Graduate Institute of Ferrous Technology, POSTECH

Rongshan Qin (R. S. Qin)

4. Heat and mass transfer 1

4.1 Introduction to heat transfer

Heat transfer is due to a temperature difference. Heat transfer occurs whenever

there is inhomogeneous temperature distribution within materials or between
material and its surrounding environments. There are three modes of heat
transfer: Conduction, convection and thermal radiation. Heat conduction in solids
is by phonons and free electrons, in liquids is by phonons and free electrons and
some transitional movements of atoms, while in gases is by random collisions.
The heat conduction in gases is a slow process due to the large mean free path.
Heat convection is a mixture of conduction and bulk movement of the fluid. Heat
convection possesses much larger heat transfer rate than heat conduction. There
are two types of convection: free convection and forced convection. Free
convection is normally due to the temperature-density relationship. Forced
convection is accelerated by external forces, such as using fan to blow the air in
oven. Forced convection produces higher heat transfer rate than free convection.
The thermal radiation is by electromagnetic wave propagation. There is no
medium needed for thermal radiation, although the electromagnetic waves can
be transferred through gases. The heat transfer modes are demonstrated in fig. 1.

conduction convection thermal radiation

Figure 1. Three modes of heat transfer

Graduate Institute of Ferrous Technology, POSTECH

Rongshan Qin (R. S. Qin)

Heat transfer is energy transfer. It studies energy transfer rate. The first law of
thermodynamics is about the amount of energy can be transferred (energy
conservation). The second law of thermodynamics is about the direction of
energy transfer (maximum entropy). Heat transfer studies how fast the energy
can be transferred from one position to another.

4.2 Fourier’s first law of heat conduction

The rate of heat transfer is proportional to the temperature gradient.

Q = −kA∂T / ∂x or q = −k∂T / ∂x (1)

where Q=rate of heat transfer by conduction (W)

q=rate of heat transfer per unit area (W/m2)
k=thermal conductivity of the materials (W/m⋅K)
A=surface area

Typical values of k (in W/ m⋅K)

MATERIALS Thermal conductivity (in W/ m⋅K)
diamond 3000
copper 390
Stainless steel 15
firebrick 1
mineral wool 0.048
water 0.06
Air (1 atm) 0.026
Hydrogen (1 atm) 0.18

For steady state heat conduction as illustrated in figure 2, one has

T −T T −T
Q = −kA 1 2 or q = −k∂T / ∂x = k 1 2
L L

Figure 2. Steady state heat conduction

Graduate Institute of Ferrous Technology, POSTECH

Rongshan Qin (R. S. Qin)

Heat transfer rate to the surface of the solid per unit area:
q = h(T∞ − Ts )
where h = heat transfer coefficient (W/ m2⋅K)

For the steady state heat conduction, thermal resistance is defined as

∆T L
Rth = =
Q Ak
It is particular useful for representing heat transfer rate of composite media

Ti T1 T2
T3
T4
To

Ti − T0
Q=
Rth

Now one can derive SL1 from Fourier’s first law. The heat generated due to the moving
of solid-liquid interface at unit time is
q = ρ sVn L
which should be equivalent to the heat transferred to both solid and liquid sides
k s ∂T / ∂x solid − klT / ∂x liquid

4.3 Fourier’s second law of heat conduction

Fourier’s second law of heat conduction can be derived from the principle of
energy conservation. Consider a part of solid with unit volume, the heat
generation rate inside the volume is q, the heat change from conduction is -k∆T,
and the storage of thermal energy in the volume is − ρ c∂T / ∂t . The total energy is
conserved.
Graduate Institute of Ferrous Technology, POSTECH

Rongshan Qin (R. S. Qin)

k∆T + q − ρ c∂T / ∂t = 0 (2)

or ∆T + q / k = α∂T / ∂t where α is the thermal diffusivity.

Material α m2/s×106 at 300K

Cu 114
Lead 25
Steel 12
Brick 0.5
Water 0.13
Air 0.3

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∆ is Laplace vector ∆ = + + in Cartesian coordinate.
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
CASE1. One dimensional steady state conduction

In one dimensional steady state conduction q=0 and ∂T / ∂t =0, we solve

d 2T
=0
dx 2
With two steps integration we have
T = ax + b
Using boundary condition T=T1 when x=0 and T=T2 when x=L we have
T2 − T1
T (x ) = x + T1
L
which is the case illustrated in figure 2.

Boundary and initial conditions are needed to solve the heat conduction equation.
The initial condition is the distribution of temperature at t=0. Boundary conditions
are the specified condition at boundary surfaces. For examples, following may be
specified:

a. the temperature (1st kind)

b. the heat flux (2nd kind)
c. heat transfer by convection (3rd kind)

CASE 2. One dimensional unsteady-state conductions

∂T ∂ 2T
Governing equation: =α 2 (A2.1)
∂t ∂ x
Graduate Institute of Ferrous Technology, POSTECH

Rongshan Qin (R. S. Qin)

Initial condition: T ( x,0) = Ti (uniform) (A2.2)

Boundary condition: T (0, t ) = To and T (∞, t ) = Ti (A2.3)

Using the separation of variable method

T (t , x ) = τ (t ) χ ( x) (A2.4)
τ ′(t ) χ ′′( x )
= (A2.5)
ατ (t ) χ ( x )
t and x are non-relative so that both sides should equal to same constant
value -λ
τ ′(t ) = −λατ (t ) (A2.6)
χ ′′( x) = −λχ ( x ) (A2.7)
(A2.6) has
τ (t ) = Ae − λαt (A2.8)

 Be − λ x + Ce − − λ x when λ < 0

χ ( x ) =  Bx + c when λ = 0 (A2.9)
( )
 B sin λ x + C cos λ x when λ > 0

Bring (A2.8) and (A2.9) to (A2.2) and (A2.3) to determine the parameters
and equation.

REFERENCES

1. R.V. Kumar, Heat and mass transfer, Cambridge.

2. M.C. Flemings, Solidification processing, 1974.