Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Declaration
I, Riazuddin.S.Khan of Oriental Institute of Management of MMS (Semester –
IV, Systems Specialisation) hereby declare that I have completed this project on
“LAN, WAN Techonology and Routing Protocol”. During the academic year
2010-2011, the information submitted by me is true to the best of my knowledge.
–––––––––––––––
Date : _____________ Signature
Place : ________________
Acknowledgement
It is my pleasure to be indebted to various people, who directly or indirectly
contributed in the development of this project and who influenced my thinking,
behavior, and acts during the course of final project.
Last but not the least; I would like to thank all my friends who have helped
me to make my project a success.
INDEX
Sr. No. Topic Page No.
1. Introduction
2. Computer Networking History
3. Ethernet Technology
4. CSMA/CD
5. Network Design Methodology
6. Lan technology
7. Topology
8. Lan Implementation technique
9. Methodology
10. Ethernet Lan Security
11. Wan Technology
12. Set Up Of Wireless Router
13. Routing protocol
14. Border Gateway Protocol
15. Routing Information Protocol
16. Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
17 Open Shortest Path First Protocol
Bibliography
Introduction
We are in an era of information technology where communication is the necessity
of our socio-economic structure in every sense. The 20th century was the era of
computers and its various applications .With the advent of 21st century the
communication became the spinal cord of human society. Then with the urge of
communicating and transferring data over computers and development of
technology such as satellites, optical fibers, etc came the term called COMPUTER
NETWORKING.
COMPUTER NETWORKING
HISTORY.
The story begins in late 1950s.At the height of cold war, the DoD(Department of
Defence) America wanted a command and control network that could help
channelize the information to long distances that too with high security and
reliability.
ARPANET
The ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) created by ARPA
of the United States Department of Defense during the Cold War, was the world's
first operational packet switching network, and the predecessor of the global
Internet.
Packet switching, now the dominant basis for both data and voice
communication worldwide, was a new and important concept in data
communications. Previously, data communication was based on the idea of
circuit switching, as in the old typical telephone circuit, where a dedicated circuit
is tied up for the duration of the call and communication is only possible with the
single party on the
other end of the circuit. With packet switching, a system could use one
communication link to communicate with more than one machine by
disassembling data into data grams, then gather these as packets. Not only could
the link be shared (much as a single post box can be used to post letters to
different destinations), but each packet could be routed in dependently of other
packets.
Ethernet
Ethernet is the most widely-installed local area network ( LAN) technology.
Specified in a standard, IEEE 802.3, Ethernet was originally developed by Xerox
from an earlier specification called Aloha net (for the Palo Alto Research Center
Aloha network) and then developed further by Xerox, DEC, and Intel.
An Ethernet LAN typically uses coaxial cable or special grades of twisted wires.
Ethernet is also used in wireless LANs. The most commonly installed Ethernet
systems are called 10BASE-T and provide transmission speeds up to 10 Mbps.
Devices are connected to the cable and compete for access using a Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) protocol.
Fast Ethernet or 100BASE-T provides transmission speeds up to 100 megabits
per second and is typically used for LAN backbone systems, supporting
workstations with 10BASE-T cards.
Gigabit Ethernet provides an even higher level of backbone support at 1000
megabits per second (1 gigabit or 1 billion bits per second). 10-Gigabit
Ethernet provides up to 10 billion bits per second.
Ethernet was named by Robert Metcalfe, one of its developers, for the passive
substance called "luminiferous (light-transmitting) ether" that was once thought
to pervade the universe, carrying light throughout. Ethernet was so- named to
describe the way that cabling, also a passive medium, could similarly carry data
everywhere throughout the network
“Bringing 802.11n access points in the enterprise will absolutely require Gigabit
Ethernet,” said Rohit Mehra, director of enterprise communications infrastructure
for IDC. The 802.11n standard has a theoretical throughput of 300Mbps and
higher. A LAN with 100 Mbps edge will be a bottleneck for an 802.11n wireless
LAN overlay.
Additionally, many wireless access points and other IP devices like video
cameras and conference room switches now have power requirements that
exceed the 12.94 watts produced by the original Power over Ethernet (PoE)
standard. The new enhanced PoE+ standard, 802.3at, delivers 30 watts of power.
PoE+ is available on the latest GbE switches from major networking vendors, but
vendors are not updating their existing Fast Ethernet switches with the new
power standard. If an enterprise deploys devices that require PoE+ for power,
upgrading the edge to Gigabit might be more efficient than installing individual
power injectors on a legacy Fast Ethernet network.
Finally, while delivering more bandwidth and more robust management, GbE
switches are also more energy efficient than the previous generation of switches,
Mehra said. This offers enterprises the opportunity to lower their power
consumption on the network edge.
Sharing Ethernet
Ethernet requires multiple computers to share access to the ether. A sender
transmits a signal, which propagates towards both ends of the cable.
7: Ethernet sharing
The sending computer has exclusive use of the cable during the transmission of
the frame. Multiple frames cannot be sent at the same time, all other computers
must wait.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD)
All computers attached to the Ethernet use CSMA/CD to co-ordinate their
activities. A computer wishing to transmit checks for electrical activity on the
cable, informally called acarrier. If there is no carrier, the computer can transmit.
If a carrier is present, the computer waits for the sender to finish before
proceeding.
However, it is possible for two or more computers to detect the lack of carrier and
start transmission simultaneously. The signals travel at approximately 70% of the
speed of light and interfere with one another. This interference is called
a collision. A sending computer monitors the signal on the cable and if it differs
from the signal it is sending, then a collision has occurred and the computer
stops transmitting.
Following a collision, a computer waits for the cable to become idle before
retransmitting. However, if the computers start transmitting as soon as the cable
becomes free, another collision will occur. Ethernet requires each computer to
delay after a collision. The standard specifies a maximum delay, d, and requires
each computer to choose a random delay less than d. In this case, the computer
choosing the shortest delay will transmit first.
If subsequent collisions still occur, the computers double the maximum delay
(2d, 4d, ...) until the range is large enough for one computer to choose a short
delay and transmit without a collision. This technique is called binary exponential
backoff.
Network Design Methodology
Gathering and analyzing requirements
For a LAN to be effective and serve the needs of its users, it should be designed
and implemented according to a planned series of systematic steps, which
include the following:
The first step in designing a network should be to gather data about the
organizational structure. This information includes the organization's history and
current status, projected growth, operating policies and management procedures,
office systems and procedures, and the viewpoints of the people who will be
using the LAN. You need to answer the following questions: Who are the people
who will be using the network? What is their level of skill, and what are their
attitudes toward computers and computer applications?
Answering these and similar questions will help determine how much training will
be required and how many people will be needed to support the LAN.
Ideally, the information gathering process helps clarify and identify the problems.
You also need to determine whether there are documented policies in place. Has
some data been declared mission critical? Have some operations been declared
mission critical? (Mission-critical data and operations are those that are
considered key to businesses, and access to them is critical to the business
running on a daily basis.) What protocols are allowed on the network? Are only
certain desktop hosts supported?
Next, you should determine who in the organization has authority over
addressing, naming, topology design, and configuration. Some companies have a
central Management Information Systems (MIS) department that controls
everything. Some companies have very small MIS departments and, therefore,
must delegate authority to departments. Focus on identifying the resources and
constraints of the organization. Organization resources that can affect the
implementation of a new LAN system fall into two general categories:
computer hardware/software and human resources. An organization's existing
computer hardware and software must be documented, and projected hardware
and software needs dentified. How are these resources currently linked and
shared? What financial resources does the organization have available?
Documenting these types of things helps you estimate costs and develop a
budget for the LAN. You should make sure you understand performance issues
of any existing network.
Point-to-point Communication
The first computer communication systems had each communication channel,
e.g. a leased circuit, connecting exactly two computers. This is known as point-
to-point communication and has three useful properties.
1:Poin
t-to-point connections
In (a), two computers require one connection.
While in (b), three computers require three connections.
In (c), four computers requires six connections. The number of
connections for N computers is proportional to the square of N, namely
N(N-1)/2.
In practice, the cost is high because many connections follow the same
physical path. Example, the situation with five computers located in two
locations.
2: Different locations
There are six connections between the two locations, more than the total number
of computers being connected. Another computer added to location 1 increases
the number of connections between the two locations to nine.
Apart from the fact that point-to-point communication does not scale, as the
physical distance between computers increases, the cost of installing the point-
to-point connections becomes prohibitively expensive.
LAN Topologies
In the late 1960s and the early 1970s researchers developed a form of computer
communication known as Local Area Networks (LANs). These are different from
long-distance communications because they rely on sharing the network. Each
LAN consists of a single shared medium, usually a cable, to which many
computers are attached. The computers co-ordinate and take turns using the
medium to send packets.
3: Star topology
The hub accepts data from a sender and delivers it to the receiver. In practice, a
star network seldom has a symmetric shape; the hub often resides in a separate
location from the computers attached to it. A network using a ring
topology arranges the computers in a circle - the first computer is cabled to the
second. Another cable connects the second computer to the third, and so on,
until a cable connects the final computer back to the first.
4: Ring topology
Once again, the ring, like the star topology, refers to logical connections, not
physical orientation.
5: Bus topology
The computers attached to a bus network must co-ordinate to ensure that only
one computer sends a signal at any time. In addition, the ends of a bus network
must be terminated to prevent electrical signals from reflecting back along the
bus.
Wireless LANs
Instead of transmitting signals across a cable, wireless LANs use antennas to
broadcast RF signals through the air. All the computers using a wireless LAN
share the same radio frequency, so they must take turns to transmit. Wireless
LAN transmitters use low power, so the signal only propagates a short distance.
In addition, metallic obstructions can block the signal.
This lack of full communication means that wireless LANs cannot use the
CSMA/CD mechanism used by Ethernet.
8: Wireless topology
Given a maximum transmission distance d, computer 2 will receive all
transmissions, but computers 1 and 3 will not receive transmissions from each
other. Wireless LANs use Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Ad
voidance (CSMA/CA) to share the air waves. Suppose that computer 1 wants to
send a frame to computer 2. It first sends a short Request To Send (RTS) control
message. Computer 2 receives the RTS and responds with a short Clear To
Send (CTS) control message. Now computer 1 can transmit its frame.
In Figure 8, computer 3 will not receive the RTS from computer 1, but it will
receive the CTS from computer 2 - so it knows that it must wait. In the event of
computers 1 and 3 both sending a control message to computer 2 at the same
time, they apply random back off before resending. Since control messages are
much shorter than data frames, the probability of a second collision is much
lower than with conventional Ethernet.
LAN implementation techniques
Local area networks (LANs) can be implemented in several ways. They can be divided into
several subgroups based on e.g. physical implementation or standardized technologies.
Choosing the right kind of LAN solution for a particular purpose always depends on
several issues, e.g. size of the network, location of the terminals, and usually also on the cost
issues. This essay offers a brief overview on some of the most common LAN
implementation techniques.
Physical implementation
LANs can be divided into two quite different types: wired LANs and wireless
LANs. As their names imply, wired LANs require fixed wiring whereas wireless
LANs utilize radio or light waves as the transmission media. Wired LANs are
much more common and usually less costly when used to e.g. interconnect all
office equipment to provide shared use of printers and other resources. But if the
layout of the interconnected computers is due to change often, a wireless
network is worth considering, as also in the case of interconnecting handheld
terminals and portable computers. There is also other physical division criteria
2.1 Topology
Naturally wired and wireless LANs use different topologies. The four topologies
in common use for wired LANs are bus, ring, hub and star. Bus is a linear
connection between the data terminals. A single network cable is routed through
those locations that have terminals, and a physical connection (tap) is made to
the cable for each terminal. Bus networks are often extended into an
interconnected set of buses with special bus extenders. Ring topology is similar
to bus topology except that in ring topology the two ends of the bus are
connected to form a ring. Hub topology is a variation of bus and ring. In this case
wiring from terminal always goes through hub first before going to another
terminal. Hub consists of a set of repeaters that retransmit all the received
signals to all terminals in that direction. Star topology means that the terminals
are connected through a server or a router, which takes care of routing the
signals into the right direction. Wireless LANs have two common topologies,
namely fixed-wire replacement and ad hoc networks. The former is simply a LAN
using wireless connection in a place where normally would be a wired LAN, but
due to a high cost of installing wiring or often changing network layout. The latter
is a real wireless LAN with possibly nothing else than portable-to-portable
connections.
2.2 Transmission media
Wired LANs use mostly three types of transmission medium, namely twisted pair,
coaxial cable and optical fiber. Twisted pair consists simply of two wires twisted
tightly together. Twisted pair is the cheapest to manufacture of the three
mentioned. As it is also the cheapest and easiest to install, no wonder it is very
widely used in LANs. With new cable manufacturing and copper refining
technology and also improvements in the data transfer technology the engineers
have been able to reduce the level of distortion and attenuation and increase the
transferred data rate greatly, so twisted pair is still very substantial transmission
medium. There are mainly two types of coaxial cable in use, namely thin wire and
thick wire. Thin wire comes with 0,25" diameter and thick wire with 0,5" diameter.
The advantage gained by the thicker cable is more than doubled functioning
range. Optical Fiber is made of glass or plastic and can operate at data rates well
in excess of those with twisted pair or coaxial cable. Thus it is also the most
expensive of the three. Optical fiber also has a low level of distortion owing to its
immunity to electromagnetic interference.
LAN Methodology: Local Area Network Design
and Implementation Steps
The first steps in designing a LAN (Local Area Network) are to established and
document the goals of the design
The design should aim at addressing the following goals:-
Functionality:
Must allow users to meet their job requirements, it must provide user
to user and user to application connectivity, with reasonable speed
and reliability.
Scalability
The network must be able to grow, that is the initial design should
grow without any major changes to the overall design.
Adaptability
The network must be design with an eye towards future technology and
should include no elements that would limit implementation of new
technology as they become available.
Manageability
The network should be design to facilitate network monitoring and
management to ensure ongoing stability of operation
In order for a LAN to be effective and serve the need for its users, it should
be implemented according to systematic series of planned steps.
SYSTEMATIC STEPS
1. Gather information about the organization, the information should
include:-
• Organization history and current status
• Projected growth
• The operating policies and management procedure
• Office system and procedures
• Views of the people who will be using LAN and there skills level
• Size and layout of the Organization
• Financial resources and constraints of the Organization
• Hardware and software resources that the Organization has
2. Make a detailed analysis and assessment of the current and projected
requirements of the people who will be using the network.
3. Identify the resources and constrains of the Organization
One of the methods you can use in the process of creating a design is the
Problem Solving Circle (PSC). This is a process that you sue repeatedly
until you finished a design problem
Solutions:
Other then these two problems Ethernet LAN security has too many problems but
scientists also develop some solutions or precautionary measures to overcome
the Ethernet LAN security problems. There are two major types of solutions
which are used to prevent such security problems are hardware solutions and
software solutions.
Hardware Solutions:
There hardware solutions which are used to stop or overcome the Ethernet LAN
security problems basically of three types which are
Software Solutions:
Ethernet LAN security is also carried out by using some software solutions.
These softwares can protect your data from hackers
1. Data Encryption (this software encrypts the data and provides privacy to
it).
2. Authentication process: using user name or password to authenticate.
3. Some technologies are also being into used which are the combination of
above two technologies.
WAN Technologies
Wide Area Network are used to interconnect networks that are not physically
close to each other, might be physically separated across the cities, across
regions, or even across geography. Currently there are many WAN
technologies available. Primary different between WAN technology and LAN
technology is about the distance that separates the interconnected networks.
WANs use different transmission media, hardware, and protocols. Data transfer
rates are typically much lower for WAN communication when compared to LAN
rates. WAN Communication WAN technologies rely on other party such as Telco
carries company which provides long distance connectivity.
Unlike LAN where the data are transmitted from one digital device / computer to
another computer through direct physical line connection, WAN technology uses
combination of analog signal and digital signal in transmitting the data.
Circuit Switching
Circuit switching involves creating a direct physical connection between sender
and receiver, a connection that lasts as long as the two parties need to
communicate. In order for this to happen, of course, the connection must be set
up before any communication can occur. Once the connection is made, however,
the sender and receiver can count on "owning" the bandwidth allotted to them for
as long as they remain connected.
Although both the sender and receiver must abide by the same data transfer
speed, circuit switching does allow for a fixed (and rapid) rate of transmission.
The primary drawback to circuit switching is the fact that any unused bandwidth
remains exactly that: unused. Because the connection is reserved only for the
two communicating parties, that unused bandwidth cannot be "borrowed" for any
other transmission.
The most common form of circuit switching happens in that most familiar of
networks, the telephone system, but circuit switching is also used in some
networks. Currently available ISDN lines, also known as narrowband ISDN, and
the form of T1 known as switched T1 are both examples of circuit-switched
communications technologies.
Message Switching
Unlike circuit switching, message switching does not involve a direct physical
connection between sender and receiver. When a network relies on message
switching, the sender can fire off a transmission—after addressing it
appropriately—whenever it wants. That message is then routed through
intermediate stations or, possibly, to a central network computer. Along the way,
each intermediary accepts the entire message, scrutinizes the address, and then
forwards the message to the next party, which can be another intermediary or the
destination node.
What's especially notable about message-switching networks, and indeed
happens to be one of their defining features, is that the intermediaries aren't
required to forward messages immediately. Instead, they can hold messages
before sending them on to their next destination. This is one of the advantages of
message switching. Because the intermediate stations can wait for an
opportunity to transmit, the network can avoid, or at least reduce, heavy traffic
periods, and it has some control over the efficient use of communication lines.
Packet Switching
Packet switching, although it is also involved in routing data within and between
LANs such as Ethernet and Token Ring, is also the backbone of WAN routing. It's
not the highway on which the data packets travel, but it is the dispatching system
and to some extent the cargo containers that carry the data from place to place.
In a sense, packet switching is the Federal Express or United Parcel Service of a
WAN.
In packet switching, all transmissions are broken into units called packets, each
of which contains addressing information that identifies both the source and
destination nodes. These packets are then routed through various intermediaries,
known as Packet Switching Exchanges (PSEs), until they reach their destination.
At each stop along the way, the intermediary inspects the packet's destination
address, consults a routing table, and forwards the packet at the highest possible
speed to the next link in the chain leading to the recipient.
As they travel from link to link, packets are often carried on what are known
as virtual circuits—temporary allocations of bandwidth over which the sending
and receiving stations communicate after agreeing on certain "ground rules,"
including packet size, flow control, and error control. Thus, unlike circuit
switching, packet switching typically does not tie up a line indefinitely for the
benefit of sender and receiver. Transmissions require only the bandwidth needed
for forwarding any given packet, and because packet switching is also based on
multiplexing messages, many transmissions can be interleaved on the same
networking medium at the same time.
A recommendation of the ITU (formerly the CCITT), X.25 relates to the lowest
three network layers—physical, data link, and network— in the ISO reference
model:
At the lowest (physical) layer, X.25 specifies the means—electrical,
mechanical, and so on—by which communication takes place over the
physical media. At this level, X.25 covers standards such as RS-232, the
ITU's V.24 specification for international connections, and the ITU's V.35
recommendation for high-speed modem signaling over multiple telephone
circuits.
At the next (data link) level, X.25 covers the link access protocol, known as
LAPB (Link Access Protocol, Balanced), that defines how packets are
framed. The LAPB ensures that two communicating devices can establish
an error-free connection.
At the highest level (in terms of X.25), the network layer, the X.25 protocol
covers packet formats and the routing and multiplexing of transmissions
between the communicating devices.
On an X.25 network, transmissions are typically broken into 128-byte packets.
They can, however, be as small as 64 bytes or as large as 4096 bytes.
DTEs and DCEs As already mentioned, the sending and receiving computers on
an X.25 network are not known as computers, hosts, gateways, or nodes. They
are DTEs. In X.25 parlance, DTEs are devices that pass packets to DCEs, for
forwarding through the links that make up a WAN. DTEs thus sit at the two ends
of a network connection; in contrast, DCEs sit at the two ends of a
communications circuit
ATM
You're focused on networks when ATM no longer translates as "Automated Teller
Machine" but instead makes you immediately think "Asynchronous Transfer
Mode." All right. So what is Asynchronous Transfer Mode, and what is it good
for?
To begin with, ATM is a transport method capable of delivering not only data but
also voice and video simultaneously, and over the same communications lines.
Generally considered the wave of the immediate future in terms of increasing
both LAN and WAN capabilities, ATM is a connection-oriented networking
technology, closely tied to the ITU's recommendation on broadband
ISDN (BISDN) released in 1988.
What ATM is good for is high-speed LAN and WAN networking over a range of
media types from the traditional coaxial cable, twisted pair, and fiberoptic to
communications services of the future, including Fiber Channel, FDDI, and
SONET (described in later sections of this chapter).
Although ATM sounds like a dream, it's not. It's here, at least in large part.
Wireless router
A wireless router is a device that performs the functions of a router but also
includes the functions of a wireless access point and a network switch. They are
commonly used to allow access to the Internet or a computer network without the
need for a cabled connection. It can function in a wired LAN (local area network),
a wireless only LAN (WLAN), or a mixed wired/wireless network. Most current
wireless routers have the following characteristics:
LAN ports, which function in the same manner as the ports of a network
switch
A WAN port, to connect to a wide area network, typically one with Internet
access. External destinations are accessed using this port. If it is not used,
many functions of the router will be bypassed.
Wireless antennae. These allow connections from other wireless devices
(NICs (network interface cards), wireless repeaters, wireless access points,
and wireless bridges, for example), usually using the Wi-Fi standard.
Some wireless routers also include a DSL or cable modem in addition to their
other components.
5 steps: How to set up your home wireless network
You can use a wireless network (WLAN) to share Internet access, files, printers, game
consoles, and other devices among all the computers in your home. After you’ve
completed the initial wireless router setup and added your computers and devices to the
network, you can use your home network to surf the web or to play online games—
whether you're sitting in your living room or relaxing in your backyard. It's easier than
ever to set up a wireless network.
First, locate your cable modem or DSL modem and unplug it to turn it off.
Next, connect your wireless router to your modem. Your modem should stay
connected directly to the Internet. Later, after you've hooked everything up, your
computer will wirelessly connect to your router, and the router will send
communications through your modem to the Internet.
Next, connect your router to your modem:
Next, plug in and turn on your cable or DSL modem. Wait a few minutes to give it
time to connect to the Internet, and then plug in and turn on your wireless router.
After a minute, the Internet, WAN, or WLAN light on your wireless router should
light up, indicating that it has successfully connected to your modem.
Next, open Internet Explorer and type in the URL or address to configure your
router.
NOTE: Do this on the computer that you are using to set up your wireless
network. The computer automatically links you to the router’s page. If you type
the router’s URL on a different computer, typing the address in the navigation bar
will not take you to your router’s configuration page.
On the router configuration page, you might be prompted for a password. The
address and password you use varies depending on what type of router you
have, so refer to the instructions included with your router or on the
manufacturer’s website.
For quick reference, this table shows the default addresses, user names, and
passwords for some common router manufacturers. If the address is not listed
here, you can read the documentation that came with your router or go to the
manufacturer's webpage to find it. There may be multiple website addresses you
can use.
Internet Explorer shows your router's configuration page, along with the modem
IP address and other information. Most of the default settings should be fine, but
you need to configure three things:
When you set up most routers (stand-alone routers and modem routers), you
are asked to provide a pass phrase that the router uses to generate several
keys. Make sure that your pass phrase is unique and long (you don't need to
memorize it). Some routers and modem routers now come with a function
called Quick Security Setup (or QSS) that automatically issues you a key when
you press a button on the router.
Be sure to keep a hard copy and a digital copy of your network security key and
pass phrase, in case you lose or misplace them. You can recover a lost network
key or reset it on your router, but these are complicated processes that are
different for every router and they sometimes entail setting up your network
again.
Your administrative password, which controls your wireless network. Just
like any other password, it should not be a word that you can find in the
dictionary, and it should be a combination of letters, numbers, and symbols. Be
sure to save a hard copy and a digital copy of this password, too, because
you'll need it if you ever have to change your router's settings.
The exact steps you follow to configure these settings will vary depending on the
type of router you have. After each configuration setting, be sure to click Save
Settings, Apply, or OK to save your changes.
Now, before connecting your computers and devices to the network, you should
disconnect the wireless network cable from your computer.
Use the following links to find step-by-step instructions for adding your specific
computer or device to your network using your operating system. There are
instructions for each operating system, and they show you how to automatically
or manually add wired (Ethernet) or wireless computers and how to add
computers running Windows 7, Windows Vista, or Windows XP. There are also
instructions for adding printers and both wired and wireless devices.
5. Share files, printers, and more
Now that your computers and devices are connected, you can begin sharing files,
printers, games, and much more. One of the top reasons for setting up a home
network is to share a printer. Another is to share files.
Routing Protocols
A routing protocol is the implementation of a routing algorithm in software or
hardware.
A routing protocol uses metrics to determine which path to utilize to transmit a
packet across an internetwork.
The metrics used by routing protocols include:
Number of network layer devices along the path (hop count)
Bandwidth
Delay
Load
Routing involves two basic activities: determination of optimal routing paths and
the transport of information groups (typically called packets) through an
internetwork. The transport of packets through an internetwork is relatively
straightforward. Path determination, on the other hand, can be very complex. One
protocol that addresses the task of path determination in today’s networks is the
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). This chapter summarizes the basic operations of
BGP and provides a description of its protocol components. BGP performs
interdomain routing in Transmission-Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
networks. BGP is an exterior gateway protocol (EGP), which means that it
performs routing between multiple autonomous systems or domains and
exchanges routing and reachability information with other BGP systems. BGP
was developed to replace its predecessor, the now obsolete Exterior Gateway
Protocol (EGP), as the standard exterior gateway-routing protocol used in the
global Internet. BGP solves serious problems with EGP and scales to Internet
growth more efficiently
BGP Operation
BGP performs three types of routing: interautonomous system routing, intra-
autonomous system routing, and pass-through autonomous system routing.
Interautonomous system routing occurs between two or more BGP routers in
different autonomous systems. Peer routers in these systems use BGP to
maintain a consistent view of the internetwork topology. BGP neighbors
communicating between autonomous systems must reside on the same physical
network. The Internet serves as an example of an entity that uses this type of
routing because it is comprised of autonomous systems or administrative
domains. Many of these domains represent the various institutions, corporations,
and entities that make up the Internet. BGP is frequently used to provide path
determination to provide optimal routing within the Internet. Intra-autonomous
system routing occurs between two or more BGP routers located within the same
autonomous system. Peer routers within the same autonomous system use BGP
to maintain a consistent view of the system topology. BGP also is used to
determine which router will serve as the connection point for specific external
autonomous systems. Once again, the Internet provides an example of
interautonomous system routing. An organization, such as a university, could
make use of BGP to provide optimal routing within its own administrative domain
or autonomous system. The BGP protocol can provide both inter- and intra-
autonomous system routing services. Pass-through autonomous system routing
occurs between two or more BGP peer routers that exchange traffic across an
autonomous system that does not run BGP. In a pass-through autonomous
system environment, the BGP traffic did not originate within the autonomous
system in question and is not destined for a node in the autonomous system.
BGP must interact with whatever intra-autonomous system routing protocol is
being used to successfully transport BGP traffic through that autonomous
system.
BGP Routing
As with any routing protocol, BGP maintains routing tables, transmits routing
updates, and bases routing decisions on routing metrics. The primary function of
a BGP system is to exchange network-reach ability information, including
information about the list of autonomous system paths, with other BGP systems.
This information can be used to construct a graph of autonomous system
connectivity from which routing loops can be pruned and with which autonomous
system-level policy decisions can be enforced. Each BGP router maintains a
routing table that lists all feasible paths to a particular network. The router does
not refresh the routing table, however. Instead, routing information received from
peer routers is retained until an incremental update is received. BGP devices
exchange routing information upon initial data exchange and after incremental
updates. When a router first connects to the network, BGP routers exchange their
entire BGP routing tables. Similarly, when the routing table changes, routers send
the portion of their routing table that has changed. BGP routers do not send
regularly scheduled routing updates, and BGP routing updates advertise only the
optimal path to a network. BGP uses a single routing metric to determine the best
path to a given network. This metric consists of an arbitrary unit number that
specifies the degree of preference of a particular link. The BGP metric typically is
assigned to each link by the network administrator. The value assigned to a link
can be based on any number of criteria, including the number of autonomous
systems through which the path passes, stability, speed, delay, or cost.
METRIC - Metric measures how 'good' a route is. RIP uses the number of hops as
the metric. The route with the fewest number of hops is preferred.
Flush 120 sec. How long to wait to delete a route after it has timed out.
Password:
router# conf t
router(config)#interface ethernet 0
router(config-if)# exit
router(config-router)# exit
router(config-router)# ^z
router#
The example above assumes that the interfaces that will be running RIP
have IPaddresses on them that fall within the 204.191.42.0, and 204.191.43.0 class
C ranges.
Update Timers specifies how frequently IGRP routing messages will be sent. The
default is 90 seconds.
Invalid Timer specifies how long a router should wait in the absence of a routing-
update message of a specific route before declaring it invalid. The default is three
times the Update timer, 270 seconds.
Holddown Timer specifies the holddown period. The default is three times the
update timer plus 10 seconds, 280 seconds.
Flush Timer indicates how much time should pass before an IGRP route is
flushed from the routing table. The default is seven times the routing update
period, 630 seconds.
IGRP Configurations
Configuring IGRP is similar to configuring RIP in that after the router command
you must specify only directly connected (system routes) networks. The only
difference is in the command to enable the routing protocol. You must specify an
AS number when enabling IGRP. The AS number parameter specifies the
autonomous system number that is supported by this IGRP process and allows
multiple IGRP processes to run on a single router. The AS number can be
between 1 and 65,655.
For example:
RTR(config)# router igrp 10
RTR(config-router)# network 200.40.0.0
RTR(config-router)# network 200.30.0.0
Command Description
Show ip protocols Shows routing protocol parameters and current
timer values
Debug ip igrp Issues log messages with details of the IGRP
transactions updates.
Debug ip igrp events Issues log messages for each igrp updates
Ping Sends and receive ICMP echo messages to verify
connectivity
Trace Sends a series of ICMP echoes with increasing
TTL value
Show ip route Shows routing protocol parameters and current
timer values
Configuration
Router A
RouterA# conf t
RouterA(config-if)# exit
RouterA(config-if)# exit
Router B
RouterB# conf t
RouterB(config-if)# exit
RouterA(config-if)# exit
Testing
Sames as debug ip igrp events but also shows the routes that are advertised.
As with debugging any routing problem, look at the routing table. Is there a static
route that takes precendece?
This command is always useful to quickly verify which links are and which aren't.
OSPF
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) routing protocol is a Link State protocol
based on cost rather than hops or ticks (i.e. it is not a vector based routing
protocol). As with RIPv2 different sized subnet masks can be used within the
same network thereby allowing more efficient utilisation of available address
space. Also, OSPF supports unnumbered point to point links and equal cost
multipath (or load balancing for up to 6 paths; meaning balancing the distribution
of IP datagrams down parallel routes to the same destination router using a
round robin or a direct addressing option).
OSPF Networks
Within OSPF there can be Point-to-Point networks or Multi-Access networks. The
Multi-Access networks could be one of the following:
Forming Adjacencies
Each router within an Area maintains an identical LSDB by maintaining
communications with other routers by way of adjacencies. The formation of an
adjacency occurs between two routers A and B that are in the initial Down state
as follows:
1. Init state: Hello packets are exchanged between routers A and B, in order to
form a Neighbour Relationship. Then based on these packets they decide
whether or not to become adjacent. The Hello packet contains the router ID and
the hello and dead intervals and is sent to the multicast address 224.0.0.5. In
multi-access networks the hellos are sent every 10 seconds. The Dead Interval is
normally 4 times the Hello interval and is the time waited before the router
declares the neighbour to be down. The Hello packet also contains the router ID
is 32 bits and is normally the highest IP on the interface of the router or the
loopback address if that is configured. Bi-directional communication is confirmed
when the routers see each other in each other's hello packet. The Router
Priority and the DR/BDR addresses are also included and the routers have to
agree the Stub Area Flag and the Authentication Password.
The Hello Interval must be the same on each end of the adjacency otherwise the
adjacency will not form. In a Point-to-Point network this value is 10 seconds
whereas in a Non Broadcast Multiaccess Network (NBMA) the Hello Interval is 30
seconds.
The Dead Interval is 40 seconds in a Point-to-Point network and 120 seconds in a
Non Broadcast Multiaccess Network (NBMA).
The Metric Cost can be related to line speed by using the formula 108 / line speed
(bps)
FDDI/Fast Ethernet 1
Token Ring (16Mbps) 6
Ethernet 10
E1 48
T1 64
64 kb/s 1562
56 kb/s 1785
These costs are used to calculate the metric for a line and thus determine the
best route for traffic. The lowest cost to a destination is calculated usingDijkstras
Algorithm. The lowest cost link is used unless there are multiple equally low cost
links in which case load balancing takes place between up to 6 route entries.
RFC 2328 describes Dijkstras Algorithm (also called the Shortest Path First
(SPF) algorithm.
OSPF has a 5 second damper in case a link flaps. A link change will cause an
update to be sent only after 5 seconds has elapsed so preventing routers locking
up due to continually running the SPF algorithm and never allowing OSPF to
converge. There is also a timer that determines the minimum time between SPF
calculations, the default for this is often 10 seconds.
A Password can be enabled on a per Area basis so providing some form of
security and consistency in route information.
As mentioned earlier these are typically Frame Relay, ATM or X.25 networks that
have no broadcast capability but have many routers connected. There are three
types:
Hub and Spoke - a central router has links to other routers in a star
arrangement. A spoke can only talk to other spokes via the hub.
Full Mesh - each router has a link to every other router providing full
resilience.
Partial Mesh - not all routers have links to the central site.
1 Hello
2 Database Description
OSPF Areas
Within a network multiple Areas can be created to help ease CPU use in SPF
calculations, memory use and the number of LSAs being transmitted. 60-80
routers are considered to be the maximum to have in one area. The Areas are
defined on the routers and then interfaces are assigned to the areas. The default
area is 0.0.0.0 and should exist even if there is only one area in the whole network
(which is the default situation). As more areas are added, 0.0.0.0 becomes the
'backbone area'. In fact, if you have one area on its own then it could be
configured with a different area number than 0 and OSPF will still operate
correctly, but this should really be a temporary arrangement. You may for
instance, want to set up separate areas initially that are to be joined at a later
date. Separate LSDBs are maintained one per area and networks outside of an
area are advertised into that area, routers internal to an area have less work to do
as only topology changes within an area affect a modification of the SPF specific
to that area. Another benefit of implementing areas is that networks within an
area can be advertised as a summary so reducing the size of the routing table
and the processing on routers external to this area. Creating summaries is made
easier if addresses within an area are contiguous.
Internal router: All its directly connected networks are within the same area
as itself. It is only concerned with the LSDB for that area.
Area Border Router: This has interfaces in multiple areas and so has to
maintain multiple LSDBs as well as be connected to the backbone. It sends
and receives Summary Links Advertisements from the backbone area and
they describe one network or a range of networks within the area.
Backbone Router: This has an interface connected to the backbone.
AS Boundary Routers: This has an interface connected to a non-OSPF
network which is considered to be outside it's Autonomous System (AS).
The router holds AS external routes which are advertised throughout the
OSPF network and each router within the OSPF network knows the path to
each ASBR.
A RIP network will look at any IP address within an OSPF network as only one
hop away.
When configuring an area, authentication can be configured with a password
which must be the same on a given network but (as in RIPv2) can be different for
different interfaces on the same router.
Type 1: Router Links Advertisements are passed within an area by all OSPF
routers and describe the router links to the network. These are only flooded
within a particular area.
Type 2: Network Links Advertisements are flooded within an area by the DR
and describes a multi-access network, i.e. the routers attached to particular
networks.
Type 3: Summary Link Advertisements are passed between areas by ABRs
and describes networks within an area.
Type 4: AS (Autonomous System) Summary Link Advertisements are
passed between areas and describe the path to the AS Boundary Router
(ASBR). These do not get flooded into Totally Stubby Areas.
Type 5: AS External Link Advertisements are passed between and flooded
into areas by ASBRs and describe external destinations outside the
Autonomous System. The areas that do not receive these are Stub, Totally
Stubby and Not So Stubby areas. There are two types of External Link
Advertisements, Type 1 and Type 2. Type 1 packets add the external cost to
the internal cost of each link passed. This is useful when there are multiple
ASBRs advertising the same route into an area as you can decide a
preferred route. Type 2 packets only have an external cost assigned so is
fine for a single ASBR advertising an external route.
Type 6: Multicast OSPF routers flood this Group Membership Link Entry.
Type 7: NSSA AS external routes flooded by the ASBR. The ABR converts
these into Type 5 LSAs before flooding them into the Backbone. The
difference between Type 7 and Type 5 LSAs is that Type 5s are flooded into
multiple areas whereas Type 7s are only flooded into NSSAs.