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Chapter 6 KINDS OF ECOSYSTEMS AND COMMUNITIES

Succession
ecosystems are dynamic changing units
plants and animals grow and die out
animals feed on plants and other animals and decomposers recycle the dead and waste
material
Abiotic factors (temp. and rainfall, sunlight intensity and seasonality) have a major effect
on type of community

Any change will affect many organisms

conditions are key as to what organisms live in the community

organisms have specific needs and conditions that must be met to survive

Trends emerge in the way the structure of the community changes

climate is a great influence

A community becomes established that is long term, stable and self-perpetuating

This concept---that communities proceed through a predictable series of recognizable


predictable changes in structure over time is called SUCCESSION.

The stable long lasting community that results is called a CLIMAX COMMUNITY

NOTE: succession is not always neat and predictable but we will look at general model
and the look at exceptions

Traditional View--- type of community is determined by climate primarily.

some communities are grassland, some deserts, some are forests

Why does succession occur?

The activities of organisms change the environment and make the environment suitable
for other types of organisms.

These new organisms compete with the original inhabitants and may replace them
completely

OR they original species may become less numerous and invading species take a
dominant role.

Over time it is recognized that the community has changed significantly.


What controls pace and direction of succession?

climate, locally available seed sources, frequent disturbance, invasion of organisms from
the outside.

Two types: Primary and Secondary

Primary Succession

begins with total lack of organisms and bare mineral surfaces or rock. where do we see
this?

lava flows, glacial scraping to bedrock, ocean drop

takes a LONG TIME because there is NO SOIL and not many nutrients for plants to use
for growth.

Secondary Succession

much more commonly observed, much FASTER-- why?---there is soil and organic matter

begins with destruction or disturbance of existing ecosystem---what does this?

fire, flood, windstorm or human activity

there is soil , roots and seeds that survive

In detail

Primary succession can occur in terrestrial and aquatic environments

TERRESTRIAL PRIMARY SUCCESSION

can be on bare rock or pure sand

http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/primarysuccession.jpg

Factors that determine rate of succession and type of climax community

kind of substrate rock sand or clay will determine final soil produced

kinds of spores, seeds or reproductive structures will determine final species that will
colonize the area

climate will determine the type of species and rate of growth


rate of growth will determine the rate organic matter accumulate in soil

substrate and climate and amount of organic matter available will influence the amount of
water available for plant growth.

Bare Rock-- or Sand -- very inhospitable place for organisms to live

Why?--temperature changes radically, no soil, little moisture, exposure to wind, few


nutrients, few places to hide or attach

so... who can live here? wind blown spores or other reproductive units of organisms can
become established and survive

these are called PIONEER ORGANISMS --they are the first to colonize

common are LICHENS-- a mutualistic relationship between bacteria and algae that carry
on PHOTOSYNTHESIS and a fungi that attach to rock surface and provide moisture.

http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/images/332/Lichens/Foliose_lichen_130_d.gif
http://bugs.bio.usyd.edu.au/Mycology/images/Topics/Plant_Interactions/Lichens/yellowL
ichen.jpg
http://www.ubcbotanicalgarden.org/potd/lichen_diversity1.jpg

This is a slow process and dinner plate size may take 100 years

What do lichens provide? They are producers and some organisms feed lichens or are
protected by them or use the moisture they retain

Firmly attached and accumulate airborne debris

They produce ACIDS which cause the breakdown of the rock into smaller particles.

This is important and with weathering, physical and chemical of the rock and with
trapping of debris and contribution of organic matter by death of lichen and other
organisms----leads to soil accumulation (a thin layer)

This layer of soil is key to next stage in succession

Functions of this soil layer -- retain water, support fungi small worms, insects, bacteria,
protozoa, and maybe a few annual plants (very small) that can produce flowers and seeds
and germinate following season.

wind and rain can bring small organisms

growth reproduce and die-----more soil building, thicker and more water retention end
11-19-----------------------------------
Annual plants dominate here and will shade out the lichens, which die out

annuals are replaced by perennial grasses and herbs and these are replaced by larger
perennial woody shrubs

shrubs are replaced by larger trees that require lots of sunlight ---these trees are replaced
by shade tolerant trees because the seedlings of sun-loving trees cannot survive in the
shade of their parents while the seedlings of shade tolerant trees can.

end product--- relatively stable, long lasting, interrelated climax community of plants,
animals, fungi, and bacteria.

Each step for pioneer community to climax community is called a SUCCESSIONAL


STAGE OR SERAL STAGE

The entire sequence of stages from pioneer to climax community is called a sere

Important----process can continue or STOP


example--extreme climates lichen communities can last for hundreds of year and must be
considered climax community

others reach grass-herb and proceed no further

depends on soil type and climate

Sucessional v. Climax Communities

Characteristics of Climax Communitiies

characteristic climax successional


maintain mix of temporary mix of
mix of species
species species
niches specialized niches generalized niches
organism interactions many fewer
nutrients and recycle nutrients, accumulate new
biomass constant biomass material

General trend----toward increasing complexity and more efficient use of matter and
energy compared to the successional communities that preceded them--why is this?----

darwinian evolution--the most efficient wins, more complex, more adaptable

primary succession animation


http://techalive.mtu.edu/meec/demo/PrimarySuccession.htm

primary succession on a glacial morraine

http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp55/55020.html

primary succession animation

http://techalive.mtu.edu/meec/demo/PrimarySuccession.html

Aquatic Primary Succession

can apply same principles as terrestrial HOWEVER except for oceans , aquatic systems
are considered temporary

Temporary can last hundreds or thousands of years BUT they will be replaced by
terrestrial ecosystems as a result of NORMAL successional processes

End 11-20--------------------------------------------------------

All aquatic systems receive continuous input of soil particles and organic matter from
land which results in gradual filling in of SHALLOW bodies of water like lakes and
ponds

In DEEP portions of lakes and ponds only floating algae and plants can
exist.....HOWEVER as sediment accumulates some species can establish roots in bottom
of shallow bodies of water.

Photosynthesis leads to growth of organic matter.

Also plants trap sediment so water depth decreases.

Emergent plants become established, leaves that float and network of roots and stem----
more material accumulates and water depth decreases

Process continues and wet soil is formed and plants and grasses that can live there
become established

Plants draw water from soil and more material is added, soil get drier.

then it goes into terrestrial succession

Since there is shallower portions at the shore we can see various stages of aquatic
succession near the shore

from the deep part with floating algae and plants to near shore, submerged plants like
Elodea and algae mates, then emergent plants like lilies and cattails, then grasses and
sedges that can tolerate wet soil and then on the shore typical terrestrial succession for the
area (climate)

In northern ponds and lakes sphagnum moss forms thick floating mats. These mats allow
grasses and plants to grow that can tolerate wet soil. The roots of the plants bind together
the mats and create a floating bog which can contain small trees and shrubs and many
flowering plants. Trees can sway or you can fall through. Eventually bogs will dry and
normal climax vegetation for area will succeed the temporary bog stage. Secondary
Succession

The same processes drive primary and secondary succession

Major difference---secondary occurs when existing community is destroyed by much of


the soil and some organisms remain

Examples:---Forest fire, flood or conversion to agriculture

since soil remains the rate of secondary succession is very fast

ALSO since some organism survive--they can re-establish themselves rapidly

The FOUNDER EFFECT-

Others organisms can survive as root and seeds and can quickly reestablish themselves.

ALSO undamaged adjacent communities can serve as sources of seeds and animals that
can MIGRATE

For these reasons--the new climax community can resemble the old one--often this is the
case.

EXAMPLE beavers flooding a terrestrial community---replaced by aquatic community


---eventually the wetland fills in and goes through the stages of: floating plants,
submerged plants, emergent plants, wet meadow and most probably will return the

climax community typical for the area.

photos below show beaver succession......

http://www.kellscraft.com/RomanceoftheBeaver/RomanceoftheBeaverCh03.html

Many communities exist only in successional stages and are continually reestablished
following disturbances like floods or fire.
Many woodlands exist on flood plain and need recurrent floods to maintain the species
mix

So forest and shrub communities depend on FIRE

Windstorms are another example of a clearings or openings being made in the forest and
will result in certain types of plant communities.

MODERN CONCEPTS OF SUCCESSION AND CLIMAX

The above discussion of succession is an oversimplification

History

European settlers come to North American and see huge expanses of forests and other
communities of species, for example hardwood forests in the East, evergreen forests in
the North, grassland in the central part of N. A. and deserts in the Southwest.

These communities were considered STEADY STATE OR NORMAL

Thought was that this was the end of a long journey with an endpoint or climax
beginning with formation of soil to colonization by plants and animals

The settlers removed forest or grassland and converted to agriculture and the climax
community was destroyed

Poor farming ruins soil and farmers move on and abandon land

Secondary succession takes place and forests and communities return that resemble but
are not identical to the original community
Less diversity---some were very different communities

These new stable communities were called CLIMAX COMMUNITIES but they were
NOT the same as the original climax community.

ALSO new species were introduced from Europe and other places, on purpose or by
accident and these could establish themselves, these "NON NATIVE" species

Diseases also arrived, like Dutch elm disease and Chestnut blight, and removed dominant
species

So a more flexible definition was made as ecologist recognized that there was no FIXED
OR PREDETERMINED community.

The concept of climax community is more plastic today. It is still used to talk about a
stable stage but ecologist no longer feel that the land will return to a predetermined or
preordained climax commmunity.

ALSO---climax community depends on other factors than CLIMATE and SOIL

availability of seeds and how they are carried in by wind or animals or if they can lie
dormant or a long time.

so-----two areas with similar soil and climate can develop into different successional and
climax communities

ALSO you must consider time scale-- all communities are eventually replaced

examples--the swamps that produced the oil, gas and coal deposits and the
PREGLACIAL forests or North America and Europe

human activities like logging, fire suppression, agriculture, change amount of water
available (draining or irrigation) ALL PRODUCE A DIFFERENT CLIMAX
COMMUNITY

So the term climax community can be seen as embracing a false notion there there is a
specific endpoint BUT there is still a recognizable pattern of change during succession
and later stages are MORE STABLE AND LONGER LASTING

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