Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Wyatt Tenhaeff
Milo Koretsky
koretsm@engr.orst.edu
2.1
There are many possible solutions to this problem. Assumptions must be made to solve the
problem. One solution is as follows. First, assume that half of a kilogram is absorbed by the
towel when you dry yourself. In other words, let
mH 2 O 0.5 kg
Assume that the pressure is constant at 1.01 bar during the drying process. Performing an energy
balance and neglecting potential and kinetic energy effects reveals
qˆ hˆ
Refer to the development of Equation 2.57 in the text to see how this result is achieved. To find
the minimum energy required for drying the towel, assume that the temperature of the towel
remains constant at T 25 º C 298.15 K . In the drying process, the absorbed water is
vaporized into steam. Therefore, the expression for heat is
qˆ hˆH
v
O
hˆH
l
O
2 2
where is hˆH
v
O
is the specific enthalpy of water vapor at P 1.01 bar and T 298.15 K and
2
hˆ l
H 2O
is the specific enthalpy of liquid water at P 1.01 bar and T 298.15 K . A hypothetical
path must be used to calculate the change in enthalpy. Refer to the diagram below
P
liquid hˆ vapor
1 atm
P = 1 [atm]
hˆ1 hˆ3
P sat
3.17 kPa
hˆ2
liquid vapor
By adding up each step of the hypothetical path, the expression for heat is
2 2
2
However, the calculation of heat can be simplified by treating the water vapor as an ideal gas,
which is a reasonable assumption at low pressure. The enthalpies of ideal gases depend on
temperature only. Therefore, the enthalpy of the vapor change due to the pressure change is
zero. Furthermore, enthalpy is weakly dependent on pressure in liquids. The leg of the
hypothetical path containing the pressure change of the liquid can be neglected. This leaves
qˆ hˆH
v
2O
25 º C, 3.17 kPa hˆHl 2 O 25 º C, 3.17 kPa
kJ
hˆH
v, sat
O
2547 .2 kg (sat. H2O vapor at 25 ºC)
2
kJ
hˆH
l , sat
O
104.87 kg (sat. H2O liquid at 25 ºC)
2
kJ
q̂ 2442.3
kg
Therefore,
kJ
Q 0.5 kg 2442.3 1221.2 kJ
kg
To find the efficiency of the drying process, assume the dryer draws 30 A at 208 V and takes 20
minutes (1200 s) to dry the towel. From the definition of electrical work,
Q 1221.2 kJ
100 % 100 % 16.3%
W 7488 kJ
There are a number of ways to improve the drying process. A few are listed below.
Dry the towel outside in the sun.
Use a smaller volume dryer so that less air needs to be heated.
Dry more than one towel at a time since one towel can’t absorb all of the available
heat. With more towels, more of the heat will be utilized.
3
2.3
In answering this question, we must distinguish between potential energy and internal energy.
The potential energy of a system is the energy the macroscopic system, as a whole, contains
relative to position. The internal energy represents the energy of the individual atoms and
molecules in the system, which can have contributions from both molecular kinetic energy and
molecular potential energy. Consider the compression of a spring from an initial uncompressed
state as shown below.
Since it requires energy to compress the spring, we know that some kind of energy must be
stored within the spring. Since this change in energy can be attributed to a change of the
macroscopic position of the system and is not related to changes on the molecular scale, we
determine the form of energy to be potential energy. In this case, the spring’s tendency to restore
its original shape is the driving force that is analogous to the gravity for gravitational potential
energy.
This argument can be enhanced by the form of the expression that the increased energy takes. If
we consider the spring as the system, the energy it acquires in a reversible, compression from its
initial uncompressed state may be obtained from an energy balance. Assuming the process is
adiabatic, we obtain:
E Q W W
We have left the energy in terms of the total energy, E. The work can be obtained by integrating
the force over the distance of the compression:
1
W F dx kxdx kx2
2
Hence:
1 2
E kx
2
We see that the increase in energy depends on macroscopic position through the term x.
It should be noted that there is a school of thought that assigns this increased energy to internal
energy. This approach is all right as long as it is consistently done throughout the energy
balances on systems containing springs.
4
2.4
For the first situation, let the rubber band represent the system. In the second situation, the gas is
the system. If heat transfer, potential and kinetic energy effects are assumed negligible, the
energy balance becomes
U W
Since work must be done on the rubber band to stretch it, the value of the work is positive. From
the energy balance, the change in internal energy is positive, which means that the temperature
of the system rises.
When a gas expands in a piston-cylinder assembly, the system must do work to expand against
the piston and atmosphere. Therefore, the value of work is negative, so the change in internal
energy is negative. Hence, the temperature decreases.
In analogy to the spring in Problem 2.3, it can be argued that some of the work imparted into the
rubber band goes to increase its potential energy; however, a part of it goes into stretching the
polymer molecules which make up the rubber band, and the qualitative argument given above
still is valid.
5
2.5
To explain this phenomenon, you must realize that the water droplet is heated from the bottom.
At sufficiently high temperatures, a portion of the water droplet is instantly vaporized. The
water vapor forms an insulation layer between the skillet and the water droplet. At low
temperatures, the insulating layer of water vapor does not form. The transfer of heat is slower
through a gas than a liquid, so it takes longer for the water to evaporate at higher temperatures.
6
2.6
Apartment Surr.
HOT
System
Fridge
+
W -
If the entire apartment is treated as the system, then only the energy flowing across the apartment
boundaries (apartment walls) is of concern. In other words, the energy flowing into or out of the
refrigerator is not explicitly accounted for in the energy balance because it is within the system.
By neglecting kinetic and potential energy effects, the energy balance becomes
U Q W
The Q term represents the heat from outside passing through the apartment’s walls. The W term
represents the electrical energy that must be supplied to operate the refrigerator.
To determine whether opening the refrigerator door is a good idea, the energy balance with the
door open should be compared to the energy balance with the door closed. In both situations, Q
is approximately the same. However, the values of W will be different. With the door open,
more electrical energy must be supplied to the refrigerator to compensate for heat loss to the
apartment interior. Therefore,
Wajar Wshut
where the subscript “ajar” refers the situation where the door is open and the subscript “shut”
refers to the situation where the door is closed. Since,
Qajar Qshut
U ajar Qajar Wajar U shut Qshut Wshut
Tajar Tshut
7
2.7
The two cases are depicted below.
Let’s consider the property changes in your house between the following states. State 1, when
you leave in the morning, and state, the state of your home after you have returned home and
heated it to the same temperature as when you left. Since P and T are identical for states 1 and 2,
the state of the system is the same and U must be zero, so
U Q W 0
or
Q W
where -Q is the total heat that escaped between state 1 and state 2 and W is the total work that
must be delivered to the heater. The case where more heat escapes will require more work and
result in higher energy bills. When the heater is on during the day, the temperature in the system
is greater than when it is left off. Since heat transfer is driven by difference in temperature, the
heat transfer rate is greater, and W will be greater. Hence, it is cheaper to leave the heater off
when you are gone.
8
2.8
The amount of work done at constant pressure can be calculated by applying Equation 2.57
H Q
Hence,
H Q mhˆ
where the specific internal energy is used in anticipation of obtaining data from the steam tables.
The mass can be found from the known volume, as follows:
3
1L 0.001 m
L
1.0 kg
V
m
vˆ m3
0.0010
kg
As in Example 2.2, we use values from the saturated steam tables at the same temperature for
subcooled water at 1 atm. The specific enthalpy is found from values in Appendix B.1:
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
kJ
uˆ uˆl ,2 at 100 o C uˆl ,1 at 25 o C 419.02 104.87 314.15
kg
Solve for heat:
kJ
Q muˆ 1.0 kg 314.05 314.15 kJ
kg
and heat rate:
314.15 kJ
0.52 kW
Q
Q
60 s
t
10 min.
min
9
2.9
(a)
From Steam Tables:
kJ
uˆ1 2967.8 (100 kPa, 400 ºC)
kg
kJ
uˆ 2 2659.8 (50 kPa, 200 ºC)
kg
kJ
uˆ uˆ 2 uˆ1 308.0
kg
(b)
From Equations 2.53 and 2.63
T2 T2
u u 2 u1 cv dT cP R dT
T1 T1
cP R( A BT CT 2 DT 2 ET 3 )
T2
u R A BT CT 2 DT 2 ET 3 1 dT
T1
Integrating
B C 1 1 E
u R ( A 1)(T2 T1 ) (T2 2 T12 ) (T23 T13 ) D( ) (T2 4 T14 )
2 3 T2 T1 4
A 3.470
B 1.45 10 3
C0
D 1.21 10 4
E0
10
J
R 8.314
mol K
T1 (400 273.15 K) 673.15 K
T2 (200 273.15 K) 473.15 K
provides
J
u 5551
mol
J 1[mol H 2 O] 1000 g 1 kJ kJ
uˆ 5551 308.1
mol 18.0148 [g H 2 O] 1 kg 1000 J kg
The values in parts (a) and (b) agree very well. The answer from part (a) will serve as the basis
for calculating the percent difference since steam table data should be more accurate.
308 308.1
% Difference 100 % 0.03%
308.0
11
2.10
(a)
Referring to the energy balance for closed systems where kinetic and potential energy are
neglected, Equation 2.30 states
U Q W
(b)
Since internal energy is a function of temperature only for an ideal gas (Equation 2.4) and the
process is isothermal
U 0
P P
W nRT ln 2 n1RT1 ln 2
P1 P1
n1RT1 P1V1
P
W P1V1 ln 2
P1
5 bar
W 8 105 Pa 2.5 10 3 m 3 ln
8 bar
W 940 J
0 J Q W
Q 940 J
(c)
Since the process is adiabatic
Q0
U W
12
The system must do work on the surroundings to expand. Therefore, the work will be negative
and
U 0
T2
U n cv T 0
T1
T2 T1
T2 will be less than 30 ºC
13
2.11
(a)
(i).
1 Path B
3
P [bar]
Pa
th
2
A
2
1
(ii).
Since internal energy is a function of temperature only for an ideal gas (Equation 2.4) and the
process is isothermal
u 0
Equation 2.48 states that enthalpy is a function of temperature only for an ideal gas. Therefore,
h 0
Performing an energy balance and neglecting potential and kinetic energy produces
u q w 0
P
W nRT ln 2
P1
or
W P
w RT ln 2
n P1
14
J 1 bar
w 8.314 (88 273.15) K ln
mol K 3 bar
J
w 3299
mol
J
q w 3299
mol
(b)
(i). See path on diagram in part (a)
(ii).
Since the overall process is isothermal and u and h are state functions
u 0
h 0
w PE dv
During the constant volume part of the process, no work is done. The work must be solved for
the constant pressure step. Since it is constant pressure, the above equation simplifies to
w PE dv PE (v2 v1 )
J mol
8.314 (88 273.15) K
RT2 K m3
v2 0.030
P2 1 10 5 Pa mol
J mol
8.314 (88 273.15) K
RT1 K m3
v1 0.010
P1 3 10 5 Pa mol
Substituting in these values and realizing that PE P1 since the process is isobaric produces
15
m3 m3
w (3 105 Pa) 0.030 0.010
mol mol
J
w 6000
mol
Performing an energy balance and neglecting potential and kinetic energy results in
u q w 0
J
q w 6000
mol
16
2.12
First, perform an energy balance. No work is done, and the kinetic and potential energies can be
neglected. The energy balance reduces to
U Q
T2
Q n cv dT
T1
T2
Q n c P dT
T1
since the aluminum is a solid. Using the atomic mass of aluminum we find
5 kg
n 185.3 mol
kg
0.02698
mol
Upon substitution of known values and heat capacity data from Table A.2.3, we get
J
323.15 K
Q 185.3 mol 8.314 2.486 1.49 10 3 T dT
mol K 294.15 K
Q 131.61 kJ
17
2.13
First, start with the energy balance. Potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected.
Therefore, the energy balance becomes
U Q W
The value of the work will be used to obtain the final temperature. The definition of work
(Equation 2.7) is
V2
W PE dV
V1
Since the piston expands at constant pressure, the above relationship becomes
W PE V2 V1
m3
vˆ1 0.02641 (10 MPa, 400 ºC)
kg
m3
V1 m1v1 (3 kg) 0.02641
ˆ
0.07923 m
3
kg
V2 V1
W
PE
0.07923 m3
748740 J
6
2.0 10 Pa
0.4536 m3
V
vˆ2 2
0.4536 m3 m3
0.1512
m2 3 kg kg
Since v̂2 and P2 are known, state 2 is constrained. From the steam tables:
3
T2 400 º C 20 bar, 0.1512 m
kg
Now U will be evaluated, which is necessary for calculating Q . From the steam tables:
18
kJ 3
uˆ 2 2945.2 20 bar, 0.1512 m
kg
kg
kJ
uˆ1 2832.4 100 bar, 400 º C
kg
kJ kJ
U m1 uˆ 2 uˆ1 3 kg 2945.2 2832.4 338.4 kJ
kg kg
Substituting the values of U and W into the energy equation allows calculation of Q
Q U W
Q 338400 [J] 748740 J 1.09 106 J
19
2.14
In a reversible process, the system is never out of equilibrium by more than an infinitesimal
amount. In this process the gas is initially at 2 bar, and it expands against a constant pressure of
1 bar. Therefore, a finite mechanical driving force exists, and the process is irreversible.
To solve for the final temperature of the system, the energy balance will be written. The piston-
cylinder assembly is well-insulated, so the process can be assumed adiabatic. Furthermore,
potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. The energy balance simplifies to
U W
n1 n2
Let n n1 n2
T2 V2
n cv dT PE dV
T1 V1
nRT2
V2
P2
PV
T1 1 1
nR
Substituting these expressions into the energy balance, realizing that PE P2 , and simplifying
the equation gives
5
P2 P1 V1
T2
2
7
nR
2
20
P1 2 bar
P2 1 bar
V1 10 L
n 1.0 mol
L bar
R 0.08314
mol K
results in
T2 206 K
To find the value for work, the energy balance can be used
W U ncv T2 T1
PV
T1 1 1
2 bar 10 L 241 K
1 mol 0.08314 L bar
nR
mol K
W 727 J
21
2.15
The maximum work can be obtained through a reversible expansion of the gas in the piston.
Refer to Section 2.3 for a discussion of reversible processes. The problem states that the piston
assembly is well-insulated, so the heat transfer contribution to the energy balance can be
neglected, in addition to potential and kinetic energy effects. The energy balance reduces to
U W
In this problem, the process is a reversible, adiabatic expansion. For this type of process,
Equation 2.90 states
W
1
P2V2 P1V1
k 1
P1 2 bar
V1 10 L
P2 1 bar
PV k const
1
P k
V2 1 V1k
P2
c 7
Noting that k P and substituting the proper values provides
cv 5
V2 16.4 L
Now all of the needed values are available for calculating the work.
U 900 J
22
The change in internal energy can also be written according to Equation 2.53:
T2
U n cv dT
T1
5
U n R T2 T1
2
T1 240.6 K
and
T2 197.3 K
The temperature is lower because more work is performed during the reversible expansion.
Review the energy balance. As more work is performed, the cooler the gas will become.
23
2.16
Since the vessel is insulated, the rate of heat transfer can be assumed to be negligible.
Furthermore, no work is done on the system and potential and kinetic energy effects can be
neglected. Therefore, the energy balance becomes
uˆ 0
or
uˆ2 uˆ1
kJ
uˆ1 2619.2 (200 bar, 400 ºC)
kg
kJ
uˆ 2 2619.2
kg
The values of û 2 and P2 constrain the system. The temperature can be found from the steam
tables using linear interpolation:
kJ
T2 327.5 º C 100 bar , uˆ 2 2619.2
kg
m3
vˆ2 0.02012
kg
Therefore,
m3
Vvessel mv2 1.0 kg 0.02012 0.020 m
3
kg
24
2.17
Let the entire tank represent the system. Since no heat or work crosses the system boundaries,
and potential and kinetic energies effects are neglected, the energy balance is
u 0
T2 T1 0
T2 T1 300 K
The final pressure can be found using a combination of the ideal gas law and conservation of
mass.
T1 T
2
P1V1 P2V2
We also know
V2 2V1
Therefore,
P
P2 1 5 bar
2
25
2.18
(a)
First, as always, simplify the energy balance. Potential and kinetic energy effects can be
neglected. Therefore, the energy balance is
U Q W
Since, this system contains water, we can the use the steam tables. Enough thermodynamic
properties are known to constrain the initial state, but only one thermodynamic property is
known for the final state: the pressure. Therefore, the pressure-volume relationship will be used
to find the specific volume of the final state. Since the specific volume is equal to the molar
volume multiplied by the molecular weight and the molecular weight is constant, the given
expression can be written
Pvˆ1.5 const
1
P 1.5
vˆ2 1 vˆ11.5
P2
Using
P1 20 bar
vˆ1
1.0 m 3 m3
0.1
10 kg kg
P2 100 bar
gives
m3
vˆ2 0.0342
kg
Now that the final state is constrained, the steam tables can be used to find the specific internal
energy and temperature.
T2 524.7 K
kJ
uˆ 2 3094.6
kg
26
V2
W PE dV
V1
or
vˆ 2
wˆ PE dvˆ
vˆ1
Since the process is reversible, the external pressure must never differ from the internal pressure
by more than an infinitesimal amount. Therefore, an expression for the pressure must be
developed. From the relationship in the problem statement,
vˆ 2 vˆ 2
P1vˆ11.5 1
wˆ dvˆ P1vˆ11.5 vˆ1.5 dvˆ
ˆ1.5
vˆ1 v vˆ1
bar m 3 kJ
wˆ 2.840 284
kg kg
kJ
W 10 kg 284 2840 kJ
kg
27
To solve for Q , U must first be found, then the energy balance can be used.
kJ kJ
U muˆ 2 uˆ1 10 kg 3094.6 2602.8 4918 kJ
kg kg
(b)
Since the final state is the same as in Part (a), U remains the same because it is a state function.
The energy balance is also the same, but the calculation of work changes. The pressure from the
weight of the large block and the piston must equal the final pressure of the system since
mechanical equilibrium is reached. The calculation of work becomes:
vˆ 2
W mPE dvˆ
vˆ1
All of the values are known since they are the same as in Part (a), but the following relationship
should be noted
PE P2
W 6580 kJ
28
Now Q can be solved.
(c)
This part asks us to design a process based on what we learned in Parts (a) and (b). Indeed, as is
characteristic of design problems there are many possible alternative solutions. We first refer to
the energy balance. The value of heat transfer will be zero when
U W
For the same initial and final states as in Parts (a) and (b),
W U 4918 kJ
There are many processed we can construct that give this value of work. We show two
alternatives which we could use:
Design 1:
If the answers to Part (a) and Part (b) are referred to, one can see that two steps can be used: a
reversible compression followed by an irreversible compression. Let the subscript “i" represent
the intermediate state where the process switches from a reversible process to an irreversible
process. The equation for the work then becomes
vˆi
dvˆ 4918000 J
1
W m P2 (vˆ2 vˆi ) P1vˆ1
1.5
1 .5
vˆ1 vˆ
Substituting in known values (be sure to use consistent units) allows calculation of v̂i :
m3
vˆi 0.0781
kg
The pressure can be calculated for this state using the expression from part (a) and substituting
the necessary values.
1.5
v
Pi P1 1
vi
Pi 29.0 bar
29
Now that both Pi and v̂i are known, the process can be plotted on a P-v graph, as follows:
Design 2:
In an alternative design, we can use two irreversible processes. First we drop an intermediate
weight on the piston to compress it to an intermediate state. This step is followed by a step
similar to Part (b) where we drop the remaining mass to lead to 100 bar external pressure. In this
case, we again must find the intermediate state. Writing the equation for work:
1.5
v
Pi P1 1
vi
v1
1.5
W m P1 (vˆi vˆ1 ) P2 (vˆ2 vˆi ) 4918000 J
vi
Solution A:
m3
vˆi 0.043
kg
30
which gives
Pi 70.8 bar
Solution B
m3
vˆi 0.0762
kg
which gives
Pi 30.0 bar
31
2.19
(a)
Force balance to find k:
Fspring=kx Fatm=PatmA
Piston
Fmass=mg
Fgas=PgasA
mg
Pga s Patm A kx
A
since V=Ax
mg
Pgas Patm A kV
A2
2 105 Pa 1 105 Pa
2040 kg 9.81 m/s 2 k 0.02 m3
0.1 m 2 0.1 m2 2
N
k 5.0110 4
m
Work can be found graphically (see P-V plot) or analytically as follows: Substituting the
expression in the force balance above:
mg dV
W A Patm A kV
A 2
Vf V f
mg kV
W A Patm dV d V
Vi
A
Vi A 2
5
W A 3.00 10 Pa 0.03 0.05 m 2
5.0110 4 N/m 0.02 m 3 0 2
2
0.1 m 2
2
2
32
W A 5 103 J
0.5kJ
-W = 10squares square = 5 kJ
3
k V
P [bar]
2
A
2
mg
2 A
Work
1
1
Patm
(b)
You need to find how far the spring extends in the intermediate (int) position. Assume
PVn=const (other assumptions are o.k, such as an isothermal process, and will change the answer
slightly). Since you know P and V for each state in Part (a), you can calculate n.
n n
V 0.03 m3
V i 10 5 Pa
Pi
or n 1.35
Pf f 2 10 5 Pa 0.05 m3
mg
Pgas,int Patm A kV
A2
P mg k Vint V i
V n
Pint Pi V i atm A
int A2
This last equality represents 1 equation. and 1 unknown (we know k), which gives
Vint 0.0385 m3
33
V int Vf
W B PgasdV PgasdV
Vi Vint
V
int Vint f V V if
W B 2 10 N2 3 10 m2
5 6 N 5 N 6 N
dV 5 10 Vd V dV 5 10 5 V d V
m m
5
m
Vi V i Vint Vint
Therefore,
WB 3.85 kJ
3
P [bar]
2 mg
2 A
mg
A
1
1
Work
Patm
(c)
The least amount of work is required by adding differential amounts of mass to the piston. This
is a reversible compression. For our assumption that PVn = const, we have the following
expression:
Vf Vf
const
WC , rev Pgas dV V 1.35 dV
Vi Vi
34
const. 1105 Pa 0.05 m3 1.35 1.75 103
Therefore,
.03
3 dV 0.35 .03
2800 J
3
WC,rev 1.75 10 1.7510
0.35 V
V 1.35 .05
.05
35
2.20
Before this problem is solved, a few words must be said about the notation used. The system
was initially broken up into two parts: the constant volume container and the constant pressure
piston-cylinder assembly. The subscript “1” refers to the constant volume container, “2” refers
the piston-cylinder assembly. “i" denotes the initial state before the valve is opened, and “f”
denotes the final state.
To begin the solution, the mass of water present in each part of the system will be calculated.
The mass will be conserved during the expansion process. Since the water in the rigid tank is
saturated and is in equilibrium with the constant temperature surroundings (200 ºC), the water is
constrained to a specific state. From the steam tables,
kJ
vˆ1l, i 0.001156
kg
kJ
vˆ1v, i 0.12736
kg
kJ
uˆ1l, i 850.64 (Sat. water at 200 ºC)
kg
kJ
uˆ1v, i 2595.3
kg
P sat 1553.8 kPa
Knowledge of the quality of the water and the overall volume of the rigid container can be used
to calculate the mass present in the container.
V1 0.05m1 vˆ1l,i 0.95m1 vˆ1v,i
Using the values from the steam table and V1 0.5 m3 provides
m1 4.13 kg
For the piston-cylinder assembly, both P and T are known. From the steam tables
36
m3
ˆv2, i 0.35202
kg (600 kPa, 200 ºC)
kJ
uˆ 2, i 2638.9
kg
Enough information is available to calculate the mass of water in the piston assembly.
m2 2 0.284 kg
V
vˆ2
Now that the initial state has been characterized, the final state of the system must be determined.
It helps to consider what physically happens when the valve is opened. The initial pressure of
the rigid tank is 1553.8 kPa. When the valve is opened, the water will rush out of the rigid tank
and into the cylinder until equilibrium is reached. Since the pressure of the surroundings is
constant at 600 kPa and the surroundings represent a large temperature bath at 200 ºC, the final
temperature and pressure of the entire system will match the surroundings’. In other words,
kJ
uˆ f uˆ 2, i 2638.9 (600 kPa, 200 ºC)
kg
U 541.0 kJ
To calculate the work, we realize the gas is expanding against a constant pressure of 600 kPa
(weight of the piston was assumed negligible). From Equation 2.7,
Vf
W PE dV PE (V f Vi )
Vi
where
PE 600000 Pa
V f (m2 m1v,i m1l,i )vˆ2,i 1.55 m 3
Vi 0.1 m 3 0.5 m 3 0.6 m 3
37
Note: vˆ2, i was used to calculate V f because the temperature and pressure are the same
for the final state of the entire system and the initial state of the piston-cylinder assembly.
W 570 kJ
38
2.21
A sketch of the process follows:
The initial states are constrained. Using the steam tables, we get the following:
All the properties in the final state are equal. We need two properties to constrain the system:
We can find the specific volume since we know the total volume and the mass:
v2
V1, A V1, B
0.06 m 3 m3
0.30
m1, A m1, B 0.20 kg kg
We can also find the internal energy of state 2. Since the tank is well insulated, Q=0. Since it is
rigid, W=0. An energy balance gives:
U Q W 0
Thus,
We have constrained the system with u2 and v2, and can find the other properties from the steam
Tables. Very close to
Thus,
39
m3
V2, A v2, A m2, A 0.30 0.09 kg 0.267 m and
kg
40
2.22
We start by defining the system as a bubble of vapor rising through the can. We assume the
initial temperature of the soda is 5 oC. Soda is usually consumed cold; did you use a reasonable
estimate for T1? A schematic of the process gives:
where the initial state is labeled state 1, and the final state is labeled state 2. To find the final
temperature, we perform an energy balance on the system, where the mass of the system (CO2 in
the bubble) remains constant. Assuming the process is adiabatic and potential and kinetic energy
effects are negligible, the energy balance is
u w
cv T2 T1 PE dv PE v2 v1
where cv = cP – R. Since CO2 is assumed an ideal gas, the expression can be rewritten as
T T PT
cv T2 T1 PE R 2 1 R T2 2 1
P2 P1 P1
where the equation was simplified since the final pressure, P2, is equal to the external pressure,
PE. Simplifying, we get:
R RP
T2 1 T1 1 2
cv cv P1
or
RP c
T2 T1 1 2 v 237 K
cv P1 c P
41
2.23
The required amount of work is calculated as follows:
W PV
The initial volume is zero, and the final volume is calculated as follows:
W 1.01325 105 Pa 0.0436 m3 0 m3 4417 J
This doesn’t account for all of the work because work is required to stretch the rubber that the
balloon is made of.
42
2.24
(a)
Since the water is at its critical point, the system is constrained to a specific temperature,
pressure, and molar volume. From Appendix B.1
m3
vˆc 0.003155
kg
Therefore,
m
V
0.01 m 3
3.17 kg
vˆc m3
0.003155
kg
(b)
The quality of the water is defined as the percentage of the water that is vapor. The total volume
of the vessel can be found using specific volumes as follows
where x is the quality of the water. To solve for the quality, realize that starting with saturated
water at a pressure of 1 bar constrains the water. From the steam tables,
m3
vˆ v 1.6940
kg
(sat. H2O at P = 1 bar)
m3
ˆv l 0.001043
kg
x 0.00125
(c)
To determine the required heat input, perform an energy balance. Potential and kinetic energy
effects can be neglected, and no work is done. Therefore,
U Q
43
where
U muˆ 2 1 x muˆ1l xm uˆ1v
From the steam tables
kJ
uˆ 2 2029.58 (H2O at its critical point)
kg
l
m3
u1 417.33
ˆ
kg
(sat. H2O at P=1 bar)
m3
uˆ1v 2506.1
kg
44
2.25
(a)
Consider the air in ChE Hall to be the system. The system is constant volume, and potential and
kinetic energy effects can be neglected. Furthermore, disregard the work. The energy balance is
du
q
dt
since the temperature of the system changes over time. Using the given expression for heat
transfer and the definition of dU , the expression becomes
cv dT
hT Tsurr
dt
We used a negative sign since heat transfer occurs from the system to the surroundings. If cv is
assumed constant, integration provides
cv ln T Tsurr ht C
h
t
c
T Tsurr C1e v
where C1 is a constant. Examining this equation reveals that the temperature is an exponential
function of time. Since the temperature is decreasing, we know that the plot of temperature vs.
time shows exponential decay.
T0
Temperature
Tsurr
time
45
(b)
Let time equal zero at 6 PM, when the steam is shut off. At 6 PM, the temperature of the hall is
22 ºC. Therefore,
h
t
c
T Tsurr C1e v
22 º C 2 º C C1e (0)
C1 20 º C
h
( 4 hr)
12 º C 2 º C 20 º Ce
c
v
h
0.173 hr -1
cv
At 6 AM, t 12 hr . Substitution of this value into the expression for temperature results in
T 4.5 º C
46
2.26
The gas leaving the tank does flow work as it exits the valve. This work decreases the internal
energy of the gas – lowering the temperature. During this process, water from the atmosphere
will become supersaturated and condense. When the temperature drops below the freezing point
of water, the water forms a solid.
Attractive interactions between the compressed gas molecules can also contribute to this
phenomena, i.e., it takes energy to pull the molecules apart as they escape; we will learn more of
these interactions in Chapter 4.
47
2.27
Mass balance
dm
m in m out m in
dt
m2 t
dm m in dt
m1 0
or
t
m2 m1 m in dt
0
Energy balance
Since the potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected, the open system, unsteady state
energy balance is
dU
m out hout m in hin Q W s
dt sys out in
The process is adiabatic and no shaft work is done. Furthermore, there is only one inlet stream
and not outlet stream. Therefore, the energy balance simplifies to
dU
m in hin
dt sys
U2 t t
dU m in hin dt hin m in dt
U1 0 0
where the results of the mass balance were used. Both m2 and m1 can be calculated by dividing
the tank volume by the specific volume
48
V
m2
vˆ2
V
m1
vˆ1
kJ
uˆ1 2583.6
kg
(sat. H2O vapor at 1 MPa)
m3
vˆ1 0.19444
kg
kJ
hˆin 3177.2 (6 MPa, 400 ºC)
kg
There are still two unknowns for this one equation, but the specific volume and internal energy
are coupled to each other. To solve this problem, guess a temperature and then find the
corresponding volume and internal energy values in the steam tables at 6 MPa. The correct
temperature is the one where the above relationship holds.
Interpolation between 500 ºC and 450 ºC reveals that the final temperature is
T2 464.4 º C
49
2.28
We can pick room temperature to be 295 K
Mass balance
dn
n in n out n in
dt
n2 t
dn nin dt
n1 0
or
t
n2 n1 nin dt
0
Energy balance
Neglecting ke and pe, he unsteady energy balance, written in molar units is written as:
dU
nin hin nout hout Q W
dt sys
The terms associated with flow out, heat and work are zero.
dU
nin hin
dt sys
Integrating both sides with respect to time from the initial state where the pressure is 10 bar to
the final state when the tank is at a pressure of 50 bar gives:
U2 t t
since the enthalpy of the inlet stream remains constant throughout the process. Integrating and
using the mass balance above:
50
Now we do some math:
By the definition of h
so
3
Since cv c P R R
2
3
n2 T2 T1 n2T1 n1T1
2
or
3n2T2 5n2T1 2n1T1
dividing by n1:
n n
3 2 T2 5 2 T1 2T1
n1 n1
n2 P2T1
n1 P1T2
so
P T P T
3 2 1 T2 5 2 1 T1 2T1
P1T2 P1T2
or
51
P T
5 2 1
T2 P1 434 [K]
P2
3 2
P1
u q w q
uˆ
cv
T2 T1 5R T2 T1 28.9 kJ
MW 2MW kg
kJ
q 28.9
kg
52
2.29
Mass balance
dn
n in n out n in
dt
n2 t
dn nin dt
n1 0 0
or
t
n2 nin dt
0
Energy balance
Neglecting ke and pe, the unsteady energy balance, in molar units, is written as:
dU
nin hin nouthout Q W
dt sys
The terms associated with flow out and heat are zero.
dU
nin hin W
dt sys
Integrating both sides with respect to time from the empty initial state to the final state gives:
U2 t t t
since the enthalpy of the inlet stream remains constant throughout the process. The work is
given by:
53
n2u2 n2 hin Pext v2
Rearranging,
P T
cv T2 Tin RTin R ext 2
P2
so
T2
cv R Tin 333 K
P
cv ext R
P2
54
2.30
valve maintains
pressure in system
constant
v
T1 = 200 oC
x1 = 0.4
V = 0.01 m3
Mass balance
dm
m in m out m out
dt
m2 t
dm m outdt
m1 0
or
t
m2 m1 m outdt
0
Energy balance
dU
m outhˆout Q
dt sys
Integrating
m2 uˆ 2 t t t
55
We can look up property data for state 1 and state 2 from the steam tables:
m3
vˆ1 (1 x)vˆ f xvˆg 0.6 .001 0.4 0.1274 0.051
kg
m3
vˆ2 0.1274
kg
m1
V1
0.01 m3
0.196 kg
vˆ1 m3
0.051
kg
m2
V2
0.01 m3
0.0785 kg
vˆ2 m3
0.1274
kg
m2 m1 0.1175 kg
kJ
uˆ1 (1 x)uˆ f xuˆ g 0.6 850.64 0.4 2597.5 1549
kg
kJ
uˆ2 2595.3
kg
kJ
hˆout 2793.2
kg
56
2.31
Consider the tank as the system.
Mass balance
dm
m in m out m in
dt
m2 t
dm m in dt
m1 0
or
t
m2 m1 m in dt
0
Energy balance
Since the potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected, the open system, unsteady state
energy balance is
dU
m out hout m in hin Q W s
dt sys out in
The process is adiabatic and no shaft work is done. Furthermore, there is only one inlet stream
and not outlet stream. Therefore, the energy balance simplifies to
dU
m in hin
dt sys
U2 t t
dU m
U1 0 0
h dt hin m in dt
in in
0
U 2 m2 uˆ 2 m2 hˆin
uˆ 2 hˆin
57
kJ
uˆ 2 3632.5 (9 MPa, 800 ºC)
kg
so
kJ
hˆin 3632.5
kg
We can use the value of hin and the fact that the steam in the pipe is at 9 MPa to find the
temperature.
Tin 600 º C
58
2.32
(a)
First, the energy balance must be developed. Since the problem asks how much energy is stored
in the battery after 10 hours of operation, the process is not steady-state. Let the battery be the
system. Potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. Furthermore, heating of the
battery as it is charged can be ignored. The energy balance is
dU
Q W s
dt sys
No shaft work is performed, but electrical is supplied to the battery, which must be accounted for
in W s . The value of Q is given explicitly in the problem statement. Both of these values remain
constant over time, so integration provides
U Q W s t
From the problem statement
W s 5 kW
Q 1 kW
t 36000 s
Substituting these values allows the calculation of the amount of energy stored:
(b)
To calculate the velocity of the falling water, an energy balance must be developed with the
water passing through the electricity generator (probably a turbine) as the system, where the
water enters with a velocity V1 and leaves with a negligible velocity, which will be approximated
as 0. Assume that potential energy changes can be neglected. Furthermore, assume that the
temperature of the water does not change in the process, so the change in internal energy is zero.
Also, view the process as adiabatic. The energy balance reduces to
E K W river
where W river is the power of the flowing water. The actual power being provided by the stream
can be calculated using the efficiency information. Let represent the efficiency.
59
W
s
Wriver
W 5 kW
W river s 10 kW
0.5
The value of W river should be negative since the water is supplying work that is stored electrical
energy. Therefore, the energy balance becomes
1 2 2
2
m V2 V1 10000 W
kg
m 200
s
m
V2 0
s
Therefore,
m
V1 10
s
There are a number of reasons for the low conversion efficiency. A possible potential energy
loss inherent in the design of the energy conversion apparatus decreases the efficiency. Heat is
lost to the surroundings during conversion. Some of the energy is also lost due to friction (drag)
effects.
60
2.33
Considering the turbine to be the system, rearrangement of the steady-state, open system energy
balance provides
Assuming the rate of heat transfer and potential energy effects are negligible and realizing that
there is one inlet and one outlet allows the simplification of the above equation to
W s n 2 h2 h1 eK , 2 eK ,1
h2 h1 c p dT R A BT CT 2 DT 2 ET 3 dT
T2
T1
Since the quantity ek ,2 ek ,1 is multiplied by n , it is rewritten as follows for dimensional
homogeneity
ek ,2
2 2
ek ,1 ( MW ) air V2 V1
1
2
To solve for n , the ideal gas law is used
P2V2 n 2 RT21
P V
n 2 2 2
RT2
To solve for the volumetric flow rate, the fluid velocity must be multiplied by the cross-sectional
area
D2 2V2
V2
4
61
D 2V T2
Ws
P2
RT2
2 2
4
R A BT CT 2
DT 2
ET3
dT
1
2
( MW ) 2 2
air 2 V1
V
T1
Substituting values from Table A.2.1 and the problem statement results in
62
2.34
First, a sketch of the process is useful:
30 bar 20 bar
100 oC 150 oC
To find the heat in we will apply the 1st law. Assuming steady state, the open system energy
balance with one stream in and one stream out can be written:
0 n h1 h2 Q
Q
h2 h1
n
Thus this problem reduces to finding the change in the thermodynamic property, enthalpy from
the inlet to the outlet. We know 2 intensive properties at both the inlet and outlet so the values
for the other properties (like enthalpy!) are already constrained. From Table A.2.1, we have an
expression for the ideal gas heat capacity:
cp
1.424 14.394 10 3 T 4.392 10 6 T 2
R
with T in (K). Since this expression is limited to ideal gases any change in temperature must be
under ideal conditions. From the definition of heat capacity:
T2
Q
h2 h1 1.424 14.394 10 3 T 4.392 10 6 T 2 dT
n
T1
Q J
5590
n mol
63
2.35
A schematic of the process follows:
To solve for W s / n we need a first law balance. With negligible eK and eP, the 1st law for a
steady state process becomes:
0 n h1 h2 Q W s
W s
h
n
We can calculate the change in enthalpy from ideal gas heat capacity data provided in the
Appendix.
T2 T2
W s
h c p dT R 1.213 28.785 10 3 T 8.824 10 6 T 2 dT
n
T1 T1
W s J
5358
n mol
64
2.36
(a)
First start with the energy balance. Nothing is mentioned about shaft work, so the term can be
eliminated from the energy balance. The potential and kinetic energy effects can also be
neglected. Since there is one inlet and one outlet, the energy balance reduces to
Q n 2 h2 n1h1
n 2 n1
Q n1 h2 h1
Using the expressions from Appendix A.1, the energy balance becomes
T2
Q n1R A BT CT 2 DT 2 ET 3 dT
T1
Using
A 3.376
B 0.557 10 3
C 0
D 0.031 105
E 0
J
R 8.314
mol K
mol
n1 20
s
T1 373.15 K
T2 773.15 K
gives
65
(b)
To answer this question, think about the structure of n-hexane and carbon monoxide. N-hexane
is composed of 20 atoms, but carbon monoxide has two. One would expect the heat capacity to
be greater for n-hexane since there are more modes for molecular kinetic energy (translational,
kinetic, and vibrational). Because the heat capacity is greater and the rate of heat transfer is the
same, the final temperature will be less.
66
2.37
First start with the energy balance around the nozzle. Assume that heat transfer and potential
energy effects are negligible. The shaft work term is also zero. Therefore, the energy balance
reduces to
n2 (h eK ) 2 n1 (h eK )1 0
n1 n 2
1
hˆ2 hˆ1 eˆK ,1 eˆK ,2 V12 V2 2
2
Since the steam outlet velocity is much greater than the velocity of the inlet, the above
expression is approximately equal to
1
hˆ2 hˆ1 V2 2
2
J
h1 2827.9 103 (10 bar, 200 ºC)
kg
J
h2 2675.5 103 (sat. H2O(v) at 100 kPa)
kg
Therefore,
m
V2 552
s
67
m3
ˆv2 1.6940
kg
A 3.07 10 3 m 2
68
2.38
First start with the energy balance around the nozzle. Assume that heat transfer and potential
energy effects are negligible. The shaft work term is also zero. Therefore, the energy balance
reduces to
n2 (h ek ) 2 n1 (h ek )1 0
The molar flow rates can be eliminated from the expression since they are equal. Realizing that
eK ,2 eK ,1 since the velocity of the exit stream is much larger than the velocity of the inlet
stream simplifies the energy balance to
h2 h1 ek ,2
T2
1
h2 h1 R A BT CT 2 DT 2 ET 3 dT ( MW ) C3 H 8 V22
2
T1
A 1.213
B 28.785 10 3
C 8.824 10 6
D0
E0
It is also important that the units for the molecular weight and universal gas constant are
consistent. The following values were used
J
R 8.314
mol K
kg
( MW ) C3H8 0.0441
mol
T2 419.2 K
69
2.39
First start an energy balance around the diffuser. Assume that heat transfer and potential energy
effects are negligible. The shaft work term is also zero. The energy balance reduces to
n2 (h ek ) 2 n1 (h ek )1 0
n1 n 2
The molar flow rates can be eliminated from the expression. Using the definitions of enthalpy
and the kinetic energy, the equation can be rewritten as
T2
1 2 2
c P dT
2
( MW ) air V2 V1
T1
The temperature and velocity of the outlet stream are unknown, so another equation is needed to
solve this problem. From the conservation of mass,
P1V1 P1 A1V1 P2 A2V2
T1 T1 T2
where A2, the cross-sectional area of the diffuser outlet, is twice the area of the inlet. Therefore,
1 P T
V2 1 2 V1
2 P2 T1
Using Appendix A.2 and the above expression, the energy balance becomes
2
T2
2 1 1 P T
R A BT CT DT 2
ET dT ( MW ) air 1 2 V1 V12
3
2 2 P2 T1
T1
Substituting values from the problem statement provides an equation with one unknown:
T2 381 K
Therefore,
70
2.40
To find the minimum power required for the compressor, one must look at a situation where all
of the power is used to raise the internal energy of the air. None of the power is lost to the
surroundings and the potential and kinetic energy effects must be neglected. Therefore, the
energy balance becomes
0 n1h1 n2 h2 W s
n1 n 2
W s n1 h2 h1
T2
W s n1R A BT CT 2 DT 2 ET 3 dT
T1
Table A.2.1 and the problem statement provide the following values
A 3.355
B 0.575 10 3
C 0
D 1600
E0
mol
n1 50
s
T1 300 K
To find the work, we still need T2. We need to pick a reasonable process to estimate T2. Since
the heat flow is zero for this open system problem, we choose an adiabatic, reversible piston
situation. For this situation,
PV k const.
Since we are assuming the air behaves ideally, we can rewrite the equation as
71
k k
n RT n RT
P1 1 1 P2 2 2
P1 P2
P11 k T1k P21 k T2k
1 7 / 5 5/7
7 / 5 1bar
T2 300 K 579 K
10 bar 1 7 / 5
Substitute this value into the expression for the work and evaluate:
W s 417.4 kW
72
2.41
(a)
Perform a mass balance:
n1 n 2 nout
P1V1 P2V2
n out
RT1 RT2
(b)
No work is done on the system, and we can neglect potential and kinetic energy effects. We will
assume the process is also adiabatic. The energy balance reduces to
We can calculate the enthalpy difference from the given ideal heat capacity:
Again, we must calculate the molar flow rates from the ideal gas law. Upon substitution and
evaluation, we obtain
73
2.42
(a)
Since the temperature, pressure, and volumetric flow rate are given, the molar flow rate is
constrained by the ideal gas law.
Note: 1.67 10 8 m3 /s 1 cm 3 / min
n
PV 1.0135 10 5 Pa 1.67 10 8 m 3 /s
7.45 10 7 mol/s
RT 8.314 J/mol K273.15 K
To recap, we have shown
(b)
Assumptions: N2 is an ideal gas
All power supplied by the power supply is transferred to the N2
Uniform temperature radially throughout sensor tube
Kinetic and potential energy effects negligible in energy balance
Let x represent the fraction of N2 diverted to the sensor tube, and n s represent the molar flow
rate through the sensor tube. Therefore, the total molar flow rate, ntotal , is
n
ntotal s
x
We can use temperature and heat load information from the sensor tube to find the molar flow
rate through the sensor tube. First, perform an energy balance for the sensor tube:
H n s hout hin Q
Q
n s
T2
cP dT
T1
74
Q
ntotal
T2
x c P dT
T1
To find the flow rate in standard cubic centimeters per minute, apply the conversion factor found
in Part (a)
Q
1 SCCM
vtotal (SCCM )
T2 7.45 10 7 mol/s
x c P dT
T1
(c)
To find the correction factor for SiH4, re-derive the expression for flow rate for SiH4 and then
divide it by the expression for N2 for the same power input, temperatures, and fraction of gas
diverted to the sensor tube.
Q
1 SCCM
T2 7.45 10 7 mol/s T2
x c P, SiH 4 dT c P, N 2
dT
vtotal, SiH 4 T1 T1
Factor
vtotal, N 2 Q
1 SCCM
T2
T2 7.45 10 7 mol/s
c P, SiH 4
dT
x c P, N 2 dT T1
T1
If we assume that heat capacities are constant, the conversion factor simplifies:
c P, N 2
Factor
c P, SiH 4
Factor 0.67
75
2.43
(a)
It takes more energy to raise the temperature of a gas in a constant pressure cylinder. In both
cases the internal energy of the gas must be increased. In the constant pressure cylinder work,
Pv work must also be supplied to expand the volume against the surrounding’s pressure. This is
not required with a constant volume.
(b)
As you perspire, sweat evaporates from your body. This process requires latent heat which cools
you. When the water content of the environment is greater, there is less evaporation; therefore,
this effect is diminished and you do not feel as comfortable.
76
2.44
From the steam tables at 10 kPa:
T(K) h
323.15 2592.6
h vs. T
373.15 2687.5
423.15 2783 60 00
473.15 2879.5 y = 0.000 3x
2
+ 1.624 1x + 203 5.7
50 00 2
523.15 2977.3 R =1
40 00
573.15 3076.5
673.15 3279.5 enthalpy, h 30 00
dh kJ J
cP 1.6241 0.0006624T kg K 3.516 0.001434T R mol K
dT P
A B
Steam Tables 3.516 0.001434
Appendix A 3.470 0.001450
% difference 1.3 1.4
77
2.45
For throttling devices, potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. Furthermore, the
process is adiabatic and no shaft work is performed. Therefore, the energy balance for one inlet
and one outlet is simplified to
n1h1 n 2 h2
which is equivalent to
1hˆ1 m
m 2 hˆ2
hˆ1 m 2 hˆ2
kJ
hˆ1 3398.3 (8 MPa, 500 ºC)
kg
kJ
hˆ2 3398.3
kg
Now that we know û 2 and P2 , T2 is constrained. Linear interpolation of steam table data gives
T2 457 º C
78
2.46
(a)
An expression for work in a reversible, isothermal process was developed in Section 2.7.
Equation 2.77 is
P
W nRT ln 2
P1
Therefore,
P
w RT ln 2
P1
J
R 8.314
mol K
T 300 K
P2 100 kPa
P1 500 kPa
gives
J
w 4014
kg
(b)
Equation 2.90 states
w
R
T2 T1
k 1
5
cP R
2
3
cv R
2
and
79
5
k
3
T2 can be calculated by applying the polytropic relation derived for adiabatic expansions. From
Equation 2.89
PV k const
Pv k const
RT
v
P
Since R is a constant, substitution of the expression for P into the polytropic relation results in
P 1 k T k const
P11 k T 1 k P2 1 k T2 k
T2 157.6 K
J
w 1775.9
kg
80
2.47
(a)
The change in internal energy and enthalpy can be calculated using
We would like to calculate these values using the steam tables; however, the appendices don’t
contain steam table data for liquid water at 0.0 ºC and 1 atm. However, information is provided
for water at 0.01 ºC and 0.6113 kPa. Since the enthalpy and internal energy of liquid water is
essentially independent of pressure in this pressure and temperature range, we use the steam
table in the following way
kJ
hˆ l 1 atm, 100 º C 419.02
kg
kJ
hˆ l 1 atm, 0 º C hˆ l 0.6113 kPa, 0.01 º C 0
kg
kJ
uˆ l 1 atm, 100 º C 418.91
kg
kJ
uˆ l 1 atm, 0 º C uˆ l 0.6113 kPa, 0.01 º C 0
kg
Therefore,
kJ
ĥ 419.02
kg
kJ
û 418.91
kg
(b)
The change in internal energy and enthalpy can be calculated using
81
kJ
hˆ v 2676.0
kg
kJ
hˆ l 419.02
kg
kJ
uˆ v 2506.5
kg
kJ
uˆ l 418.91
kg
Therefore,
kJ
hˆ 2256.99
kg
kJ
uˆ 2087.59
kg
The change in internal energy for the process in Part (b) is 5.11 times greater than the change in
internal energy calculated in Part (a). The change in enthalpy in Part (b) is 5.39 times greater
than the change in enthalpy calculated in Part (a).
82
2.48
To calculate the heat capacity of Ar, O2, and NH3 the following expression, with tabulated values
in Table A.2.1, will be used,
cP
A BT CT 2 DT 2 ET 3
R
T 300 K
J
R 8.314
mol K
The values are not listed for Ar since argon can be treated as a monatomic ideal gas with a heat
capacity independent of temperature. The expression for the heat capacity is
5
cP, Ar R
2
Now that expressions exist for each heat capacity, evaluate the expressions for T 300 K .
J
c P, Ar 20.785
mol K
J
c P, O2 29.420
mol K
J
c P, NH 3 35.560
mol K
By examining the heat capacity for each molecule, it should be clear that the magnitude of the
heat capacity is directly related to the structure of the molecule.
83
Ar
Since argon is monatomic, translation is the only mode through which the atoms can
exhibit kinetic energy.
O2
Translation, rotation, and vibration modes are present. Since oxygen molecules are
linear, the rotational mode of kinetic energy contributes RT per mol to the heat capacity.
NH3
Translation, rotation, and vibration modes are present. Ammonia molecules are non-
linear, so the rotation mode contributes 3RT/2 per mole to the heat capacity.
The vibration contributions can also be analyzed for oxygen and ammonia, which reveals that the
vibration contribution is greatest for ammonia. This is due to ammonia’s non-linearity.
84
2.49
For a constant pressure process where potential and kinetic energy effects are neglected, the
energy balance is given by Equation 2.57:
Q H
H mh2 h1
kJ
hˆ2 hsat. vapor at 10 kPa 2584.6
kg
kJ
hˆ1 hsat. liquid at 10 kPa 191.81
kg
Therefore,
kJ kJ
Q 2 kg 2584.6 191.81
kg kg
Q 4785.6 kJ
Vf
W PE dV
Vi
The pressure is constant, and the above equation can be rewritten as follows
m3
ˆv2 vˆsat. vapor at 10 kPa 14.674
kg
m3
vˆ1 vˆsat. liquid at 10 kPa 0.00101
kg
Therefore,
85
m3
W 10000 Pa 2 kg 14.674 0.00101 293.5 kJ
kg kg
86
2.50
First, perform an energy balance on the system. Potential and kinetic energy effects can be
neglected. Since nothing is mentioned about work in the problem statement, W can be set to
zero. Therefore, the energy balance is
Q U
m2 m1
where
m1 m1l m1v
Q m1 (uˆ2 uˆ1 ) m1uˆ2 m1l uˆ1l m1v uˆ1v
Since two phases coexist initially (water is saturated) and P1 is known, state 1 is constrained.
From the saturated steam tables
kJ
uˆ1l 191.79
kg
(sat. H2O at 10 kPa)
kJ
uˆ1v 2437.9
kg
As heat is added to the system, the pressure does not remain constant, but saturation still exists.
One thermodynamic property is required to constrain the system. Enough information is known
about the initial state to find the volume of the container, which remains constant during heating,
and this can be used to calculate the specific volume of state 2.
l l v v
V2 V1 m1vˆ1 m1 vˆ1
v2
m2 m1 m1l m1v
87
m3
ˆv1l 0.001010
kg
(sat. H2O at 10 kPa)
m3
vˆ1l 14.674
kg
Therefore,
m3
vˆ2 1.335
kg
The water vapor is now constrained. Interpolation of steam table data reveals
kJ
uˆ 2 2514.6
kg
Now that all of the required variables are known, evaluation of the expression for Q is possible.
Q 11652 kJ
88
2.51
Let the mixture of ice and water immediately after the ice has been added represent the system.
Since the glass is adiabatic, no work is performed, and the potential and kinetic energies are
neglected, the energy balance reduces
H 0
We can split the system into two subsystems: the ice (subscript i) and the water (subscript w).
Therefore,
H mi hi mw hw 0
and
mi hi mw hw
mw
Vw
0.0004 m 3
0.399 kg
vˆw m3
0.001003
kg
nw
mw
0.399 kg 22.15 mol
MW H 2O 0.0180148 kg
mol
5.55 mol
mi
ni
MW H 2O
Now, let’s assume that all of the ice melts in the process. (If the final answer is greater than 0
ºC, the assumption is correct.) The following expression mathematically represents the change
in enthalpy.
ni cP,i 0 10 º C h fus cP, w T f 0 º C nwcP, w T f 25 º C
Note: Assumed the heat capacities are independent of temperature to obtain this
expression.
cP,i 4.196R
cP,w 9.069R
and
kJ
h fus 6.0
mol
89
Substitution of values into the above energy balance allows calculation of Tf.
T f 3.12 º C
(b)
To obtain the percentage of cooling achieved by latent heat, perform the following calculation
Fraction latent
ni h fus
nwc P, w T f Tw, i
5.55 mol 6000
J
mol
Fraction latent 0.911
J
22.15 mol9.069 8.314 3.12 º C 25 º C
mol K
Percent latent 91.1%
90
2.52
A mass balance shows
n2 n1l n1v
To develop the energy balance, neglect kinetic and potential energy. Also, no shaft work is
performed, so the energy balance becomes
U Q
Q n1l n1v u2 n1l u1l n1v u1v
If the reference state is set to be liquid propane at 0 ºC and 4.68 bar, the internal energies become
u1l 0
u1v uvap 0 º C
T2
u 2 uvap 0 º C c P R dT
273 K
Once the change in internal energy for vaporization and temperature of state 2 is determined, Q
can be solved. As the liquid evaporates, the pressure increases. At state 2, where saturated
propane vapor is present, the ideal gas law states
RT2
P2
v2
To find v2 , assume that v1v v1l . The volume of the rigid container is
RT1 m3
V n1v v1v n1v 0.00485
P1 mol
Therefore,
V m3
v2
n1l n1v
0.00243
mol
91
Also, since the propane is saturated, P2 and T2 are not independent of each other. They are
related through the Antoine Equation,
ln P sat A
T
B
sat
C
where
Substitution provides,
RT B
ln 2 A
v2 T2 C
bar m 3
Using values from Table A.1.1 and R 8.314 10 5
mol K
T2 301.7 K
hvap h v hl (u Pv ) v u Pv l
Since v v v l , the above the change in internal energy of vaporization can be written as
Therefore,
kJ
u vap 0 º C 14.39
mol
Evaluation of the following equation after the proper values have been substituted from Table
A.2.1
301.7 K
Q n1l n1v uvap 0 º C c P R dT n1l 0 n1v uvap 0 º C
273 K
92
gives
Q 18.1 kJ
93
2.53
The equation used for calculating the heat of reaction is given in Equation 2.72. It states
hrxn vi h f i
This equation will be used for parts (a)-(e). Since the heat of reaction at 298 K is desired, values
from Appendix A.3 can be used.
(a)
First the stoichiometric coefficient must be determined for each species in the reaction.
vCH 4 ( g ) 1
vO2 ( g ) 1
vCO2 ( g ) 1
vH 2 O( g ) 1
hrxn
,298 vCH 4 ( g ) h f ,298 CH ( g ) vO2 ( g ) h f ,298 O ( g ) vCO2 ( g ) h f ,298 CO ( g ) v H 2 O( g ) h f ,298 H O( g )
4 2 2 2
kJ kJ kJ kJ
hrxn ,298 74.81 0 393.51 241.82
mol mol mol mol
kJ
hrxn ,298 560.52
mol
Now that a sample calculation has been performed, only the answers will be given for the remaining
parts since the calculation process is the same.
94
(b)
kJ
hrxn ,298 604.53
mol
(c)
kJ
hrxn ,298 206.12
mol
(d)
kJ
hrxn ,298 41.15
mol
(e)
kJ
hrxn ,298 905.38
mol
95
2.54
The acetylene reacts according to the following equation
(a)
First, choose a basis for the calculations.
nC 2 H 2 1 mol
Calculate the heat of reaction at 298 K using Equation 2.72 and Appendix A.3
hrxn i
vi h f
hrxn hf 2.5hf 2hf hf
C H 2 2
O 2
CO H O
2 2
J
hrxn 1.255 10 6
mol
H rxn,298 nC 2 H 2 hrxn
1.255 10 6 J
nO 1 2.5(nC H
2 2 2
)1 2.5 mol
96
T2
H rxn,298 ni 2 cP i dT 0
298 i
T2 6169 K
(b)
The calculations follow the procedure used in Part (a), but now nitrogen is present. The basis is
nC 2 H 2 1 mol
The heat of reaction is the same as in Part (a), but the gas composition is different. Since
stoichiometric amount of air is used,
yN
n N 2 nO2 2
1 1 y
9.40 mol
O2 air
Therefore,
T2 2792 K
97
(c)
Now excess air is present, so not all of the oxygen reacts. The heat of reaction remains the same
because only 1 mole of acetylene reacts. Since the amount of air is twice the stoichiometric
amount
nO 1 5 mol
2
yN
n N 2 nO2 2
1 1 y
18.80 mol
O2 air
The table of heat capacity data in Part (b) will be used for this calculation. Using the expression
shown in Part (a)
T2 1787 K
98
2.55
(a)
The combustion reaction for propane is
For all subsequent calculations, the basis is one mole of propane. The heat of reaction is
calculated as follows
hrxn C H 5hf O 3hf CO 4hf H O
hf
3 8 2 2 2
J
hrxn 2.044 10 6
mol
H rxn,298 nC3 H 8 hrxn
2.044 10 6 J
nO 1 5(nC H
2 3 8
)1 5 mol
yN
n N 2 nO2 2 18.81 mol
1 1 y
O2 air
The stream compositions are listed below
Now all of the necessary variables for the following equation are known, except T2 .
T2
H rxn,298 ni 2 cP i dT 0
298 i
T2 2374 K
99
(b)
The combustion reaction for butane is
For all subsequent calculations, the basis is one mole of butane. The heat of reaction is
calculated as shown in Part (a)
The moles of nitrogen and oxygen in the feed stream are calculated according to the method in
Part (a). The compositions are
The c P data listed in Part (a) can also be used for this reaction since there is no remaining
butane.
T2 2376 K
(c)
The combustion reaction for pentane is
The basis is one mole of pentane. The heat of reaction is calculated as shown in Part (a).
The moles of nitrogen and oxygen in the feed stream are calculated according to the method in
Part (a). The compositions are listed below
Substitution of the values into the expression used to find T2 and subsequent evaluation results
in
T2 2382 K
The adiabatic flame temperatures are nearly identical in all three cases.
100
2.56
The equation for the combustion of methane is
J
hrxn 8.02 105
mol
nCH 1 1 mol
4
Also, let represent the fractional conversion of methane. Therefore, the composition of the
product gas leaving the reactor is
nCO 2 mol
2
nH O 2 2 mol
2
H rxn,298 8.02 105 J
After substitution of the outlet composition values, heat capacity data, and the heat of reaction
into the following equation
101
1273
H rxn, 298 n c dT 0
298 i
i 2 P i
integration provides an equation with one unknown: . Solving the equation gives
=0.42
Since the fractional conversion is 0.42, 58% of the methane passed through the reactor unburned.
102
2.57
For the entire cycle,
U11 U12 U 23 U 31 0
U12 50 kJ
U 23 Q23 W23
Q23 0 kJ
U 31 Q31 W31
W31 250 kJ
To determine if this is a power cycle or refrigeration cycle, look at the overall heat and work,
W11 and Q11 .
Since work is done on the system to obtain a negative value of heat, which means that heat is
leaving the system, this is a refrigeration cycle.
103
2.58
Refer to the graph of the Carnot cycle in Figure E2.20. From this graph and the description of
Carnot cycles in Section 2.9, it should be clear that state 3 has the lowest pressure of all 4 states,
and state 1 has the highest pressure. States 1 and 2 are at the higher temperature. States 3 and 4
have the lower temperature. Since both the temperature and pressure are known for states 1 and
3, the molar volume can be calculated using
RT
v
P
State T K P bar
v m3 /mol
1 1073 60 0.00149
2 1073
3 298 0.2 0.124
4 298
For each step of the process, potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. The step from
state 1 to state 2 is a reversible, isothermal expansion. Since it is isothermal, the change in
internal energy is 0, and the energy balance becomes
Q12 W12
P
W12 nRT1 ln 2
P1
where W12 is the work done from state 1 to state 2. The value of P2 is not known, but
recognizing that the process from state 2 to 3 is an adiabatic expansion provides an additional
equation. The polytropic relationship can be employed to find P2 . A slight modification of
Equation 2.89 provides
Pv k const
RT
P
v
Combining this result with the polytropic expression and noting that R is constant, allows the
expression to be written as
104
Tv k 1 const
Therefore,
1
T k 1
v2 3 v3k 1
T2
m3
v2 0.00504
mol
17.7 bar
RT2
P2
v2
Calculation of W34 follows a completely analogous routine as calculation for W12 . The
following equations were used to find the necessary properties
1
T k 1 m3
v4 1 v1k 1 0.0367
T4 mol
0.675 bar
RT4
P4
v4
P
W34 nRT3 ln 4
P3
which gives
105
For an adiabatic, reversible process, Equation 2.90 states
W
nR
T2 T1
k 1
This equation will be used to calculate the work for the remaining processes.
W23
nR
T3 T2 16.11 kJ
k 1
W41
nR
T1 T4 16.11 kJ
k 1
To find the work produced for the overall process, the following equation is used
Wnet 7.88
0.72
QH 10.89
TC
1
TH
0.72
106
2.59
Since this is a refrigeration cycle, the direction of the cycle described in Figure 2.17 reverses.
Such a process is illustrated below:
States 1 and 2 are at the higher temperature. States 3 and 4 have the lower temperature. Since
the both the temperature and pressure are known for states 2 and 4, the molar volume can be
calculated using
RT
v
P
State T K P bar
v m3 /mol
1 1073
2 1073 60 0.00149
3 298
4 298 0.2 0.124
For each step of the process, potential and kinetic energy effects can be neglected. The process
from state 1 to state 2 is a reversible, isothermal expansion. Since it is isothermal, the change in
internal energy is 0, and the energy balance becomes
Q12 W12
107
From Equation 2.77,
P
W12 nRTH ln 2
P1
where W12 is the work done from state 1 to state 2. The value of P1 is not known, but
recognizing that the process from state 4 to 1 is an adiabatic compression provides an additional
relation. The polytropic relationship can be employed to find P1 . A slight modification of
Equation 2.89 provides
Pv k const
RT
P
v
Combining this result with the polytropic expression and noting that R is constant allows the
expression to be written as
Tv k 1 const
Therefore,
1
T k 1
v1 4 v4k 1
T1
1
T k 1 m3
v1 4 v4k 1 0.00504
T1 mol
P1 1 17.7 bar
RT
v1
Calculation of W34 follows a completely analogous routine as the calculation for W12 . The
following equations were used to find the necessary properties:
108
m3
v3 0.0367
mol
0.675 bar
RT3
P3
v3
P
W34 nRTC ln 4
P3
which gives
Equation 2.90 can be used to determine the work for adiabatic, reversible processes. This
equation will be used to calculate the work for the remaining processes.
W23
nR
TC TH 16.11 kJ
k 1
W41
nR
TH TC 16.11 kJ
k 1
To find the work produced for the overall process, the following equation is used
Therefore, 7.88 kJ of work is obtained from the cycle. The coefficient of performance is defined
in Equation 2.99 as follows
QC
COP
Wnet
where QC is the equal to Q34 . From the energy balance developed for the process from state 3
to state 4
109
Q34 W34 3.01 kJ
Therefore,
3.01 kJ
COP 0.382
7.88 kJ
110
2.60
(a)
The Pv path is plotted on log scale so that the wide range of values fits (see Problem 1.13)
logP
4 1
100
3
0.075
2
log v
v
(b)
The work required to compress the liquid is the area under the Pv curve from state 3 to state 4.
Its sign is positive. The power obtained from the turbine is the area under the curve from state 1
to 2. Its sign is negative. The area under the latter curve is much larger (remember the log
scale); thus the net power is negative.
(c)
First, perform a mass balance for the entire system:
1 m
m 2 m
3 m
4 m
Since no work is done by or on the boiler, the energy balance for the boiler is
hˆ1 m
m hˆ4 Q H
hˆ3 m
m hˆ2 Q C
To find the necessary enthalpies for the above energy balances, we can use the steam tables:
kJ
hˆ1 3424.5 (520 ºC, 100 bar)
kg
111
kJ kJ kJ
hˆ2 0.10168.77 0.90 2574.8 2334.2
kg kg kg
(sat. liq at 7.5 kPa) (sat. vap. at 7.5 kPa)
kJ
hˆ3 168.77 (sat. liquid at 0.075 bar)
kg
kJ
hˆ4 342.81 (subcooled liquid at 80 ºC, 100 bar)
kg
kJ kJ
Q H 100 kg/s 3424.5 342.81 308169 kW
kg kg
kJ kJ
Q C 100 kg/s 168.77 2334.2 216543 kW
kg kg
(d)
Use Equation 2.96:
W net Q net 0
Therefore,
(e)
Using the results from Parts (c) and (d):
91626 kW
η 0.297
308169 kW
112