EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY – IT’S MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE

In this age of science and technology, psychology has been considered as

one of the
youngest, yet one of the most influential sciences. It has influenced
education in many
different ways and has give a new turn; a psychological turn to the human
mind. For a
skilful teacher in this day and age, a great deal of knowledge of
educational psychology is
highly indispensable.
The subject psychology has two aspects pure and applied. Pure
psychology formulates
techniques for the study of human behaviour, which finds the practical
shape in its
applied aspects, i.e. branches of applied psychology like clinical
psychology, crime
psychology, industrial psychology, occupational psychology and
educational psychology.
Educational Psychology as a Branch of Applied Psychology
As discussed above educational psychology is nothing but one of the
branches of applied
psychology. It is an attempt to apply knowledge of pure psychology to the
field of
education. It consists of application of psychological principles and
techniques to human
behaviour in educational situations. In other words, Educational
Psychology is a study of
the experience and behaviour of the learner in relation to educational
environment. In
order to develop a clear understanding of the term educational
psychology it is necessary
to understand the meaning of psychology and education separately.
Meaning of Psychology
Curiosity in man has led to know his surroundings which mainly conclude
nature and
other fellow men. There is always a desire to ‘know’ what ‘one’ is, what is
his
background, what is it made of, what are the associated factors and in
what way can it be
useful to one self ? Each question will lead to more questions, Psychology
forces to
answer many of the questions we have about ourselves, other people and
the nature of
human life; why do we feel lonely ? Why do we forget ? How people
learn ? What makes
someone creative ? Why do we take drugs ? What makes some one help
others ? and so
on.
Psychology had its formal beginning when Wilhelm Wondt established his
psychological
laboratory in Leipzig Germany in 1879. But in real sense, interest in
psychology as a
discipline dates back to the work of Plato, Aristotle and other
philosophers.
Psychology – The Science of Soul
The Greek Philosophers conceived psychology as a science of soul, as
early as 400 B.C.
In fact, the term psychology literally means the science of soul.
Etymologically, it is
composed of two Greek words “Psyche” and Logos means soul and
science respectively.
Goeckel named it as psychologia. Soul is a being which dwells on the body
and with the
end of life it leaves the body. Soul is a metaphysical idea. It can neither be
perceived on
imagined nor its nature and function can be studied by scientific methods
of observation,
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experiment etc. Therefore, definition of psychology as the science of soul
has been
discarded by the modern psychologists.
Psychology – The Science of Mind
Some regard psychology as the science of mind. Historically the French
philosophers
like Descartes (1596-1650) and the Britisher philosophers like Locke
considered
psychology as the science of mind. Descartes tried to understand body
mind relationship
in terms of their interaction, the study of nervous system, and interest of
references as
innate actions, etc.
The definition of psychology as the science of mind is not acceptable at
present. Mind is
an ambiguous a concept as the soul. It is not at all possible to carry on
scientific
observation and experimentation on mind. This definition also does not
include the overt
behaviour of man and animal which are also important subject matter of
psychology.
Therefore, the definition of psychology as the science of mind has been
discarded.
Psychology – The Science of Consciousness
Psychology has also been defined as the science of consciousness.
Historically such a
definition has been propounded by the Leipzing school of psychologists
led by Withelm
Wundt (1832-1920). Wundt defined psychology as the science of
immediate experience
with consciousness being the main subject matter. He postulated that
conscious
experience can be reduced in to elements and the primary aim
psychology is the analysis
of conscious experience in to its elements.
But the definition of psychology as the science of consciousness is not
acceptable. That is
because mental life does not consist only of consciousness. There are
unconscious and
subconscious mental process which influence our behaviour in various
ways without our
knowledge.
Psychology – The Science of Experience
Titchner (1867 – 1927), the leader of the structuralists defines psychology
as the science
of conscious experience which is dependent upon the experiencing
person. To give an
example the physicit and the psychologist may be investigating about
sound. But whole
the former investigates the phenomena as such, the latter is interested as
to how it is
perceived by the observer. The mind is nothing but the sum total of the
conscious
experiences as perceived by a person. The subject matter of psychology is
the study of
such conscious experience which constitutes mind. The method of study
of conscious
experience is through the introspection of a trained observer.
Psychology – Study of Behaviour
Watson (1878-1958), an American brought about a revolution in
psychology called
behaviourism. He argued that psychology is to be regarded as a science
and as a science
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it is to limit itself to the study and analysis of publicly observable events
such as the
behaviour of the subject rather than subjective matters like his private
mental states. He
defined psychology as “the science of behaviour.”
Meaning of Science and Behaviour
Science has been defined as “Systematic study of knowledge” concerning
the relationship
between the cause and effect of a particular phenomenon. In order to
collect the
scientific data and systematised material, science employs various kinds
of methods of
enquiry such as observation classification formulation of hypothesis,
analysis of evidence
etc. It also organises and develops our knowledge of the word, we live on,
Psychology
too aims at same thing. It uses scientific methods to study human
behaviour. It also helps
us to understand control and predict human behaviour.
What is Behaviour
Behaviour is classified in three categories according to its content :
a) Cognitive behaviour where it is dominantly knowing or thinking, e.g.,
solving
questions.
b) Affective behaviour where the dominance is of feeling, e.g., the
emotional
experience of anger, fear, jealousy etc.
c) Conative behaviour where the dominance is of motor activity, e.g.,
cycling, playing
hockey etc.
Definition of Psychology - Some of the well know definitions of
psychology are as
under :
i) Definition by Woodworth : Psychology deals with the activities of the
individual
in relation to his environment.
ii) Skinner’s definition : Psychology is the science of behaviour and
experience.
iii) Munn’s definition : Psychology today concerns itself with the
scientific
investigation of behaviour.
iv) Definition by Garrison and others : Psychology is concerned with
observable
human behaviour.
Analysis of various Definitions :
If we analyse the definitions of Psychology given above, we shall come to
the following
conclusions :
1. Psychology is regarded as a science.
2. It is a positive science.
3. It is a branch of natural science. It is a science of behaviour and not of
matter. It
cannot be a pure science like mathematics and chemistry.
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4. It studies memory, imagination, thinking, learning, intelligence and
other sensory
experiences.
Meaning of the Term Education
Education is an activity, which goes on in the society. It attempts to
develop the
personality of an individual and then prepares him for membership in a
society. “Man
with education would still be living just like an animal. It is education,
which transforms
man from a ‘two legged animal’ into human. It helps him to behave like a
man and
prevents him from behaving like an animal. Any modification brought
about in the
behaviour of an individual as a result of his interaction with the
environment constitutes
learning.” Thus modification of behaviour of an individual for healthy
social adjustment
in the society is education.
Educational Psychology Defined :
1. Crow and Crow : “Educational psychology describes and explains the
learning
experiences of an individual from birth through old age.”
2. Charles E. Skinner : “Educational Psychology is that branch of
psychology which
deals with teaching and learning.”
3. Trow : “Educational Psychology is the study of psychological aspects of
educational
situations.”
4. Stephen : “Educational Psychology is the systematic study of the
educational growth
and development of a child.”
5. F.A. Peel : “Educational Psychology is the science of education.”
6. Walter B. Kolesnik : “Educational Psychology is the study of those facts
and
principles of psychology which help to explain and improve the process of
education.”
7. Anderson : “Educational Psychology is a subject to be studied, an area
or field of
knowledge, a set of application of laws and principles from a wide field of
knowledge
to a social process a set of tools and techniques, and a field of research.
While
General psychology is a pure science, Educational psychology is its
application in the
field of education with the aim of socialising man and modifying his
behaviour.”
8. Judd : “Educational Psychology is the science which explains the
changes that take
place in the individuals as they pass through the various stages of
development.”
Nature of Educational Psychology :
1. Educational Psychology is a Positive and not a normative science
2. Educational Psychology is a Behavioural Science
3. Educational Psychology is an Applied Science
4. Educational Psychology is Human Experimental Psychology
5. Educational Psychology is a Social Science
6. Educational Psychology is a Couselling Psychology
7. Educational Psychology is an Educational Science
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Scope of Educational Psychology
Scope means, the limits of a particular subject in the field of its operation,
what is to be
included in its or what subject matter does it contain comes under its
scope. Educational
psychology , as discussed so far, deals with the behaviour of the learner in
educational
situation only. Therefore, it becomes imperative that educational
psychology should limit
itself within the four walls of the teaching learning process and
educational environment.
It must try and solve the problems evolving in actual teaching-learning
situations and
help the individuals involved in this process.
The psychologists who deal with the problems of education are concerned
with what to
teach, when to teach and how to teach. A famous psychologist, Lindgren
points out that
educational psychology is concerned with understanding the learner, the
learning process
and the learning situation. The scope of educational psychology may be
discussed under
the following heads :
1. The Learner (pupil)
2. The learning process
3. The learning situation
4. The learning experience
5. The teacher
1. The Learner : The term learner applies to students who individually or
collectively
participate in the educational programmes. These students taken
collectively
constitute the class. In fact the behaviour of the class is none other than
the behaviour
of the students. There can be no teaching without there being a learner.
Therefore, Sir
John Adams once remarked “Teacher teaches John Latin. Teacher must
have the
knowledge of John, before he teaches Latin. Since the knowledge of John
is
psychology, teacher must study psychology.” The teaching of Latin
without the
knowledge of John will not be effective. Johnny (the learner) thus becomes
the centre
of the teaching – learning process.
From the psychological point of view Johnny is a child and he should be
considered not
as a small man but as a man in the making. His needs, ambitions, fears
and other
emotions are not the same as those of an adult. Treat him therefore as a
developing
organism which is a unique and not a small model of an adult. Two
learners of the same
age differ from one another in a number of ways. When one has a liking
for music and
dislike for mathematics and science another may have dislike for
mathematics and
science. Hence, while preparing the curriculum for the learners we must
take into
consideration the individual differences that exist among the learners.
However, intelligent is a learner may be he cannot become successful in
life if he lacks
motivation. Hence motivating the learner is very important in the
classroom situation
from psychological point of view. Not only motivation but also the
developmental
characteristics, personality, mental health, individual difference and
intelligence etc. of
the learner come under the scope of educational psychology.
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2) The Learning Process : Learning is the process by which we acquire
and retain
attitudes, knowledge, understanding, skills and capabilities that cannot be
attributed to
inherited behaviour patterns or physical growth. Capacity for learning is
related to innate
physiological factors. Rate of learning depends on both inherited and
environmental
factors.
Each type of learning goes by a different name :
a) Affective learning has to do with feelings and values and therefore
influences our
attitudes and personalities.
b) Cognitive learning is achieved by mental processes such as reasoning,
remembering
and recall. It helps in problem solving, developing new ideas and
evaluation.
c) Psychomotor learning has to do with the development of skills which
require efficient
coordination between our brains and muscles, as when we read or write or
carry out
physical skills such as balancing, skipping or juggling.
There are two main ways of learning :
a) Deductive learning : This describes the process by which a learner is
presented with a
hypothesis or general principle and applies a number of tests to it to
discover whether
it is true or not.
b) Inductive learning : This describes the process which is the reverse of
deductive
learning. In it, the leaner examines related matters to see whether any
general
conclusions can be drawn.
A number of theories have been put forward to explain how we learn. All
of them have
conceived of learning as a process that progresses in stages.
3) The Learning Situation : It is difficult to imagine any period of our
lives
situations, when we are not learning something, even though we are not
always
aware that we are learning. While walking down a street on any ordinary
day, we
continually modify our behaviour (Learning is commonly refers to the
modification of behaviour through experience) in response to
environment. Thus
learning situation covers all life experiences that modify our behaviour.
From academic point of view learning situation refers to the classroom
setting,
which is composed of pupils, a teacher and a room. All have unique
characteristics. In addition to these features, we also have the behaviour
of
teachers and pupils. Behaviour includes not only overt physical activity
such as
talking and doing, but also cognitive processes like cognizing, thinking
and
evaluating. In the classroom and the school, the teacher is to help bring
about
desirable changes in pupil behaviour. Through the teacher’s interaction
with
students and students’ interaction with one another, many desired
interests,
motives, social skills, and many outcomes in the cognitive and the
psychomotor
domains are acquired more efficiently than if there were no partial
interaction.
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4) The Learning Experience : Although Educational psychology does
not connect
itself directly with the problem of what to teach or connect itself directly
with the
problem of what to teach or what learning experiences are to be provided
for the
learner yet it has the full responsibility of suggesting techniques of
acquiring the
learning experiences. Once the task of Educational Philosophy to decide
the
aims and objectives of a piece of instruction at a particular stage is
finished the
need of educational psychology is felt. At this stage, educational
psychology
helps in deciding what learning experiences are desirable at what stage of
the
growth and development of the learner so that these experiences can be
acquired
with a greater case and satisfaction. In this area Educational Psychology
has the
subject matter which deals with the knowledge and principles of
psychology
which facilitates the selection of the desirable learning experiences for the
learner.
5) The Teacher : It is not enough for a carpenter to be good at sawing
planning and
polishing wood, because every kind of wood has different characteristics
and
behaves in different ways under his tools. The skilled carpenter needs to
know
about trees, their variety, their characteristics and how to make the best
use of
them. So is with the teacher. Teaching skills alone are not sufficient. He
must
understand the children as learners. He must try to recognize those
characteristics
that are of significance in helping each child to learn more effectively.
Any teacher who knows anything about learners is aware that growing up
is more
than growing bigger. Children are not little adults nor are adults big
babies. It is
essential, therefore, that teachers who are closely concerned with children
during
that period in life when some of the most important developments take
place
should know as much as possible about the process of growing and
developing.
One of the first things we notice when we try to understand the learners is
how
differently they are : how each develops at his own pace and along his
own path
of progress. No child is typical; each one is in his own way unique. Yet, like
the
doctor who must learn to recognize which symptoms are serious and
which are
trivial among his patients’ complaints, so the teacher must learn to
distinguish
between those variations that are normal and those that may indicate a
child in
need of special attention.
Understanding the learner from psychological point of view is an attempt
to find
out as much as possible about a particular learner by spending some time
with
him and learning about his physical, mental and personality
characteristics and
relevant facts about the environment in which he is growing up. Recording
such
child studies is important so that the information can be used in wider
studies or,
where necessary, for helping a child with problems.
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6) Positive Science : Education psychology is a positive science of
human
behaviour. In the role of science its function is to describe, control and
predict
human behaviour.
7) Applied Science : Education psychology is one of the applied
branches of
psychology. It is an applied behavioural science. It studies the behaviour
of the
educand (learner) in relation to learning.
8) Scientific Approach : Educational psychology adopts scientific
approach. It uses
scientific methods.
Obviously, the nature of Educational Psychology is scientific but this
statement
must be analysed to discover the nature of science and its characteristic
features.
9) Problem of behaviour : Education psychology studies the behaviour
of the
learner in learning situations. It studies the psychological as well as the
physiological behaviour of the learner. Psychological basis of behaviour
are
instincts, emotions, sentiments, suggestion, sympathy, imitation and play
etc.
Physiological basis of behaviour are nervous system and glands etc.
Educational
psychology studies all these psychological basis of behaviour.
10) Problems of individual differences : Educational psychology
studies individual
differences and suggests ways and means to provide education to all
types of
pupils. No two individuals are alike. Individuals differ physically and
psychologically. Individual differences are caused due to differences in
capacities
and capabilities, potentialities and propensities, abilities and intelligence,
attitudes and aptitudes, interests and sentiments, temperaments and
traits, age and
sex etc. It must be noted that individual differences are mainly caused by
heredity
and environment. Hence educational psychology studies all these areas.
11) Developmental stages : Educational psychology studies the nature
of growth and
development and general characteristics of physical, mental, emotional
and social
development at the various stages i.e., at the stage of infancy, late
childhood and
adolescence.
12) Personality and intelligence : Educational psychology also studies
nature,
development and assessment of personality and intelligence. Adjustment
problems with special reference to gifted, backward, handicapped,
problem and
delinquent children are also studied by educational psychology.
13) Measurement and evaluation : Measurement and evaluation is
another
important field of educational psychology. It gives new and new
techniques and
tests for measuring intelligence, personality, aptitudes, interests and
achievements etc. It is educational statistics which helps us in
measurement and
evaluation.
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14) Guidance and counselling : It is only after successful study of
educational
psychology that a teacher can discharge his duties successfully. The
teacher has
to guide and counsel the students at every stage. Rousseau was of the
opinion that
a child is like a book whose every page has to be studied by the teacher.
The
impact of the saying is that the teacher should give educational and
psychological
guidance and counselling to the pupils.
15) Group Dynamics and group behaviour : Educational psychology
studies group
dynamics and group behaviour in classroom teaching learning. It studies
importance and effect of group on the individual. It also considers how an
individual can modify the group life. It emphasizes the role of groups in
the
education of children. It is on this basis that now in the school, the
formation of
healthy groups and providing of a healthy environment is considered most
desirable and essential.
16) Research : Educational psychology deals with the latest techniques
of
experimentation and research. We can control direct and predict the
behaviour of
students on the basis of research studies in classroom teaching. The
teacher can
take up action research which he can easily carry for his personal
satisfaction and
immediate solution for his difficulties
REFERENCES
A manual of Educational Psychology – J.S.Wallia
Fundamentals Educational Psychology- R.A. Sharma
Fundamentals Educational Psychology- S.P. Chaube
Educational Psychology – (A.B, Meenakshi, Bhatnagar
A Manual of Psychology- J.S.Wallia
Advanced Educational Psychology-S.S.Chauhan
Advanced Educational Psychology- B. Kuppuswamy
Advanced Educational Psychology-M.Dash, Neena Dash
AEDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: MEANING AND
DEFINITIONS
What is education? In order to know the educational psychology; we
have to first understand what is education. The world education is derived
from Latin word educare which means to bring-up. Education is also derived
from another Latin world educere which means to lead out. Education as
educere is more acceptable as it means leading an individual from ignorance
to knowledge.
Education can be defined as the process of imparting or acquiring knowledge
and habits through instruction or study. It can also be defined as a process in
which human behaviour is modified so as to be in closer agreement with
some model or ideal determined by the values of society. If education is to be
effective, it should result in changes in all the behavioural components.
Education
It is the process of bringing desirable change into the behaviour of human beings.
What is educational psychology?
Educational Psychology is a combination or overlapping of two separate fields
of study; psychology and education. It is a distinct discipline with its own
theories, research methods, problems and techniques. Educational
psychology is distinct from other fields of psychology (see Box#2) due to its
focus on understanding the processes of teaching and learning that takes
place in formal environments. Educational psychologists study what people
think and do as they teach and learn a particular curriculum in a particular
environment where education and training are intended to take place. They
help in developing instructional methods and materials used to train people
in both educational and work settings. They are also concerned with research
on issues of relevance for education, counselling and learning problems. Dr
Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page 7
Educational psychology deals with behaviour of human beings in educational
situation (see Box#3 for definitions of educational psychology). This means
that educational psychology is concerned with the study of human behaviour
or human personality, its growth, development, guidance under the social
process of education. Education is possible in human beings; hence, human
learning is the central core of educational psychology.
Box#3: Definitions of Educational Psychology

• Educational psychology is that branch of psychology, which deals with teaching

and learning. It takes its meaning from education, social process and from
psychology, a behavioural science (Skinner).

• Educational Psychology is the discipline concerned with teaching and learning

processes; applies the methods and theories of psychology and has its own as
well (Woolfolk, 1995).
dvaEDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: MEANING AND
DEFINITIONS
What is education? In order to know the educational psychology; we
have to first understand what is education. The world education is derived
from Latin word educare which means to bring-up. Education is also derived
from another Latin world educere which means to lead out. Education as
educere is more acceptable as it means leading an individual from ignorance
to knowledge.
Education can be defined as the process of imparting or acquiring knowledge
and habits through instruction or study. It can also be defined as a process in
which human behaviour is modified so as to be in closer agreement with
some model or ideal determined by the values of society. If education is to be
effective, it should result in changes in all the behavioural components.
Education
It is the process of bringing desirable change into the behaviour of human beings.
What is educational psychology?
Educational Psychology is a combination or overlapping of two separate fields
of study; psychology and education. It is a distinct discipline with its own
theories, research methods, problems and techniques. Educational
psychology is distinct from other fields of psychology (see Box#2) due to its
focus on understanding the processes of teaching and learning that takes
place in formal environments. Educational psychologists study what people
think and do as they teach and learn a particular curriculum in a particular
environment where education and training are intended to take place. They
help in developing instructional methods and materials used to train people
in both educational and work settings. They are also concerned with research
on issues of relevance for education, counselling and learning problems. Dr
Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page 7
Educational psychology deals with behaviour of human beings in educational
situation (see Box#3 for definitions of educational psychology). This means
that educational psychology is concerned with the study of human behaviour
or human personality, its growth, development, guidance under the social
process of education. Education is possible in human beings; hence, human
learning is the central core of educational psychology.
Box#3: Definitions of Educational Psychology

• Educational psychology is that branch of psychology, which deals with teaching

and learning. It takes its meaning from education, social process and from
psychology, a behavioural science (Skinner).

• Educational Psychology is the discipline concerned with teaching and learning

processes; applies the methods and theories of psychology and has its own as
well (Woolfolk, 1995).
nced EducWhat is intelligence?
INTELLIGENCE: MEANING AND DEFINITIONS
The concept of intelligence is very important in education but it is quite
controversial and often misunderstood. Intelligence is a key construct
employed to know how individuals differ from one another. It also provides an
understanding of how people adapt their behaviour according to the
environment in which they live.
Intelligence: meaning

• The capacity to learn

• The total knowledge a person has acquired

• The general ability to perform cognitive tasks

• The capacity to learn from experience or the capacity to adapt to one’s own
environment

• The ability to adapt successfully to new situation and to the environment in general

Intelligence: definition
It is the cognitive ability of an individual to learn from experience, to reason well, to
remember important information, and to cope with the demands of daily lii
Intelligence is the ability of an individual to cope with his environment. It may
be thought out as a composite of organisation or an organisation of activities
to learn, to grasp broad and subtle facts especially abstract facts with
alertness and accuracy to exercise mental control and to display flexibility in
seeking the solutions of problems (see box # 1 for definitions). Intelligence
characterises the whole behaviour of an individual and is sum of her/his
abilities which are quantitatively differentiable. Intelligence is the product of
heredity and environment. The opportunities to learn vary widely, yet the
inherited capacity as modified by maturation accounts for a greater part of
the individual variability. In order to understand concept of intelligence, we
have to know its theories. Uni or one factor theory
Box #1: Definitions of Intelligence

• Intelligence is the ability to judge well, reason well and act well (Binet).
• Intelligence is the global or aggregate capacity of an individual to think
rationally, act purposefully, and to deal effectively with her/his environment
(Wechsler).

• Intelligence is the capacity to learn and adjust to relatively new and changing
conditions (Wagnon).

• Intelligence is the the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to

accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture (Sternberg).

• Intelligence is the capacity to do something useful in the society in which we

live. Intelligence is the ability to respond successfully to new situations and the
capacity to learn from one’s past experiences (Gardner).

• Intelligence is the ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge for solving
problems and adapting to the world (Woolfolk).

Some psychologists believe intelligence is a basic ability that affects

performance on all cognitively oriented tasks. An intelligent person Dr Arvind
Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page 11
will do well in computing mathematical problems, analysing poetry, taking
history essay examinations, and solving riddles. Two-factor theory
Spearman suggested that intelligence consisted of a general factor (g-
factor) and some specific factors (s-factors). The g-factor includes mental
operations which are primary and common to all performances. In addition to
the g-factor, he said that there are also many specific abilities. These are
contained in what he called the s-factor. Excellent singers, architects,
scientists, and athletes may be high on g-factor, but in addition to this, they
have specific abilities which allow them to excel in their respective domains.
Multiple theory of intelligence According to Gardner, all human beings
possess at least eight intelligences (see Box #2). Thus, intelligence is not a
single entity; rather distinct types of intelligences exist. Each type of
intelligence is independent one. It means, if a person exhibits one type of
intelligence, it does not necessarily indicate being high or low on other types
of intelligences. Gardner also put forth that different types of intelligences
interact and work together to find a solution to a problem.
Box #2: Eight types of intelligence (Gardner)

• Linguistic (skills involved in the production and use of language): It is the

capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one’s thinking and
understands others.

• Logical-Mathematical (skills in scientific thinking and problem solving): It is

the ability think logically and critically.

• Spatial (skills in forming visual images and patterns): It refers to the abilities
involved in forming, using, and transforming mental images.

• Musical (sensitivity to musical rhythms and patterns): It is the capacity to

produce, create and manipulate musical patterns.

• Bodily-Kinaesthetic (using whole or portions of the body flexibly and

creatively): This consists of the use of the whole body or portions of it for display
or construction of products and problem solving.

• Naturalistic (sensitivity to the features of the natural world): This involves

complete awareness of our relationship with the natural world.

• Interpersonal (sensitivity to subtle aspects of others’ behaviours): This is the

skill of understanding the motives, feelings and behaviours of other people so as
to bond into a comfortable relationship with others.

• Intrapersonal (awareness of one’s own feelings, motives, and desires): This

refers to the knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitations and using that
knowledge to effectively relate to others.
Dr Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page
12
Intelligence as a Process
Box #3: Sternberg’s view of Intelligence

• Componential (analytical) Intelligence: It is the ability to think abstractly,

process information and determine what needs to be done. This intelligence has
three components, each serving a different function. First is the knowledge
acquisition component, which is responsible for learning and acquisition of the
ways of doing things. The second is the Meta or a higher order component, which
involves planning concerning what to do and how to do. The third is the
performance component, which involves actually doing things.

• Experiential (creative) Intelligence: It is the ability to formulate new ideas

and combine unrelated facts. It is involved in using past experiences creatively
to solve novel problems. It is reflected in creative performance. Persons high on
this aspect integrate different experiences in an original way to make new
discoveries and inventions.

• Contextual (practical) Intelligence: It is the ability to adapt to a changing

environment and to shape one’s world to optimise opportunities. It may be called
‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’.

Sternberg’s triarchic theory suggests that intelligent behaviour is the product

of applying thinking strategies, handling new problems creatively and
quickly, and adapting to contexts by selecting and reshaping our
environment. Sternberg believes that intelligence is comprised of three
separate, though interrelated abilities: analytical, creative, and practical (see
box #3).
Concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
In 1912, William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the concept of
Intelligence Quotient (IQ). The IQ is the ratio between the individual’s mental
age and her/his chronological age. In order to avoid fractions, the ratio is
multiplied by 100. Mental Age (MA): It is a measure of a person’s
intellectual development relative to people of her/his age group. A mental
age of 12 means that a student’s performance on an intelligence test equals
the average performance level of a group of 12 year olds. Chronological
Age (CA): It is the biological age or actual age in year from birth. A bright
student’s MA is more than her/his CA; for a dull student, MA is below the CA.
IQ: facts or features

• IQ value varies at least within a period of three years.

• IQ changes as result of change in environment.

• IQ does not rise all of a sudden, it goes up slowly.

• There is no relationship between the success and IQ.

• There is some relationship between the intelligence of the child and father’s
occupation.
Dr Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page
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According to formula, a student with mental age of 10 and chronological age
of eight should have IQ of 125. The level of intelligence may be indicated as
follows:
S No Category Level of IQ
Idiot 0-25

1.

Imbecile 25-50

2.

Moron 50-70

3.

Below Normal 70-90

4.

Normal 90-110

5.

Superior 110-120

6.

Very superior 120-140

7.

Genius 140 and above

8.

The concept of general intelligence is too broad to be much practical value.

For convenience, therefore, psychologists often distinguish three kinds of
intelligence.

1. Abstract intelligence

It is the ability to understand and deal with verbal and mathematical

symbols. Out of the three, this is the one that receive greatest weight.
Professional people are high in abstract intelligence. For instance, if a farmer
knows about iron deficiency in sugarcane, if same mineral deficiency occurs
in other crop, he can find it.

2. Mechanical intelligence

It is the ability to understand and deal with things, objects etc and more
concerned with the skills of individuals. Industrialists and building traders’ are
high in this intelligence. For instance, a farmer who is having mechanical skill
to perform spraying operation does fast and effectively than those with less
mechanical skill.

3. Social intelligence

It is the ability to understand and deal with persons, to apply psychological

principles of human relationship. SalesThe concept of general intelligence is
too broad to be much practical value. For convenience, therefore,
psychologists often distinguish three kinds of intelligence.

1. Abstract intelligence

It is the ability to understand and deal with verbal and mathematical

symbols. Out of the three, this is the one that receive greatest weight.
Professional people are high in abstract intelligence. For instance, if a farmer
knows about iron deficiency in sugarcane, if same mineral deficiency occurs
in other crop, he can find it.

2. Mechanical intelligence

It is the ability to understand and deal with things, objects etc and more
concerned with the skills of individuals. Industrialists and building traders’ are
high in this intelligence. For instance, a farmer who is having mechanical skill
to perform spraying operation does fast and effectively than those with less
mechanical skill.

3. Social intelligence

It is the ability to understand and deal with persons, to apply psychological

principles of human relationship. Salesperson, politician, diplomat possess
this intelligence. person, politician, diplomat possess this intelligence.
FACTORS AFFECTING INTELLIGENCE
There are numerous factors which directly or indirectly affect the intelligence
of the individual and which make up the behaviour pattern of the individual.
These factors may be of the following forms:
Evidence of heredity

• Identical twins have more similar IQs than fraternal twins.

• Siblings reared together in the same home have more similar IQs than those of
adopted children raised together in the same environment.
1. Heredity and environment

There is a general consensus among psychologists that intelligence is a

product of complex interaction of heredity (nature) and environment
(nurture). Heredity can best be viewed as something that sets a range within
which an individual’s development is actually shaped by the support and
opportunities of the environment. For example, if a person has tall parents, it
is likely that the individual will also grow to be tall. However, the exact height
of the person can be influenced by environmental factors, such as nutrition
and disease. Heredity provides the physical body to be developed with
certain inherent capabilities, while environment provides for the maturation
and training of the organism. Newman (1940) concluded that variation in IQ
were determined about 68 per cent by heredity and 32 per cent by
environment. This was an average statistical determination.
Evidence of environment

• Identical twins reared apart have less similar IQs than identical twins reared in the
same environment.

• School attendance has an impact on IQ scores.

• Children who are breast fed during the first three to five months of life score higher on
IQ tests at age 6 than same-age children who were not breastfed.

2. Age

A person who is bright or dull in his childhood tends to remain bright or dull
throughout his life. The evidence shows that a person achieves his maximum
IQ at about 20 years of age and remains relatively stable until around 70
years of age. Some abilities remain constant, while others decline rapidly due
to declining physical efficiency.

3. Health and physical development

Physical and mental health may be related to one’s ability to gain desirable
achievements in mental activity. With delicate health, one may not posses
enough energy to engage in mental activity to achieve necessary success.
Physical defects such as incomplete maturation of brain cells may result in
subnormal intelligence.

4. Sex
Dr Arvind Kumar, Associate Professor (Ext Edu), COA, CSK HPKV, Palampur (HP) Page
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Analysis of performance on scientific items of intelligence test appear to
show that there is a slight superiority of boys in questions that involve
mathematical material and scientific concepts, and that girls excel in material
that deals more directly with humanities.

5. Race

There is no convincing evidence to show how far race is a factor in

determining intellectual level.

6. Culture

Culture also influences the intelligence of the individual to some extent.

Sternberg’s notion of contextual or practical intelligence implies that
intelligence is a product of culture. In technologically advanced societies,
persons are well-versed in skills of attention, observation, analysis,
performance, speed, and achievement orientation due to the adoption of
child rearing practices that foster these types of skills. Therefore, the test in
this respect should be standardised from one culture to another culture.

7. Social and economic conditions

As the home plays a significant role in the early development years, it can be
expected that home conditions can exercise considerable influence on
behaviour and attitudes. The activities, interests, and financial status of
parents and of other adults in the neighbourhood environment may provide
for the child poor, relatively meagre, or an extremely rich series of
experiences. Drive and motivation can operate to overcome social and
economic handicaps.