Tool Holding and work holding

Definition of Terms

Locations - The surfaces (and also lines and points) of the work piece which
orient it on the machine are called locating features, or simply
locations. The position of the work piece determined by its locating
features is called location.

Locating surfaces - Are surfaces used to locate the part.

Referencing - Surfaces from which the size to be held and checked in machining.

Datum features - are those to which the dimensions to be held are referred in
machining and assembly.

Jig - is a special device which holds, supports, or is placed on a part to be

machined.

Fixture - is production tool that locates, holds, and supports the work securely to
the required machining operations can be performed.

Repeatability - is the feature of the tool which allows different parts to be

machined consistently the same with in their required tolerances.

Fool proofing - is a means the designer uses to insure that the part will fit in to the
tool only in its correct position.

Theory & Practice of Locating Work Pieces

From a technological point of view dimension of a part may be termed a distance

between the locator and the cutting edge. It is the resultant or the closing
member of the machine tool, cutting tool fixture and complex kinematic chain.
The definitions imply all efforts necessary:

- To assure the accuracy of the work piece as established on the part

drawing
- To in sure precision in any machining operation
- To in sure the work position with respect to the tool (called referencing)
- To insure the desired accuracy the tool designer must make sure the part
is precisely locate and rigidly supported.
LOCATIONS: One of the causes of work piece dimensional and geometrical
errors is the error locating the work piece in a machine tool. Any
work piece has:

- Surfaces to be machined
- Surfaces which orient the work piece with respect to a cutting
tool set to size.
- Surfaces which contact work holder clamping elements.
- Surfaces which the size to be held and checked in machining
(referenced) and
- Free surfaces

Locating features (locations) can be divided in to:

- Basic
- Functional
- Datum and
- Production types

• The basic locations are selected when designing a product, which

determine the nominal position of its components & units relative to each
other (as geometric element such as axes of holes and shafts, planes of
symmetry, the bisectors of angles)
• The functional location elements are those use to determine the position of
a part in the product. The functional locations are provided by actual
material surfaces. The datum features - are those to which the dimensions
to be held are referred in machining and assembly.
• The production locating surfaces are those used to determine the positions
of a work piece being processed (machine, assembled, etc) production
locating surfaces are divided into the main and auxiliary kinds.
- The main locating surfaces are in fact integral features of parts and carry
out specific functions in the product.
- The auxiliary or artificial locating surfaces are created on, work pieces to
facilitate their machining. They are not needed for part functioning and can
be removed after machining when necessary.

LOCATORS

Locators are usually made separate from fixture or jig body, and are of direct or
case hardened steel accurately ground to size (to give a slight clearance fit in the
case of cylindrical location)

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Locators are classified as:

• Flat
• Cylindrical
• Conical and
• Vee

They may be fixed or adjustable according circumstances.

REDUNDANT LOCATION

A redundant location exists when two locators are attempting to constrain one
freedom from two location points. It must be avoided. Redundant location will
also occur if a work piece is located from two concentric cylinders, or between
two fixed vee locators.

The Choice of Location System

The requirement of the location system depend upon the operation being
performed, and upon the work piece before the operation. When there is a choice
of location points the most effective location system must be selected. The
cylinder is the best location shape, because a cylindrical locator is the least
difficult to produce and a single locator of this shape will eliminate five of the six
degrees of freedom.

THE DUTY OF THE LOCATION SYSTEM

The location system must, in conjunction with the clamping system, completely
constrain the work piece, or eliminate as many of the six degrees of freedom as
is necessary for the operation to be completed with the required accuracy.

THE SIX DEGREE OF FREEDOM

- Three translation freedom &

- Three rotation freedom

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Fig. 7 Six degrees of freedom

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Selection of locating surfaces - Theoretically, any surface, real or imaginary, may
be chosen as one of the three locating surfaces:
• Any surface
• Real surfaces - are those existing on the work piece
• Imaginary surfaces - are the plane of symmetry and
- The center line can be considered as the intersection of two planes
of symmetry

KINEMATICS ASPECTS - It must be first decided weather the part need be

completely or partially determined. This will help to establish the number of
locating surfaces and locators required.

Consequently the decision determines the complex of the fixture required the
operation and will affect its cost.

The selected locating surfaces must accommodate:

- Sufficient number of properly arranged locators, satisfying the type of
locating requirement involved.
- Involves the necessity for movable locators if the position of the part must
be completely determined.

GEOMETRICAL ASPECTS - The angular error is introduced by misalignment of

locators can be expressed as
∆ α = tan-1 (m/d)
- Where m - the number of misalignment
d - the distance between locators

For a given m, ∆ α decreases when d increased.

∆ α = tan-1 (m/d)

Fig. 9 The effect of locator misalignment on work piece.

According to this observation:

1. The surface located by three locators of the surface of registry, should be

the largest surface of the part
2. The surface located by two locators or the surface of orientation should be
the largest surface of the part

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3. The surface located by one locator can be the surface of the part having
an area sufficient for one locator

MECHANICAL ASPECTS - The locating surfaces should be chosen so as to

best resist the forces of clamping and machining operations
- thin walled locating can cause work deflection

ARITHMETICAL ASPECT - It is closely related to the tolerances on the linear

dimensions of a part . A surface which is acceptable from the geometrical and
mechanical view point may have large dimensional tolerances to serve as a
primary or secondary locating surface.

CLASSIFICATION OF LOCATING PROBLEMS

There are three types of locating problems:

1. with respect to real surfaces
2. with respect to two imaginary surfaces and
3. with respect to two imaginary lines

When locating a part with respect to real locating surfaces, the locating may be
referred to as positioning. The position of the locators with respect to the
coordinate axes is fixed.

Fig. 10 Positioning of round stock with respect to the cylindrical surface.

-The location of the part with respect to real locating surfaces may be referred to
as centering.

E.g. Lathe jaw chuck. If the position must be completely determined, the locators
must b movable, permitting the imaginary surfaces to be brought to the desired
relation with the coordinate axes even though the part size varies.

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Fig. 11 (a) Centering of round stock with Fig. 11(b) Centering of round stock with
respect to the center line of the stock respect to the plane of symmetry.

In figure above the position of the center line varies in a vertical plane if the work
size varies.

The location of a work piece with respect to two imaginary lines such as center
lines of cylindrical features may be referred to as angular positioning. The
problem is usually solved by solid pins or by combination of one solid and one
diamond pin. Because of the maximum and minimum metal conditions of the
holes and pine and the total variation of center distance of both work piece and
fixture which must be considered when determining pin diameters angular
positioning is a less accurate method as compared with positioning and
centering.

Fixed solid and diamond - shaped pins cannot position holes, they can, only limit
the position of the part within the maximum and minimum clearance existing
between the locators (pins) and the locating surfaces (holes).

For external cylindrical locations (male cylindrical forms, is a common method for
locating surface and has a property that the center of the circle is always located
on the center line of the vee. When the vee is fixed, any variation in the diameter
of the circle will result in a variation of its position from the fixed point of the vee
Radii O1 B = r and
Radii 02 C = R

Since r and R are parallel and both circles are tangential to the face of the vee,
and if α is half of the vee angle:

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 R r
Sin α = , sin α =
02 A 01 A

R = 02 A sin α ; r = 01A sin α

R-r = 02A sin α - 01A sin α

R-r = sin α (02A - 01A_) = d sin α

R - r = d sins α

R −r difference radii
d = sin α = sin α

Thus for a 90 vee block α will be 450 and sine 450 =0.707
Change inradii
Movement caused to center of circle =
0.707
Example:

If a 900 vee were being used to locate rough bosses whose diameters ranged
from 50 mm to 51 mm diameter, the variation in center position would be:

change radus
d ( movement cased to center ofcircel ) =
0.707

0.5
= = 0.707 mm
0.70 .

SUPPORTING AND LOCATING PRINCIPLES

To insure in any machining operations, the work must be properly positioned with
respect to the tool. This is called referencing. To insure the desired accuracy:-
the part must be precisely located and rigidly supported.

- The part must be precisely located an rigidly supported

- Locators must assure that the tool is easily loaded and unloaded.
- Locators must make the tool fool proof

BASIC RULES FOR LOCATING

POSITIONING THE LOCATORS

- When ever possible. Locators should always contact the work on a
machined surface which insures the repeatability of he jig or fixture.
Repeatability is he feature of the tool which allows different parts to be
machined consistently the same within their required tolerances.

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- Locators should be spaced as for a part as possible (permits the use of
fewer locators

TOLERANCES

The tool tolerance should be between 20% & 50% of the part tolerance
E.g. If a hole in a part be located within ± 0.1 mm, then the tolerance of the hole
in the jig must be between ± 0.02 mm and ± 0.05 mm

Fig. 12

Tolerance relation ship

• Tolerance closer than 20% increase cost

• Tolerance greater than 50% do not guarantee the desired precision

- Locaters must fit the part at any size with in the part limits. Depending up on
how the part is located, the located must be with max. limit or min. limit.

Fig. 13

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Clamping and Clamping Devices

• The claming system must hold the work piece against

the cutting forces with out causing damage to it.
• Clamping must be at thick sections.
• The clamp and clamping screw must be strong enough
not to become distorted under the clamping force.
• The clamping system must produce the required force.
• The abutment used must be proportioned to support
the work piece as close to the point of cutting (to avoid breakage)
• Clamps should be quick and easy to apply to set up
time

Clamps may be:

A) Screw type clamping devices

1. Simple bridge type clamps
a) Solid clamp
b) Clamp with heel pin
c) Sliding clamp with heel pin
d) Clamping with adjustable heel pin
2. Wedge type clamp
3. Latch type clamps
4. Two way clamps

B) Toggle and cam operated clamping devices

1. Toggle clamp
2. Simple cam operated clamp
3. Cam operated clamp two pieces
4. Cam operated clamp four pieces
5. Cam operated latch clamp
6. Hook clamp
C) Pneumatic clamping
1. Direct clamping
2. Indirect clamping

D) Magnetic type

TOOL-HOLDING AND WORK-HOLDING IN A DRILLING MACHINE

To drill a hole in a drilling machine, which is correctly sized and positioned, four
basic conditions must be satisfied:

1. The drill must be located in the drilling machine spindle so that the axis of the
drill is coincident with the axis of the machine spindle.
2. The drill and spindle must rotate together with out slippage occurring. There
must be total restraint between the drill shank
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3. The work piece must be located so that the center lines of the holes are in
alignment with the spindle axis
4. The work piece must be restrained so that it resists the cutting forces and is
not dragged round by the drill.

Large twist drills are normally held in the spindle nose directly by means of a
taper, shank. Axial alignment of the drill in the spindle is assured and also
maintained despite variations of the drill in the spindle is assured and also
maintained despite variations in the size of the tapers due to manufacturing
tolerances and wear, due to narrow angle of taper, which ensures that there is
adequate frictional restraint to drive the drill under normal cutting conditions.

Small diameter twist drills normally have a parallel shank and are held in a drill
chuck. The chuck and its shank rely upon a system of concentric tapers to
ensure axial alignment. To ensure that the spindle axis is perpendicular to the
work piece, the following alignments should be checked:

a) a matched pair of parallels are used to support the work and ensure that its
under-surface is parallel to the vice slide ways.
b) The working surfaces of the vice slide ways are parallel to the machine
worktable.
c) The fixed jaw of the vice is perpendicular to the machine worktable.

Cylindrical work is held vertically (if it is short) in a machine vice using a v-block.
To ensure that the spindle axis is parallel to the work piece axis, the following
alignment must be checked.

a) The v-block must be seated on the vice slide ways so that the V is
perpendicular that is its end face is parallel to the vice slides in each direction.
b) The vice slide ways must be parallel to the machine work table, and the fixed
jaw of the vice must be perpendicular to the work table

Long cylindrical component can be held horizontally on the drilling machine

worktable by using a machine pair of v-blocks.

To start a drill on the curved surface of a cylindrical component some guidance is

required. A drill jig locates the work piece in the correct place relative to the drill
axis. It guides the drill close to its point. Since the bush is a close running fit on
the drill, the hole cannot be reamed without first removing the bush. The drill
bush is placed in the liner sleeve to guide the drill during the drilling operation.
The bush can be removed without disturbing the jig and the alignment of the drill
spindle axis and the work piece. The hole can be then reamed.

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TOOL-HOLDING AND WORK-HOLDING IN A MILLING MACHINE

Milling cutters are usually mounted on an arbor, which locates and drives the
rotating cutter. Unlike the morse taper of the drilling, the milling machine taper
only locates the arbor which is driven by 'dogs' fixed to the spindle nose. The
arbor is held into the spindle-nose by a draw-bolt passing through the spindle of
the machine. The arbor is driven positively by the 'dogs' on the spindle nose, but
the cutter is driven by friction alone. This is adequate for the majority of jobbing
applications, but for production milling where heavier cuts are likely to be taken
the cutters should be keyed to the arbor to provide a positive drive. The long
arbor should always be supported as a beam rather than as a cantilever to keep
the deflection of the cutter to a minimum.

TOOL-HOLDING AND WORK HOLDING IN A LATHE

The single-point tools used on center lathes are held in tool posts. The four-way
turret type tool post enables as set of tools to be selected as required and saves
on setting time where a batch of components is to be turned.
Adjustment of tool height is done by inserting packing under the tool which is
inconvenient and can lack rigidity. Work holding on the lathe can be achieved in
various ways depending on the geometry of the work piece.

a) Work holding between centers.

b) Work holding in a self-centering chuck
c) Work holding in a coleet chuck
d) Work holding in an independent-jaw chuck.
e) Work holding on the faceplate.

The construction of a four-jaw independent chuck is much more heavily built than
the self-centering chuck and has much greater holding ability. Each jaw is moved
independently by a square thread screw, and each jaw is reversible. This type of
chuck is used for holding.

a) work with four or multiple of four sides

b) irregularly shaped work
c) Work which must be turned up to run concentrically
d) Work which must be deliberately off set to run eccentrically.

GRINDING MACHINE

The abrasive wheels for precision grinding machines are mounted on hubs which
have built in adjustable balance weights. These balance weights enable the
wheel and hub assembly to be statically balanced before the assembly is
mounted on the machine spindle. The hub has a taper bore which located on the
taper on the machine spindle and ensures axial alignment and true running.
Large abrasive wheels are built up on the hub in segments.
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Work holding on the surface grinding machines is usually on a magnetic chuck.
The magnetic flux field attracts the component against the face of the chuck with
sufficient force that the work piece is restrained by friction between the work and
chuck faces.

When a magnetic chuck is in the 'on' position, the magnetic flux passes through
the component (for ferro magnetic material). When the handle is moved to the
'off' position, the magnets are moved sideways and their flux is short-circuited
through the pole pieces since the flux no longer posses through the work piece it
can be removed.

Cylindrical grinding machines use the same work holding devices as the centers
lathe. The work is held between centers or in chucks. In addition, flat work can be
held on a rotary magnetic chuck.

Work piece setup errors: The setup error may arise as the work piece to be
machined is loaded in a fixture. The work piece setup error (Σ , which is a
component of the total machining error may itself comprise locating error (Σ loc),
clamping error (Σ cl) and fixture error (Σ fix)

Σ loc- is the difference between the maximum and minimum distances between
the work piece datum surface and the cutting tool set to size. This error arises
where the work piece locating surface used in machining is other than its datum
surface. The locating error (Σ loc) is determined for each specific work piece
dimension to be obtained with a given work piece locating method.

Fig. 12 Locating and clamping error

Σ loc A= 0, because, surface 1

the work piece is both its
production and locating surface

Σ loc B= is equal to tolerance δ

on dimension C (Σ loc b = δ ) 1 is
locating, 2 is the datum surface,
i. e two different surfaces

The locating error is influenced by the error of form of the locating surface and
macro irregularities of the locating surface. In general case, the displacement at
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the work piece-fixture interface and the clamping force producing it are related by
a non-linear equation: y= CQn

Where C = coefficient depending on the type of contact, work pieces

material, surface roughness and surface layer structure and
changing for a batch of work pieces form Cmin to Cmax.

Q = Clamping force acting on the locating elements

n = less than units

The overall work piece setup error Σ is found

Σ = Σ 2 loc + Σ 2 cl + Σ 2 fix

For high-accuracy machining application Σ cl and Σ fix must be reduced.

When a work piece is mounted by its locating hole on an aligning stud of a

fixture, its radial misalignment relative to the stud axis is determined by clearance
∆1 . if the stud axis itself is misaligned relative to the machine spindle axis by
amount ∆2 , the resultant error (Σ ) is

Σ = ∆21 + ∆2 2

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