Report on

A Comparison of Four Applications of Carbon Nanotubes

Submitted to
Xanthe Farnworth
for
English 316
Brigham Young University
Provo, UT
12 June 2009

by
Darrell Skousen
David Smyth
Nick Andersen
June 12, 2009

Xanthe Farnworth

Brigham Young University

Dear Xanthe Farnworth:

We are submitting this technical report to you in order to demonstrate our ability

to work as a group, research a topic, organize information, create and revise a technical

document, and present a professional report. In our report, we discuss four applications

of carbon nanotubes.

Carbon nanotubes are a relatively new technology with many unique properties.

Since we don’t expect you or any of our readers to be experts, the report presents a large

amount of background information to bridge potential gaps. However, it is also de-

signed to be saved in our portfolios to use in our future technical careers.

We have attempted to follow models given in the class packet and from the

Lannon textbook. Along with all required sections of the report, we have included a

glossary for technical terms. We use AIP format, which calls specifically for references,

tables and figures to be placed at the end of the document.

We expect that you will find this report interesting and easy to read. If you have

any further questions regarding the report please contact us. Thank you.

Sincerely,

Darrell Skousen, David Smyth, Nick Andersen

 iii

Table of Contents

Abstract iv

Introduction 1

Research Information 2

Materials Science 2
Carbon Nanotubes 4
Incorporating Carbon Nanotubes 4
Focus Applications 5
Standards of Judgment 6

Product Comparison 7

Paper Batteries 7
Composite Materials 9
Displays 11
Computing 13
Results 17

Conclusion 20

References 21

List of Figures 22

List of Tables 22

Glossary of Terms 23
 iv

Abstract

Carbon Nanotechnologies, Inc. (CNI) is a leading producer of carbon nanotubes

and has ordered a preliminary report regarding the most profitable nanotube applica-

tion. Four potential applications, paper batteries, composite materials, displays, and

nanocomputers, have been compared on three standards of judgment: schedule (how

soon the product can be marketed), cost (how much money will be invested in research

and production), and consumer demand (the size of the potential consumer base). Re-

sults show displays being the most profitable application with a high demand, while

composite materials are a profitable application with low demand. Current research

shows that paper batteries and nanocomputers are too far from production to be profit-

able in the near future. This report concludes that CNI should invest in production of

displays using carbon nanotube technology.

 A Comparison of Four Applications of Carbon Nanotubes

Introduction

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are a remarkable new technology with very unique

properties, making them applicable in nearly every field from consumer electronics to

medical equipment and even to clothing. The purpose of this technical report is to com-

pare four popular, near-future applications of carbon nanotubes, paper batteries, com-

posite materials, displays, and nano-computers, and make a recommendation regarding

which would be the most profitable.

Information has been researched and gathered entirely from external sources,

including scientific journals, company websites, and newspaper articles. Therefore, re-

sults are generally based on implications of expert findings and are often estimated for

purposes of comparison. The individual sections for each application include back-

ground information and a detailed analysis of profitability based on the three standards

of judgment: schedule, cost, and consumer demand.

The paper begins with research information, giving background information on

materials science and CNTs, and it discusses how they can be incorporated into future

applications, with a specific focus on paper batteries, composite materials, displays, and

nanocomputers. Next, there is a section discussing the standards of judgment and crite-

ria used in the comparison of the four focus applications. The paper continues with a

*Descriptions of bold terms can be found in the glossary at the end of the report.
 2

section designed for a more technical audience; it includes a detailed analysis of each

application, comparing each using the three standards of judgment. Finally, the results

are presented followed by a conclusion that discusses the recommendation of which ap-

plication will be the most profitable. The document concludes with a references page, a

list of figures and tables, and a glossary of terms.

Research Information

Materials Science

In order to effectively study and compare applications of carbon nanotubes, it is

necessary to have an understanding of materials science, a branch of engineering that

focuses on the fundamental properties and characteristics of materials and their appli-

cation in various products. Material properties often include tensile strength*, heat

resistance, electrical conductivity, and potential toxicity which, depending on the

material’s application, are either desired or avoided. For instance, the copper wiring on

the inside of a power cord has a high electrical conductivity, while the rubber insulation

on the outside of the same cord is not electrically conductive at all. Engineers study

materials science in order to improve and perfect the products they design and manu-

facture.
 3

• When two or more material properties are desired, but cannot readily be found

in the same material, engineers manufacture composite materials that retain

ADDITIONAL all desired characteristics.
STUDY
• Often, material properties change on a quantum scale, a fact which has created

an entire subfield of modern materials science called nanotechnology.

Allotropes. When a material is broken into its constituent parts, scientists can

study the basic elements that it is made of and modify those elements to change the

physical and chemical properties of the material. One modification can be made by us-

ing a given element’s allotrope (the same element in a different form or structure) in

that element’s place in the material. Different allotropes of the same material often have

unexpectedly different properties that scientists can take advantage of by using them in

the right application.

Allotropes of Carbon: Graphite vs. Diamond

Graphite Diamond

parallel layers of atoms atoms in crystal lattice

soft, used in pencil lead hardest known mineral

electrically conductive not electrically conductive

Carbon is a unique element with many different allotropes, the most common be-

ing graphite and diamond. Graphite, formed from parallel layers of carbon atoms in a

hexagonal pattern, is a soft, electrically conductive semimetal that is found in many

common products such as pencils. Diamond, an extremely rare allotrope formed from
 4

carbon atoms in a crystal lattice, is the hardest known mineral and is not electrically

conductive at all.

Carbon Nanotubes

Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) are allotropes of carbon with

extraordinary properties that have been a major focus in the

field of materials science (specifically nanotechnology). About

50,000 times thinner than a human hair, they are formed from
A computer model of a
a single, atom-thick layer of carbon curled into a cylindrical carbon nanotube.

(tube) shape. Although their small diameter initially seems like it could be a limiting fac-

tor, they have a higher tensile strength than steel and they retain their strength at

lengths millions of times larger than their diameter. For instance, if a carbon nanotube

had the diameter of a human hair, it could be longer than a football field and it would

still be stronger than steel.1

• CNTs have interesting electrical properties, including the ability to be both

ADDITIONAL semiconductors and superconductors, depending on heat, magnetic fields,

STUDY and other external conditions.

Incorporating Carbon Nanotubes

While CNTs are very impressive by themselves, the possibilities of how they can

effect other products are endless. The two most desirable properties of CNTs—namely

strength and electrical conductivity—allow current products to be improved and many

new products to be designed. CNTs add their own strength to structural supports, cables
 5

are stronger, batteries conduct power more efficiently, and satellite housings conduct

heat better. This allows for smaller structures and more efficient designs. Their variably

conducting nature allows them to be useful in many electrical applications. In addition,

their heat conduction can prevent heat buildup in a system's critical components. These

properties can be utilized in such a wide variety of applications that only a few have been

explored. We focus on four of these potential applications.

•Conductors: more reliable computing

ADDITIONAL STUDY:
Electrical Properties • Semiconductors: more effective computations
of CNTs
• Insulators: prevent dispersion of charges

Focus Applications

Since there are limitless applications of CNTs, many applications cannot be con-

sidered because of prohibitive startup costs due to years of research that still needs to be

done before production. Four applications of CNT technology will be compared to de-

termine which is most suitable for production: paper batteries, composite materials,

displays, and nano-computers.

Paper batteries. Paper batteries hold charge in packages more compact than cur-

rent manufactured batteries, sharing many of paper’s desirable properties. These

batteries can be formed into any shape and made paper thin so they can fit into compact

spaces, wrap around a product, or cover any surface. Paper batteries would allow more

designing freedom when making powered products.

Composite Materials. Many products are a combination of materials that shares

desired properties from each material. These composite materials often contain numer-
 6

ous individual materials in varying amounts to achieve the desired property combina-

tion. CNT technology can be used as part of a composite material in many products such

as body armor to provide a lighter, stronger protection for military use. Some CNTs can

also be used in clothing to detect the presence of blood and indicate wounds. Composite

materials also allow for adjustable electrical conductivity to match the desired qualities

for a particular application, while constantly providing additional structural integrity

and improved thermal conductance.

Displays. New technological advances use carbon nanotubes to display an on-

screen picture that combines the size and brightness of flat panel televisions with the

color integrity and contrast of old tube televisions.

Nanocomputers. The varying electrical conductance of CNTs allow for them to

be ideal in computing applications, introducing high quality parts to the system that will

allow a computer to work faster and with lower power requirements, thus increasing ef-

ficiency.

Standards of Judgment

Schedule. This section estimates how long it will take for each application to be-

came a marketable product, based on research and expert opinions. It discusses whether

the product is still being studied experimentally or if it can be produced in a marketable

quantity. For example, nanocomputers are still in the experimental stage and are not

ready for production.

Cost. This section estimates how much research and manufacturing will cost. It

discusses research, material, machinery and other costs. Prices are dropping quickly in
 7

many applications so future costs are also estimated. In this section we compare costs of

current applications to costs predicted by CNT applications.

Consumer Demand. This section discusses the marketability and current demand

for each application, focusing on potential for product sales to consumers including pri-

vate companies, government and military organizations, and the general public. It also

discusses current revenues and where demand is for the chosen application. For in-

stance, paper batteries have a high demand by electric car manufacturers.

Product Comparison

Paper Batteries

Batteries are common devices used in almost all modern electronic technology to

store chemical energy for use over a period of time. Like batteries, supercapacitors

store energy, but unlike batteries, no chemical change takes place, allowing energy to be

quickly stored or released. Supercapacitors can be cycled, used, and recharged many

times more than a battery; however, they do not store nearly as much energy as

batteries. By incorporating carbon nanotubes into battery and capacitor technology, sci-

entists can make thin, flexible, and safe batteries, supercapacitors, and dual-storage

battery supercapacitors. Carbon nanotube “paper batteries” offer a combination of

both the high storage capacity of batteries and the quick release of energy of superca-

pacitors. A flashlight with this CNT battery supercapacitor could be dimly lit for hours

or could emit high intensity light for a few minutes.

 8

Paper batteries are made of three materials: cellulose, CNTs, and electrolytes.

Cellulose, the same material that paper is made of, makes up over 90% of the battery,

making it cheap, environmentally friendly, and easy to manufacture. CNTs are grown,

embedded in dissolved cellulose, and then dried. The main components of these

batteries can be fabricated at room temperature using a relatively simple process.2

The resulting battery paper has excellent mechanical

properties. The paper is flexible and can be bent, twisted, or

rolled, retaining its storage properties. These flexible paper

units can be cut into any size and can be used in smart cards,
Paper batteries can be
displays, or implantable medical devices. Carbon nanotube bent, twisted, or rolled.

paper batteries perform better than any other flexible battery.2

Paper batteries do not contain any water, so they can operate at a temperature

range of 195-423 K (approx. -108°F to 300°F), a much greater range than commercial

supercapacitors which typically operate between 233-358 K (approx. -40°F to 184°F).

Paper batteries also are unique since they can be activated by body fluid electrolytes

such as blood, sweat, and urine, giving them a demand in various medical fields.2

Schedule. Paper batteries are currently being heavily researched. Researchers at

MIT estimate that it will be five to ten years before CNT batteries will be commercially

available. This schedule depends on research breakthroughs allowing paper batteries to

be mass produced, including the time it takes to integrate these batteries into current

electronic applications.

Cost. The processes for making paper batteries are fairly simple; however, both

research costs and machinery costs will be high. Carbon nanotube material will be the
 9

most expensive part of the production since CNT prices are still $50/g or more—that

material is 100 to 1000 times more expensive than what is currently being used.3 In the

future, prices are expected to decrease rapidly, making CNT batteries a more reasonable

option.

Consumer Demand. With a global market of over 50 billion dollars it is estimated

that several billion batteries are sold each year. There is always an increasing need for

smaller, lighter, and more powerful batteries to meet the requirements of today’s tech-

nology, including the rise of hybrid and electric cars as well as specialized medical

applications.2 Since paper batteries will reduce much of the weight in cell phones and

laptops, consumer demand will only increase in the future.

Composite Materials

Composite materials are a combination of two materials that have different

properties, but make one structure. Composites have been used for ages. One of the ear-

liest examples of a composite material is the mixture of straw with mud to make bricks.

The straw creates a structure that strengthens the mud that holds it together. A more

recent and comparable composite is fiberglass, in which strands of glass in resin in-

crease the overall strength of the product.

Composite materials are engineered to have as many benefits and as few disad-

vantages as possible. Carbon nanotubes can be incorporated into many existing prod-

ucts with unique and interesting results. Polystyrene, a specific type of plastic that in-

corporates CNTs, has been seen to change from electrically nonconducting to conduct-

ing while doubling its tensile strength. This means that the new composite material can
 10

take twice the load before stretching the same amount as the original material. This re-

sult was accomplished with only 0.05% to 2.5% of nanotubes by volume in the

composite.4

Composite materials are mainly used where performance is a key issue. The aero-

space industry was one of the first to turn to composites as they needed strong and light

materials. Today, the aerospace industry accounts for only a small fraction of the com-

posite materials market while the transportation industry accounts for a significant

portion.5

Schedule. Composites are currently being manufactured with CNTs, so composite

product designs can be produced immediately. Since current maximum CNT lengths

limit the extent to which the composite is strengthened, further research will focus on

increasing tube length and overall quality. Although CNT manufacturers are discovering

ways to make them longer, current lengths are sufficient to begin composite material

production.

Cost. Composite material costs are limited. Startup costs are limited to purchas-

ing equipment that produces composite material. Manufacturing methods are already

commonly established. Cost of the CNTs within the composites would be the highest;

however, as the CNTs are readily available, their cost is not a serious issue. Researching

costs are minimal since most research is already done regarding composite materials

with carbon nanotubes.

Consumer Demand. Composite materials are often used when both weight and

strength are essential elements in a design. This limits the consumer base for such

products. The military is always in demand of such products since improved

 11

performance is always at the forefront. Aerospace industries

are also common users of composite materials since they in-

crease flight efficiency. So, specialized technology-based

groups like the military or aerospace engineers would de-

mand CNT composites, but overall the consumer demand

Composites with CNTs have
many uses in the military would be low.

Displays

Today, most electronic devices use some sort of display to interact with their us-

ers. These displays are designed and manufactured in a variety of ways, each employing

different materials and taking advantage of different physical properties in order to pro-

duce a picture on a screen. Popular display technologies include plasma, rear-

projection, and liquid crystal display (LCD), which have become standard tech-

nologies because of their application in smaller devices such as handhelds, cell phones,

etc. and their reduced footprint (how much room they take

up). Older televisions and computer monitors operated us-

ing cathode ray tube (CRT) technology, which had bene-

fits such as color fidelity, high contrast, and large viewing

angle. Both new and old technologies have their disadvan-

tages, although for the average consumer, advantages of CNTs even find application
in televisions.
the newer technologies outweigh the disadvantages.

Field-Emission Displays and Carbon Nanotubes. For the last 25 years or so, en-

gineers have experimented with a new display technology called field-emission dis-
 12

play, or FED, which combines the older CRT technology with the newer flat screen

technologies to create a product that shares all of the benefits of both technologies,

while virtually eliminating their detriments. An FED is a flat panel display that consists

of millions of tiny cathode ray tubes, each dedicated to a red, green, or blue pixel,

which, when used together can display any desired color. Until very recently, FED tech-

nology has only been theorized because of heat and electrical conductivity problems, but

with the discovery and implementation of CNTs, these field emission displays have be-

come a reality. The unique properties of CNTs effectively eliminate issues with heat re-

sistance and electrical conductivity while including other features such as pixel size (a

CNT display can have 40% better resolution than a plasma screen of comparable size).

In addition, a small display screen made from carbon nanotubes would be 250 times

stronger than its LCD counterpart, while remaining 10 times lighter.6 A field-emission

display that employs CNT technology would be as thin as (if not thinner than) a current

flat-panel display while having increased viewing angle, color fidelity, and contrast, and

less power usage than a toaster.7

Schedule. Since field-emission display technology has already been designed, im-

plementing carbon nanotubes in their production is not the dream of a distant future,

but a reality of today. In 2003, Samsung demonstrated a full-color 38-inch FED that

was comparable to other consumer displays in its video capabilities. Other companies

such as Motorola and Sony are also pursuing CNT field-emission displays, testing them

in applications such as handheld devices, cell phones, laptops, and other small

products.7 An efficient cinema-style screen is currently further from our grasp as con-
 13

sumers because of obvious size limitations when dealing with billions of nanometer-

thick tubes.

Cost. For displays utilizing billions of CNTs each, cost will be the biggest limita-

tion. Currently, cost range from $100-$500 per gram—10 to 50 times as much as gold—

for single-wall carbon nanotubes, the CNTs necessary for effective FED

manufacturing.7 Although the display is usually the most expensive component in a de-

vice, the increase in price would clearly be a limitation for most consumers, causing CNT

displays to be available to an extremely small consumer market.

Consumer Demand. In 2009, it is projected that Americans alone will purchase

over 31 million flat-panel televisions. This figure does not include any small handheld

devices or laptops, which combined would yield a similar projection. Clearly, consumers

in the United States have a high demand for flat-panel displays, making CNT field-

emission displays a guaranteed success as long as prices can be regulated to compete

with current displays.

Computing

The electronics industry is always working toward making smaller, more power-

ful, less expensive devices. Over the last several decades, there has been large growth

and improvement in silicon-based microelectronics , which are used in virtually all

kinds electronic hardware. Computing power follows Moore’s Law, doubling every two

years or so, while the size of computer chips decreases by half the size. However, due to

fundamental physical limitations (one can only fit so many electronics onto one chip), it
 14

is doubtful that this growth and improvement will continue at the same rate using cur-

rent electronic designs.8

Moore’s Law
2,000,000,000
Moore’s Law states that
computing power will
double every two years. Transistor Count
Recent history has shown
this law to be true. 1,000,000 50,000,000
2,000 50,000

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Transistor Count is a measurement of the number of transistors that can be integrated into a
computer processor. For the last 40 years, this figure has doubled every two years.

Carbon nanotubes offer an excellent solution for making smaller, more efficient

microelectronics. CNTs have high strength combined with excellent electrical

properties, making them outstanding for electronic applications. Carbon nanotubes

open the door to extra-fast electronics that will exponentially increase computing power.

Semiconductors are used to build transistors, the basic units in computer

chips. The more transistors that can be fit into a chip, the more powerful it will be. Intel

uses 42 million transistors in the Pentium 4 chip; using CNTs instead, the number could

be increased to billions.9 Results show that nanotube transistors perform better and de-

liver more than twice the electric current than other cutting edge transistors, allowing

engineers to design chips that use less electricity and saving energy for consumers who

demand smaller, more efficient electronic devices.10

Another promising application for carbon nanotubes with electronics is non-

volatile dynamic random-access memory (DRAM). DRAM is short term elec-

 15

tronic memory that allows computers to run programs and operating systems. However,

DRAM, unlike a hard drive, stores information only when the computer is turned on.

CNTs can be used to make nonvolatile DRAM, a type of DRAM which stores information

even when the computer is off. Nantero, a computer memory company, expects to fabri-

cate a nonvolatile CNT memory chip with several times the existing capacity.9

Schedule. CNTs are still in their beginning stages and will not quickly change the

current silicon industry which has been around for decades. The integration of CNTs

into modern electronics faces problems of compatibility with current electronic designs.

Even though CNTs have been used to make transistors, there still aren’t techniques us-

ing CNTs to manufacture many of the computer chip components needed in

nanocomputing.8 It will take years, some experts estimate 10-15, before CNTs will be

able to gain a foothold in the electronics industry.9 In the near future, it is likely that

CNTs will only be used in high-tech applications, and not for general use.

Cost. The cost of using CNTs in nano-computing is the most important concern.

Research costs will be very high. Also, machinery and production costs will be large due

to the lack of current methods for fabricating CNT nanocomputers. NanoMarkets LC, a

market research consulting firm, estimates that CNTs will generate $3.6 billion in new

business in the electronics and semiconductor sector in 2009, which has a current reve-

nue of several hundred billion dollars. They also estimate that nanotube based memo-

ries such as DRAM will be able to enter laptop and cell phone markets generating hun-

dreds of millions of dollars of revenue. 1

Demand. The demand for smaller, more powerful computer chips is obvious in

today’s markets. With over a billion computers in use and over 200 million computers
 16

sold a year, there is always a demand for better computers. However, even with the high

demand for electronics it will be years before CNT nano-computing could compete with

the current semiconductor industry. There is only a small potential demand from gov-

ernments and companies that can afford high-tech CNT computer chips.
 17

Results

Each product is to be rated on a low-medium-high scale to determine their poten-

tial as a profitable product. A higher rating will imply a more desirable choice as a po-

tential marketable product. For instance, a high demand rating means a larger con-

sumer demand, while a high cost rating means lower overall costs for production.

Schedule. Although research in CNT technology has been moving forward for

several years and much has been accomplished in the field, advances that have been

made have still not resulted in many manufactured products. Paper batteries require a

few more years of research, so they receive a medium rating, while composite materials

and displays are currently being manufactured, so they receive a high rating. Nanocom-

puting technologies still require many years of research, so their rating is low.

Schedule Rating

High

Medium

Low
Paper Batteries Composites Displays Nanocomputers
A high score for composites and displays shows that both are ready for
production without further development, while the lower scores for the others
means that production for either is unlikely without further research.
 18

Cost. In order to increase profitability, overhead costs must be minimized. Paper

batteries require additional research and receive a medium rating, while composites re-

ceive a high rating because virtually no more work is required to put nanotubes into

composite production. Displays receive a medium-high rating as they have been proven

to work already, but they need to be manufactured efficiently. Nanocomputers still re-

quire a lot of research before production can begin: they receive a low rating again.

Cost Rating

High

Medium

Low

Paper Batteries Composites Displays Nanocomputers

Research costs for composites and displays are virtually nonexistent, giv-
ing them higher cost ratings, while paper batteries and nanocomputers
are still years away from production, giving them lower ratings.

Demand. A high consumer demand is essential for profitability. Without de-

mand, a product can receive a high rating in the other two categories, but fail as a mar-

ketable product. Paper batteries have the largest, giving them a high rating, while

composites are used only when needed in performance applications, resulting in a low

rating. Displays and nanocomputers have an obviously high consumer demand, but

there are more electronics that require batteries than ones that require displays or com-

puter chips. They receive a medium-high rating.

 19

Demand Rating

High

Medium

Low

Paper Batteries Composites Displays Nanocomputers

Batteries, displays and computers all have high consumer demand;
composites, on the other hand, are mostly used in specialized fields.

Overall. The standards of judgment chosen reveal different strengths and weak-

nesses for each product. Only a combination of cheap, quick production with a high de-

mand will result in the most profitable product. Although composites were rated im-

pressively well in schedule and cost, the lack of consumer demand would make for a fail-

ing product. Only displays, which didn’t receive perfect ratings, scored well all around.

Their high consumer demand in addition to their immediate marketability make them

an obvious choice for production.

 20

Conclusion

In closing, Carbon Nanotechnologies, Inc. requested a preliminary choice of what

products to make with available CNT sources. After extensive research and synthesis of

information, we recommend that CNI manufacture displays. Field emission display

technology, incorporated with CNT technology, makes for a marketable product that is

both cost-effective and ready for production. In a future report, additional research

should be done to determine a detailed cost analysis of producing and selling CNT field

emission displays.
 21

References

1. S. B. Sinnott, R. A. Andrews, "Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis, Properties, and Appli-

cations," Crit. Rev. in Solid St. and Materials Sci. 26 (3), 145-249 (2001).

2. V. L. Pushparaj et al., "Flexible energy storage devices based on nanocomposite pa-

per," Proc. 1. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104, 13574-13577 (2007).

3. Technology Review, “The Ultra Battery,”

http://www.technologyreview.com/NanoTech/wtr_16326,303,p1.html

4. M. Terrones, “Science and Technology of the Twenty-First Century: Synthesis,

Properties, and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes,” Ann. Rev. of Mat. Research 33,

419-501 (2003).

5. Introduction to Composites (SPI Composites Institute, 1998)

6. W. B. Choi et al., "Fully sealed, high-brightness carbon-nanotube field-emmision

display," Appl. Phys. Lett. 75, 3129 (1999).

7. G. Amaratunga, "Watching the Nanotube," IEEE Spectrum 2003, 28-32.

8. T. Rueckes et al., "Carbon Nanotube-Based Nonvolatile Random Access Memory for

Molecular Computing," Science 289, 94-97 (2000).

9. Technology Review, “Molecular Computing,”

http://www.technologyreview.com/computing/12109/

10. S. J. Wind, J. Appenzeller, R. Martel, V. Derycke, and Ph. Avouris, "Vertical scaling

of carbon nanotube field-transistors using top gate electrodes," Appl. Phys. Lett. 80,

3817 (2002).
 22

List of Figures

1. Moore’s Law: transistor count doubles every two years. (p. 14)

2. Schedule Rating: composites and displays receive the highest rating. (p. 17)

3. Cost Rating: composites receive the highest rating, with displays close behind. (p. 18)

4. Consumer Demand Rating: paper batteries receive the highest rating. (p. 19)

(All other pictures courtesy of wikipedia.org)

List of Tables

1. Allotropes of Carbon: Graphite vs. Diamond: compares the fundamental properties

of two allotropes of carbon. (p. 3)

 23

Glossary of Terms

tensile strength: the maximum stress a material can withstand when subjected to

tension, compression or shearing

electrical conductivity: the ability a material has for electricity to flow through it

toxicity: a measurement of how toxic, or harmful to life, a material is

composite materials: materials made of two or more physically different materials

that have desired properties

quantum: of or pertaining to the smallest unit of measure in existence

nanotechnology: a subfield of materials science that deals strictly with objects whose

sizes are on the order of nanometers (1/109 meters)

allotrope: a pure form of an element that has a unique physical structure intrinsically

different from other forms of the same element

semiconductors: materials that conduct electricity under certain physical conditions

superconductors: materials whose resistance to electrical conductivity is identically

zero when certain physical conditions are met

supercapacitors: electronic devices that store electronic charge for immediate and

powerful discharge when desired

dual-storage battery supercapacitors: batteries that store charge for low usage

over a long period of time or high usage over a short period of time; basically a

battery and a capacitor

cellulose: an organic compound used mostly in the production of paper goods

electrolytes: (usually liquid) solutions that are electrically conductive

tensile modulus: see tensile strength

 24

plasma display: a type of flat panel display in which gases are heated to a plasma state

until they emit colored light

rear-projection display: a type of large screen television that works like a self-

contained projector and projector screen

liquid crystal display: a type of flat panel display in which each pixel is made of a

filter that regulates color and contrast of the light passing through it

cathode ray tube: a type of display technology that directs electrons through a tube

and aims them at a phosphor screen, creating a colored picture

field-emission display: a type of flat panel display that combines cathode ray tube

technology with pixel-based flat panel technology

pixel: the smallest item of information in a digital image; a pixel can only be one color

at a time

single-wall carbon nanotubes: the least common, but purest CNT form, consisting

of a single sheet of carbon atoms wrapped around on itself

silicon-based microelectronics: the current computing technology using silicon

computer chips to create tiny electronic devices

transistors: a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electrical signals; a

transistor sends high or low voltage that is interpreted by the computer processor

as a 1 or a 0

nonvolatile dynamic random-access memory: memory storage for computers

that does not require power to remain on the chip