar  20.785 
 mol  K 
 J 
c P, O2  29.420 
 mol  K 
 J 
c P, NH 3  35.560 
 mol  K 

By examining the heat capacity for each molecule, it should be clear that the magnitude of the
heat capacity is directly related to the structure of the molecule.

83
Ar
 Since argon is monatomic, translation is the only mode through which the atoms can
exhibit kinetic energy.
O2
 Translation, rotation, and vibration modes are present. Since oxygen molecules are
linear, the rotational mode of kinetic energy contributes RT per mol to the heat capacity.
NH3
 Translation, rotation, and vibration modes are present. Ammonia molecules are non-
linear, so the rotation mode contributes 3RT/2 per mole to the heat capacity.

The vibration contributions can also be analyzed for oxygen and ammonia, which reveals that the
vibration contribution is greatest for ammonia. This is due to ammonia’s non-linearity.

84
2.49
For a constant pressure process where potential and kinetic energy effects are neglected, the
energy balance is given by Equation 2.57:

Q  H

The change in enthalpy can be written as follows

H  mh2  h1 

From the steam tables:

 kJ 
hˆ2  hsat. vapor at 10 kPa   2584.6  
 kg 
 kJ 
hˆ1  hsat. liquid at 10 kPa   191.81  
 kg 

Therefore,

  kJ   kJ  
Q  2 kg  2584.6    191.81   
  kg   kg  
Q  4785.6 kJ

We can find the work from its definition:

Vf
W    PE dV
Vi

The pressure is constant, and the above equation can be rewritten as follows

W  PE mvˆ2  vˆ1 

From the steam tables:

 m3 
ˆv2  vˆsat. vapor at 10 kPa   14.674  
 kg 
 m3 
vˆ1  vˆsat. liquid at 10 kPa   0.00101  
 kg 

Therefore,

85
    m3  
W  10000 Pa 2 kg 14.674    0.00101     293.5 kJ
  kg   kg  

86
2.50
First, perform an energy balance on the system. Potential and kinetic energy effects can be
neglected. Since nothing is mentioned about work in the problem statement, W can be set to
zero. Therefore, the energy balance is

Q  U

Performing a mass balance reveals

m2  m1

where

m1  m1l  m1v

Now the energy balance can be written as


Q  m1 (uˆ2  uˆ1 )  m1uˆ2  m1l uˆ1l  m1v uˆ1v 
Since two phases coexist initially (water is saturated) and P1 is known, state 1 is constrained.
From the saturated steam tables

 kJ 
uˆ1l  191.79  
 kg 
(sat. H2O at 10 kPa)
 kJ 
uˆ1v  2437.9  
 kg 

As heat is added to the system, the pressure does not remain constant, but saturation still exists.
One thermodynamic property is required to constrain the system. Enough information is known
about the initial state to find the volume of the container, which remains constant during heating,
and this can be used to calculate the specific volume of state 2.

l l v v
V2 V1 m1vˆ1  m1 vˆ1
v2   
m2 m1 m1l  m1v

From the saturated steam tables

87
 m3 
ˆv1l  0.001010  
 kg 
(sat. H2O at 10 kPa)
 m3 
vˆ1l  14.674  
 kg 

Therefore,

 m3 
vˆ2  1.335  
 kg 

The water vapor is now constrained. Interpolation of steam table data reveals

 kJ 
uˆ 2  2514.6  
 kg 

Now that all of the required variables are known, evaluation of the expression for Q is possible.

Q  11652 kJ

88
2.51
Let the mixture of ice and water immediately after the ice has been added represent the system.
Since the glass is adiabatic, no work is performed, and the potential and kinetic energies are
neglected, the energy balance reduces

H  0

We can split the system into two subsystems: the ice (subscript i) and the water (subscript w).
Therefore,

H  mi hi  mw hw  0
and
mi hi  mw hw

We can get the moles of water and ice.

mw 
Vw

 
0.0004 m 3
 0.399 kg 
vˆw   m3  
 0.001003   
 
  kg  
nw 
mw

0.399 kg  22.15 mol
MW H 2O 0.0180148  kg 
 mol 

 5.55 mol
mi
ni 
MW H 2O

Now, let’s assume that all of the ice melts in the process. (If the final answer is greater than 0
ºC, the assumption is correct.) The following expression mathematically represents the change
in enthalpy.

    
ni cP,i 0  10 º C  h fus  cP, w T f  0 º C  nwcP, w T f  25 º C
Note: Assumed the heat capacities are independent of temperature to obtain this
expression.

From Appendix A.2.3

cP,i  4.196R
cP,w  9.069R

and

 kJ 
h fus  6.0 
 mol 

89
Substitution of values into the above energy balance allows calculation of Tf.

T f  3.12 º C

(Our assumption that all the ice melts is correct.)

(b)
To obtain the percentage of cooling achieved by latent heat, perform the following calculation

Fraction latent 

ni  h fus 

 nwc P, w T f  Tw, i 
5.55 mol 6000 
J 

  mol  
Fraction latent   0.911
 J 
 22.15 mol9.069  8.314  3.12 º C  25 º C
 mol  K 
Percent latent  91.1%

90
2.52
A mass balance shows

n2  n1l  n1v

To develop the energy balance, neglect kinetic and potential energy. Also, no shaft work is
performed, so the energy balance becomes

U  Q

The energy balance can be expanded to

 
Q  n1l  n1v u2  n1l u1l  n1v u1v

If the reference state is set to be liquid propane at 0 ºC and 4.68 bar, the internal energies become

u1l  0
u1v  uvap 0 º C 
T2
u 2  uvap 0 º C    c P  R dT
273 K

Once the change in internal energy for vaporization and temperature of state 2 is determined, Q
can be solved. As the liquid evaporates, the pressure increases. At state 2, where saturated
propane vapor is present, the ideal gas law states

RT2
P2 
v2

To find v2 , assume that v1v  v1l . The volume of the rigid container is

RT1  m3 
V  n1v v1v  n1v  0.00485  
P1  mol 

Therefore,

V  m3 
v2 

n1l  n1v 
 0.00243  
 mol 

91
Also, since the propane is saturated, P2 and T2 are not independent of each other. They are
related through the Antoine Equation,

 
ln P sat  A 
T
B
sat
C

where

P sat  P2 and T sat  T2

Substitution provides,

 RT  B
ln  2   A 
 v2  T2  C

 bar  m 3 
Using values from Table A.1.1 and R  8.314  10  5  
 mol  K 

T2  301.7 K

To find uvap , refer to the definition of enthalpy.

hvap  h v  hl  (u  Pv ) v  u  Pv l

Since v v  v l , the above the change in internal energy of vaporization can be written as

u vap  h vap  Pv v  h vap  RT

Therefore,

 kJ 
u vap 0 º C  14.39 
 mol 

Evaluation of the following equation after the proper values have been substituted from Table
A.2.1

 
 
301.7 K
Q  n1l  n1v uvap 0 º C   c P  R dT   n1l 0  n1v uvap 0 º C
 273 K


92
gives

Q  18.1 kJ

93
2.53
The equation used for calculating the heat of reaction is given in Equation 2.72. It states


hrxn   vi h f  i
This equation will be used for parts (a)-(e). Since the heat of reaction at 298 K is desired, values
from Appendix A.3 can be used.

(a)
First the stoichiometric coefficient must be determined for each species in the reaction.

vCH 4 ( g )  1
vO2 ( g )  1
vCO2 ( g )  1
vH 2 O( g )  1

From Tables A.3.1 and A.3.2

hf ,298 CH ( g )  74.81  mol


4
kJ 


hf ,298 O ( g )  0  mol


2
kJ 


hf ,298 CO ( g )  393.51  mol


2
kJ 


hf ,298 H O( g )  241.82  mol


2
kJ 


From Equation 2.72, the equation for the heat of reaction is


hrxn 
   
  
  

,298  vCH 4 ( g ) h f ,298 CH ( g )  vO2 ( g ) h f ,298 O ( g )  vCO2 ( g ) h f ,298 CO ( g )  v H 2 O( g ) h f ,298 H O( g )
4 2 2 2

   kJ     kJ     kJ     kJ  
hrxn ,298    74.81      0       393.51       241.82  
  mol     mol     mol     mol  
  kJ 
hrxn ,298  560.52 
 mol 

Now that a sample calculation has been performed, only the answers will be given for the remaining
parts since the calculation process is the same.

94
(b)
  kJ 
hrxn ,298  604.53 
 mol 

(c)
  kJ 
hrxn ,298  206.12 
 mol 

(d)
  kJ 
hrxn ,298  41.15 
 mol 

(e)
  kJ 
hrxn ,298  905.38 
 mol 

95
2.54
The acetylene reacts according to the following equation

C2H2(g) + (5/2)O2(g)  2CO2(g) + H2O(g)

(a)
First, choose a basis for the calculations.

nC 2 H 2  1 mol

Calculate the heat of reaction at 298 K using Equation 2.72 and Appendix A.3


hrxn  i
  vi h f

hrxn  hf   2.5hf   2hf   hf 
C H 2 2
O 2
CO H O
2 2

  J 
hrxn  1.255 10 6 
 mol 
 
H rxn,298  nC 2 H 2 hrxn 
 1.255 10 6 J 

The required amount of oxygen is calculated as follows

nO 1  2.5(nC H
2 2 2
)1  2.5 mol

The compositions for both streams are

Streams nC 2 H 2 nO2 nN 2 nCO2 nH 2 O


1 (Inlet) 1 2.5 0 0 0
2 (Outlet) 0 0 0 2 1

From Table A.2.2

Species A B 103 C 106 D 10 5 E 109


C2H2 6.132 1.952 0 -1.299 0
O2 3.639 0.506 0 -0.227 0
CO2 5.457 1.045 0 -1.157 0
H2O 3.470 1.45 0 0.121 0

Integration of the following equation provides an algebraic expression where only T2 is


unknown.

96
T2
H rxn,298    ni 2 cP i dT  0
298 i

Substituting the proper values into the expression gives

T2  6169 K

(b)
The calculations follow the procedure used in Part (a), but now nitrogen is present. The basis is

nC 2 H 2  1 mol

The heat of reaction is the same as in Part (a), but the gas composition is different. Since
stoichiometric amount of air is used,

nO 1  2.5 mol


2

 yN 
   
 n N 2  nO2  2
1 1 y
  9.40 mol

 O2  air

The composition of the streams are summarized below

Streams nC 2 H 2 nO2 nN 2 nCO2 nH 2 O


1 1 2.5 9.40 0 0
2 0 0 9.40 2 1

From Appendix A.2

Species A B 103 C 106 D 10 5 E 109


C2H2 6.132 1.952 0 -1.299 0
O2 3.639 0.506 0 -0.227 0
CO2 5.457 1.045 0 -1.157 0
H2O 3.470 1.45 0 0.121 0
N2 3.280 0.593 0 0.04 0

Therefore,

T2  2792 K

97
(c)
Now excess air is present, so not all of the oxygen reacts. The heat of reaction remains the same
because only 1 mole of acetylene reacts. Since the amount of air is twice the stoichiometric
amount

nO 1  5 mol
2

 yN 
   
 n N 2  nO2  2
1 1 y
  18.80 mol

 O2  air

The compositions of the streams are summarized below

Streams nC 2 H 2 nO2 nN 2 nCO2 nH 2 O


1 1 5 18.8 0 0
2 0 2.5 18.8 2 1

The table of heat capacity data in Part (b) will be used for this calculation. Using the expression
shown in Part (a)

T2  1787 K

98
2.55
(a)
The combustion reaction for propane is

C3H8(g) + 5O2(g)  3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)

For all subsequent calculations, the basis is one mole of propane. The heat of reaction is
calculated as follows


hrxn  C H  5hf O  3hf CO  4hf H O
  hf
3 8 2 2 2

  J 
hrxn  2.044 10 6 
 mol 
 
H rxn,298  nC3 H 8 hrxn 
 2.044 10 6 J 

The required amount of oxygen for complete combustion of propane is

nO 1  5(nC H
2 3 8
)1  5 mol
 yN 
   
 n N 2  nO2  2   18.81 mol
1 1 y 
 O2  air
The stream compositions are listed below

Streams nC3 H 8 nO2 nN 2 nCO2 nH 2 O


1 (Inlet) 1 5 18.8 0 0
2 (Outlet) 0 0 18.8 3 4

From Table (a)2.2

Species A B 103 C 106 D 10 5 E 109


N2 3.280 0.593 0 0.04 0
CO2 5.457 1.045 0 -1.157 0
H2O 3.470 1.45 0 0.121 0

Now all of the necessary variables for the following equation are known, except T2 .

T2
H rxn,298    ni 2 cP i dT  0
298 i

Solving the resulting expression provides

T2  2374 K

99
(b)
The combustion reaction for butane is

C4H10(g) + (13/2)O2(g)  4CO2(g) + 5H2O(g)

For all subsequent calculations, the basis is one mole of butane. The heat of reaction is
calculated as shown in Part (a)

H rxn,298  2.657 106 J

The moles of nitrogen and oxygen in the feed stream are calculated according to the method in
Part (a). The compositions are

Streams nC 4 H 10 nO2 nN 2 nCO2 nH 2 O


1 (Inlet) 1 6.5 24.5 0 0
2 (Outlet) 0 0 24.5 4 5

The c P data listed in Part (a) can also be used for this reaction since there is no remaining
butane.

T2  2376 K
(c)
The combustion reaction for pentane is

C5H12(g) + 8O2(g)  5CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)

The basis is one mole of pentane. The heat of reaction is calculated as shown in Part (a).

H rxn,298  3.272 106 J 

The moles of nitrogen and oxygen in the feed stream are calculated according to the method in
Part (a). The compositions are listed below

Streams nC5 H 12 nO2 nN 2 nCO2 nH 2 O


1 1 8 30.1 0 0
2 0 0 30.1 5 6

Substitution of the values into the expression used to find T2 and subsequent evaluation results
in

T2  2382 K

The adiabatic flame temperatures are nearly identical in all three cases.

100
2.56
The equation for the combustion of methane is

CH4(g) + 2O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

Using Equation 2.72

  J 
hrxn  8.02 105 
 mol 

The basis for this problem is

nCH 1  1 mol
4

Also, let  represent the fractional conversion of methane. Therefore, the composition of the
product gas leaving the reactor is

nCH 2  11    mol


nO 2  21    mol
4

nN 2  7.52 mol


2

nCO 2   mol
2

nH O 2  2 mol
2

Furthermore, the heat of reaction is calculated as follows

 
H rxn,298    8.02 105 J

From Table A.2.2

Species A B 103 C 106 D 10 5 E 109


CH4 1.702 9.081 -2.164 0 0
O2 3.639 0.506 0 -0.227 0
CO2 5.457 1.045 0 -1.157 0
H2O 3.470 1.45 0 0.121 0
N2 3.280 0.593 0 0.04 0

After substitution of the outlet composition values, heat capacity data, and the heat of reaction
into the following equation

101
1273
H rxn, 298    n  c  dT  0
298 i
i 2 P i

integration provides an equation with one unknown:  . Solving the equation gives

 =0.42

Since the fractional conversion is 0.42, 58% of the methane passed through the reactor unburned.

102
2.57
For the entire cycle,

U11  U12  U 23  U 31  0
 U12  50 kJ 

From state 1 to state 2

U12  Q12  W12


 Q12  400 kJ 

From state 2 to state 3

U 23  Q23  W23
 Q23  0 kJ 

From state 3 to state 1

U 31  Q31  W31
W31  250 kJ 

Hence, the completed table is

Process U kJ W kJ  Q kJ 


State 1 to 2 -50 -400 350
State 2 to 3 800 800 0
State 3 to 1 -750 -250 -500

To determine if this is a power cycle or refrigeration cycle, look at the overall heat and work,
W11 and Q11 .

W11  W12  W23  W31  150 kJ 


Q11  Q12  Q23  Q31  150 kJ 

Since work is done on the system to obtain a negative value of heat, which means that heat is
leaving the system, this is a refrigeration cycle.

103
2.58
Refer to the graph of the Carnot cycle in Figure E2.20. From this graph and the description of
Carnot cycles in Section 2.9, it should be clear that state 3 has the lowest pressure of all 4 states,
and state 1 has the highest pressure. States 1 and 2 are at the higher temperature. States 3 and 4
have the lower temperature. Since both the temperature and pressure are known for states 1 and
3, the molar volume can be calculated using

RT
v
P

The table below summarizes the known thermodynamic properties.

State T K  P bar  
v m3 /mol 
1 1073 60 0.00149
2 1073
3 298 0.2 0.124
4 298

For each step of the process, potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. The step from
state 1 to state 2 is a reversible, isothermal expansion. Since it is isothermal, the change in
internal energy is 0, and the energy balance becomes

Q12  W12

From Equation 2.77,

P 
W12  nRT1 ln  2 
 P1 

where W12 is the work done from state 1 to state 2. The value of P2 is not known, but
recognizing that the process from state 2 to 3 is an adiabatic expansion provides an additional
equation. The polytropic relationship can be employed to find P2 . A slight modification of
Equation 2.89 provides

Pv k  const

From the ideal gas law

RT
P
v

Combining this result with the polytropic expression and noting that R is constant, allows the
expression to be written as

104
Tv k 1  const

Therefore,

1
T  k 1
v2   3 v3k 1 
 T2 

Substituting the appropriate values (k=1.4) gives

 m3 
v2  0.00504  
 mol 

Applying the ideal gas law

 17.7 bar 
RT2
P2 
v2

Now, W12 can be calculated.

W12  10.89 kJ

Calculation of W34 follows a completely analogous routine as calculation for W12 . The
following equations were used to find the necessary properties

1
T  k 1  m3 
v4   1 v1k 1   0.0367  
 T4   mol 

 0.675 bar 
RT4
P4 
v4

Now the following equation can be used

P 
W34  nRT3 ln  4 
 P3 

which gives

W34  3.01 kJ

105
For an adiabatic, reversible process, Equation 2.90 states

W
nR
T2  T1 
k 1

This equation will be used to calculate the work for the remaining processes.

W23 
nR
T3  T2   16.11 kJ
k 1
W41 
nR
T1  T4   16.11 kJ
k 1

To find the work produced for the overall process, the following equation is used

Wnet  W12  W23  W34  W41

Evaluating this expression with the values found above reveals

Wnet  7.88 kJ

Therefore, 7.88 kilojoules of work is obtained from the cycle.


The efficiency of the process can be calculated using Equation 2.98:

Wnet 7.88
   0.72
QH 10.89

since QH  W12  10.89 kJ. Alternatively, if we use Equation E2.20D.

TC
  1
TH

where TC  T3  T4 and TH  T1  T2 . Upon substitution of the appropriate values

  0.72

106
2.59
Since this is a refrigeration cycle, the direction of the cycle described in Figure 2.17 reverses.
Such a process is illustrated below:

States 1 and 2 are at the higher temperature. States 3 and 4 have the lower temperature. Since
the both the temperature and pressure are known for states 2 and 4, the molar volume can be
calculated using

RT
v
P

The following table can be made

State T K  P bar  
v m3 /mol 
1 1073
2 1073 60 0.00149
3 298
4 298 0.2 0.124

For each step of the process, potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. The process
from state 1 to state 2 is a reversible, isothermal expansion. Since it is isothermal, the change in
internal energy is 0, and the energy balance becomes

Q12  W12

107
From Equation 2.77,

P 
W12  nRTH ln  2 
 P1 

where W12 is the work done from state 1 to state 2. The value of P1 is not known, but
recognizing that the process from state 4 to 1 is an adiabatic compression provides an additional
relation. The polytropic relationship can be employed to find P1 . A slight modification of
Equation 2.89 provides

Pv k  const

From the ideal gas law

RT
P
v

Combining this result with the polytropic expression and noting that R is constant allows the
expression to be written as

Tv k 1  const

Therefore,

1
T  k 1
v1   4 v4k 1 
 T1 

Substituting the appropriate values (k=1.4) gives

1
T  k 1  m3 
v1   4 v4k 1   0.00504  
 T1   mol 
P1  1  17.7 bar 
RT
v1

Now, W12 can be calculated.

W12  10.9 kJ

Calculation of W34 follows a completely analogous routine as the calculation for W12 . The
following equations were used to find the necessary properties:

108
 m3 
v3  0.0367  
 mol 

Applying the ideal gas law

 0.675 bar 
RT3
P3 
v3

Now the following equation can be used

P 
W34  nRTC ln  4 
 P3 

which gives

W41  3.0 kJ

Equation 2.90 can be used to determine the work for adiabatic, reversible processes. This
equation will be used to calculate the work for the remaining processes.

W23 
nR
TC  TH   16.11 kJ
k 1
W41 
nR
TH  TC   16.11 kJ
k 1

To find the work produced for the overall process, the following equation is used

Wnet  W12  W23  W34  W41

Evaluating this expression with the values found above reveals

Wnet  7.88 kJ

Therefore, 7.88 kJ of work is obtained from the cycle. The coefficient of performance is defined
in Equation 2.99 as follows

QC
COP 
Wnet

where QC is the equal to Q34 . From the energy balance developed for the process from state 3
to state 4

109
Q34  W34  3.01 kJ

Therefore,

3.01 kJ 
COP   0.382
7.88 kJ 

110
2.60

(a)
The Pv path is plotted on log scale so that the wide range of values fits (see Problem 1.13)
logP

4 1
100

3
0.075
2

log v
v
(b)
The work required to compress the liquid is the area under the Pv curve from state 3 to state 4.
Its sign is positive. The power obtained from the turbine is the area under the curve from state 1
to 2. Its sign is negative. The area under the latter curve is much larger (remember the log
scale); thus the net power is negative.

(c)
First, perform a mass balance for the entire system:

1  m
m 2  m
3  m
4  m

Since no work is done by or on the boiler, the energy balance for the boiler is

 hˆ1  m
m  hˆ4  Q H

Similarly, the energy balance for the condenser is

 hˆ3  m
m  hˆ2  Q C

To find the necessary enthalpies for the above energy balances, we can use the steam tables:

 kJ 
hˆ1  3424.5   (520 ºC, 100 bar)
 kg 

111
  kJ     kJ    kJ 
hˆ2  0.10168.77     0.90 2574.8     2334.2  
  kg     kg    kg 
(sat. liq at 7.5 kPa) (sat. vap. at 7.5 kPa)

 kJ 
hˆ3  168.77   (sat. liquid at 0.075 bar)
 kg 

 kJ 
hˆ4  342.81   (subcooled liquid at 80 ºC, 100 bar)
 kg 

Now, we can calculate the heat loads:

  kJ   kJ  
Q H  100 kg/s  3424.5    342.81     308169 kW
  kg   kg  

  kJ   kJ  
Q C  100 kg/s 168.77    2334.2     216543 kW
  kg   kg  

(d)
Use Equation 2.96:

W net  Q net  0

From Part (c), we know

Q net  308169 kW  216543 kW  91626 kW

Therefore,

W net  91626 kW

(e)
Using the results from Parts (c) and (d):

91626 kW
η  0.297
308169 kW

112

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