LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

School: LHST Department: Biotechnology

Name of the faculty member:Mr. Prabhjot Jassal

Course No: BTY283

Course Title: Cell Biology

Class:Btech biotech Term:II Section:A7001

Max. Marks: 18 Date of Submission:14-04-2011

HomeWork 5

Part A

Q1:- Draw ultrastructure of nucleus.

A1:- ULTRASTRUCTURE OF NUCLEUS

The nucleus of a cell consists of basically four components:

• Nuclear membrane or Karyotheca;

• Nuclear sap or Nucleopalsm;

• Chromatin fibres;

• Nucleolus.

Q2. Write a short note on nuclear pore.

A2: The nuclear envelope is a barrier between nucleus and cytoplasm and nuclear pores are
the gateways across the barrier. The nuclear envelope is a hub of activity for the movement of
RNAs and proteins. These particles move through the cytoplasm into the nucleus (or vice
versa) by passing single file through the center of the nuclear pore. Nuclear pores contain an
intricate structure called the nuclear pore complex( NPC). Nuclear pore appears circular in
surface view and have a diameter between 10nm to 100nm.The nuclear pore complex (NPC),
perhaps the largest protein complex in the cell, is responsible for the protected exchange of
components between the nucleus and cytoplasm and for preventing the transport of material
not destined to cross the nuclear envelope. Each pore complex has estimated molecular
weight of 50 to 100 daltons. According to the computerized image- processing technique by
Unwin and Mulligan, the pore complex consists of two rings at its periphery with an inside
diameter of 80nm, a large particle that forms the central plug, radial spokes that extend from
plug to rings. Particles are anchored to the cytoplasmic rings and are thought be the inactive
ribosomes. The hole in the center of the complex is an aqueous channel through which water
soluble molecules shuttle between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

Q3. Enlist & explain various types of intermediate filaments.

A3:Intermediate filaments are a very broad class of fibrous proteins that play an important
role as both structural and functional elements of the cytoskeleton. Ranging in size from 8 to
12 nanometers(as shown in the figure), intermediate filaments function as tension-bearing
elements to help maintain cell shape and rigidity, and serve to anchor in place several
organelles, including the nucleus and desmosomes. Intermediate filaments are also involved
in formation of the nuclear lamina, a net-like meshwork array that lines the inner nuclear
membrane and governs the shape of the nucleus.
Based on their morphology and localization, there are four different types of Intermediate
filaments:

Type I IF proteins: These proteins are the most diverse among IFs and constitute type I
(acidic) and type II (basic) IF proteins, and are most commonly found in the epithelial cells.
The main constituent of these filaments is the keratin protein. Acidic and basic keratins bind
each other to form acidic-basic heterodimers and these heterodimers then associate to make a
keratin filament. For example: trichocytic keratins (about 13) (hair keratins), which make up
hair, nails, horns and reptilian scales.

Type II IF proteins: There are four proteins classed as type III IF proteins, which may form
homo- or heteroplymeric proteins:

• Vimentin in fibroblasts, endothelial cells and leukocytes;

• desminin muscle;

• glial fibrillary acidic factor( glial filaments) in astrocytes and other types of glia;

• peripherin in peripheral nerve fibers

Type III IF proteins: These wre the proteins , basically alpha- internexin, which assemble
into neurofilaments. These neurofilaments are the major constituents pf the neuron cells or
the nerve cells. This type of proteins consists of 3 distinct polypeptides, hence are called
neurofilament triplet.

Type IV IF proteins: Type IV IF proteins are the lamins which have a nuclear signal
sequence so they can form a filamentous support inside the inner nuclear membrane. Lamins
are vital to the re-formation of the nuclear envelope after cell division.

Part B

Q4: Give major events of Cell cycle.

A4: A somatic cell exists in two main states:

• along undividing state, interphase;

• a short dividing state termed as mitotic or M phase.

1. INTERPHASE: In the interphase the cell grows by synthesizing biological molecules

such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. The interphase lasts for 10
-30 hours. It is further divided into three periods: first gap or G1 phase, synthetic or S
phase and second gap or G2 phase.
 • G1 phase: this phase represents the gap between the previous mitosis and the
beginning of DNA synthesis. It is a stage of initial growth of a newly formed cell.

• S phase: it is the phase of duplication by replication of a new DNA molecule on

the template of the existing DNA. Each chromosome now consists of two
identical sister chromatids held together at the region of primary constriction`s
kinetochores and carries a duplicate set of genes.

• G2 phase: this phase marks the gap between the DNA synthesis and nuclear
division. It is a stage further growth of the cell and preparation for its division.
During this phase , RNA transcription and protein synthesis continue.the
cytoplasmic organelles such as centrioles , mitochondria, and golgi bodies, are al
doubled , proteins for spindle and asters are synthesized and active metaolism
stores energy for the next mitosis.

2. MITOTIC PHASE: Mitotic phase or M phase follows the interphase. It is

aimed at orderly distribution of the already duplicated chromosomes to the
daughter cells. The latter are diploid and contain exactly the same hereditary
information as the parent cell.

Q5: What is the significance of mitosis and meiosis?

A5: Significance of mitosis:

1. Growth. The number of cells within an organism increases by mitosis and this is the
basis of growth in multicellular organisms.
2. Cell Replacement. Cells are constantly sloughed off, dying and being replaced by new
ones in the skin and digestive tract. When damaged tissues are repaired, the new cells
must be exact copies of the cells being replaced so as to retain normal function of
cells.
3. Regeneration. Some animals can regenerate parts of the body, and production of new
cells are achieved by mitosis.
4. Vegetative Reproduction. Some plants produce offspring which are genetically
similar to themselves. These offspring are called clones.
Significance of meiosis:
1.Meiosis occurs in all organisms carrying out sexual reproduction. Meiosis reduces the
number of chromosomes by half, so that when fertilization occurs, the number of
chromosomes would be reestablished. If meiosis did not occur, fusion of gametes would
result in a doubling of the chromosomes for each successive sexually reproduced generation.
2.Genetic Variation. Meiosis provides opportunities for new combinations of genes to occur
in the gametes. This leads to genetic variation in the offspring produced by random fusion of
the gametes

Q6: Draw various stages of Prophase-I of meiosis-I. Give significance of crossing over.

A6: The following diagram contains the whole Prophase -I of the Meiosis -I cell division.

The five stages of Prophase -I are:

• leptotene;

• zygotene;

• pachytene;

• diplotene;

• diakenesis.

Significance of crossing over: Crossing over is of great significance.

1. Linear arrangement of genes: Crossing over clearly illustrates the linear
arrangement of genes in the chromosomes.

2. Chromososme Maps: The frequency of crossing over is very useful to construct

the chromosome maps.

3. Recombination: Crossing over produces new combination of genes.

4. Variations: Crossing over leads to genetic variation which is the raw material for
evolution.