1.

Introduction
Earthquakes are one of the most destructive of natural hazards. Earthquake occurs due to sudden transient
motion of the ground as a result of release of elastic energy in a matter of few seconds. The impact of the
event is most traumatic because it affects large area, occurs all on a sudden and unpredictable. They can
cause large scale loss of life and property and disrupts essential services such as water supply, sewerage
systems, communication and power, transport etc. They not only destroy villages, towns and cities but the
aftermath leads to destabilize the economic and social structure of the nation.

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2. Causes of Earthquakes
An Earthquake is a series of underground shock waves and movements on the earth’s surface
caused by natural processes within the earth’s crust. To learn more on the occurrence of this event
lets know more about the interior of the earth.

Interior Structure of the Earth

By analyzing the seismograms from many earthquakes, scientists have discovered that three main levels or
shells exist within the Earth (see Figure 1):

CRUST
Fig 1: Internal Structure of Earth
The Earth's outermost surface is called the
crust. The crust is relatively light and brittle.
Most earthquakes occur within the crust.
Scientists believe that below the lithosphere is a
relatively narrow, mobile zone in the mantle
called the asthenosphere (from asthenes, Greek
for weak).
Mantle
The region just below the crust and extending all
the way down to the Earth's core is called the
mantle. The mantle, a dense, hot layer of semi-
solid rock approximately 2,900 km thick. The
part of the mantle near the crust, about 50-100 Source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications//text/inside.html
km
Figure 2: Local Convective Currents down, is especially soft and plastic, and is called the
in the Mantle
asthenosphere. The rigid lithosphere is thought to "float" or move
about on the slowly flowing asthenosphere(Figure 2).

CORE
Beneath the mantle is the Earth's core. The Earth's core consists
of a fluid outer core and a solid inner core.

Convection currents develop in the viscous Mantle, because of

prevailing high temperature and pressure gradients between the
Crust and the Core (Figure 2). The energy for the above
circulations is derived from the heat produced from the incessant

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Source: Earthquake Tip 1, Learning Earthquake Design and Construction, IITK- BMPTC.
 decay of radioactive elements in the rocks throughout the Earth’s interior. These convection currents result in
a circulation of the earth’s mass; hot molten lava comes out and the cold rock mass goes into the Earth. The
mass absorbed eventually melts under high temperature and pressure and becomes a part of the Mantle,
only to come out again from another location, someday. Many such local circulations are taking place at
different regions underneath the Earth’s surface, leading to different portions of the Earth undergoing different
directions of movements along the surface.

Plate Tectonics Movements

The convective flows of Mantle material
cause the Crust and some portion of the
Mantle, to slide on the hot molten outer core.
This sliding of Earth’s mass takes place in
pieces called Tectonic Plates. The surface of
the Earth consists of seven major tectonic
plates (North American Plate, South America
Plate, Antarctic Plate, African Plate,
Australian Plate, Eurasian Plate and Pacific
Plate) and many smaller ones (Figure 3).
These plates move in different directions and
at different speeds from those of the
neighbouring ones. Sometimes, the plate in
Source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications//text/slabs.html
the front is slower; then, the plate behind it
comes and collides (and mountains are formed). On the other hand, sometimes two plates move away from
one another (and rifts are created). In another case, two plates move side-by-side, along the same direction
or in opposite directions. These three types of inter-plate interactions are the convergent, divergent and
transform boundaries (Figure 4), respectively.
Figure 4: Types of Inter-plate Boundaries

Divergent - where new crust is generated as the plates pull away

from each other.

Convergent - where crust is destroyed as one plate dives

under another.

Transformational - where crust is neither produced nor destroyed as

the plates slide horizontally past each other.
The convergent boundary has a peculiarity (like at the Himalayas) that sometimes neither of the colliding
plates wants to sink. The relative movement of
Elastic Strain Build-Up and Brittle Rupture
these plate boundaries varies across the Earth;
on an average, it is of the order of a couple to
tens of centimeters per year.
Rocks are made of elastic material, and so
elastic strain energy is stored in them during the
deformations that occur due to the gigantic
tectonic plate actions that occur in the Earth.
But, the material contained in rocks is also very
brittle. Thus, when the rocks along a weak
region in the Earth’s Crust reach their strength, a
sudden movement takes place there Fig. 5);
opposite sides of the fault (a crack in the rocks
where movement has taken place) suddenly slip
release the large elastic strain energy stored in
the interface rocks. For example, the energy
released during the 2001 Bhuj (India)
earthquake is about 400 times (or more) that
released by the 1945 Atom Bomb dropped on
Hiroshima!!

Elastic Rebound Theory

The sudden slip at the fault causes the
earthquake….a violent shaking of the Earth
when large elastic strain energy released spreads out through seismic waves that travel through the body and
along the surface of the Earth. And, after the earthquake is over, the process of strain build-up at this modified
interface between the rocks starts all over again (Figure 6). Earth scientists know this as the Elastic Rebound
Theory. The material points at the fault over which
slip occurs usually constitute an oblong three-
dimensional volume, with its long dimension often
running into tens of kilometers.

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3. General Characteristics

i. Earthquake Vibrations

• Earthquake vibrations occur in a variety of frequencies and velocities. The actual rupture process may
last from a few seconds to as long as one minute for a major earthquake. Seismic waves generated by
the rupture can last from several seconds to a few minutes.
• Ground shaking is caused by body waves and surface waves. Body waves (P and S waves) penetrate
the body of the earth, vibrating fast. P waves traveling at about 6 km per hour, provide the initial jolt and
cause buildings to vibrate in an up and down motion. S waves, traveling about 4 km per second in a
movement similar to a rope snapped like a whip, cause a typically sharper jolt that vibrates structures
from side to side and typically causes even greater damage. S waves are usually the most destructive.
Surface waves vibrate the ground horizontally and vertically. These long-period waves cause swaying of
tall buildings and slight wave motion in bodies of water even at great distances from the epicenter.

ii. Depth of Earthquakes

Earthquake focus depth is an important factor in shaping $ % & ' %
the characteristics of the waves and the damage they ' ( )))* ' * +

inflict. The focal depth can be deep (from 300 to 700 km),
intermediate (60 to 300 km) or shallow (less than 60 km).
Deep focus earthquakes are rarely destructive because
the wave amplitude is greatly attenuated by the time it
reaches the surface. Shallow focus earthquakes are
more common and are extremely damaging because of
their close proximity to the surface. Figure 8 shows the
seismicity in India in terms of depth of occurrence. Note
here that many of the earthquakes shown fall in the
region of shallow focus which can be more damaging
during an event.

iii. Measurement Scales

Earthquakes can be described by use of two distinctly
different scales of measurement demonstrating
magnitude and intensity. Earthquake magnitude or
amount of energy released is determined by use of a
seismograph, and instrument that continuously records
ground vibrations. A scale developed by a seismologist named Charles Richter mathematically adjusts the
readings for the distance of the instrument from the epicenter. The Richter scale is logarithmic. An increase
of one magnitude signifies a 10-fold increase in ground motion or roughly an increase of 30 times the energy
(see Table 2). Thus, an earthquake with a magnitude of 7.5 releases 30 times more energy than one with a
6.5 magnitude, and approximately 900 times that of a 5.5 magnitude earthquake. A quake of magnitude 3 is
the smallest normally felt by humans. The largest earthquakes that have been recorded under this system are
9.25 (Alaska, 1969) and 9.5 (Chile, 1960).
Table 2: Richter magnitude and its effects
Richter Magnitude Earthquake Effects
Less than 3.5 Generally not felt, but recorded.
3.4-5.4 Often felt, but rarely causes damage.
Under 6.0 At most slight damage to well-designed buildings. Can cause major damage
to poorly constructed buildings over small regions.
6.1-6.9 Can be destructive in areas up to about 100 kilometers across where people
live.
7.0-7.9 Major earthquake. Can cause serious damage over larger areas.
8 or greater Great earthquake. Can cause serious damage in areas several hundred
kilometers across.

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A second type of scale, the earthquake intensity scale, measures the effects of an earthquake where it
occurs. To elaborate this distinction, consider the analogy of an electric bulb (Figure 9). The illumination at a
location near a 100-Watt bulb is higher than that farther away from it. While the bulb releases 100 Watts of
energy, the intensity of light (or illumination, measured in lumens) at a location depends on the wattage of the
bulb and its distance from the bulb. Here, the size of the bulb (100-Watt) is like the magnitude of an
earthquake, and the illumination at a location like the intensity of shaking at that location.The most widely
used scale of this type was developed in 1902 by Mercalli, an Italian seismologist. The scale was extended
and modified to suit modern times. Called the Modified Mercalli Scale, it expresses the intensity of earthquake
effects on people, structures and the earth’s surface in values from I to XII. A second even more explicit
scale, the Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik (MSK) Scale is used in India. (add Annexure on MSK)

The distribution of intensity at different places during an earthquake is shown graphically using isoseismals,
lines joining places with equal seismic intensity (Figure 10).

iv Frequency of occurrence of earthquakes

The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimates that several million earthquakes occur in the world
each year
 Descriptor Magnitude Average Annually

Great 8 and higher 1¹

Major 7 - 7.9 17 ²
Strong 6 - 6.9 134 ²

Moderate 5 - 5.9 1319 ²

Light 4 - 4.9 13,000

(estimated)
Minor 3 - 3.9 130,000
(estimated)
Very Minor 2 - 2.9 1,300,000
(estimated)
¹ Based on observations since 1900.
² Based on observations since 1990.

v. Earthquake Hazards
The primary hazards associated with earthquakes are fault displacement and ground shaking. Secondary
hazards include ground failure, liquefaction, landslides and avalanches, and tsunamis and seiches.

Fault Displacement and ground shaking (ADD PHOTOGRAPHS)

Fault displacement, either rapid or gradual, may damage foundations of buildings on or near the fault area, or
may displace the land, creating troughs and ridges. Ground shaking causes more widespread damage,
particularly to the built environment. The extent of the damage is related to the size of the earthquake, the
closeness of the focus to the surface, the buffering power of the location’s rocks and soils, and the type of
buildings being shaken. Secondary tremors that follow the main shock of an earthquake, called aftershocks,
may cause further damage. Such tremors may recur for weeks or even years after the initial event.

Landslides and avalanches

Slope instability may cause landslides and snow avalanches during an earthquake. Steepness, weak soils
and presence of water may contribute to vulnerability from landslides. Liquefaction of soils on slopes may
lead to disastrous slides. The most abundant types of earthquake-induced landslides are rock falls and rock
slides usually originating on steep slopes.
Ground failure
Seismic vibrations may cause settlement beneath buildings when soils consolidate or compact. Certain types
of soils, such as alluvial or sandy silts are more likely to fail during an earthquake.

Liquefaction
Liquefaction is a type of ground failure which occurs when saturated soil loses its strength and collapses or
becomes liquefied. During the 1964 earthquake in Niigata, Japan, ground beneath buildings that were
earthquake resistant became liquefied, causing the buildings to lean or topple down sideways. Another type
of ground failure that may result from earthquakes is subsidence or vertically downward earth movement
caused by reduction in soil water pressure

Tsunami
Tsunami is a Japanese word meaning “harbor wave”. Tsunamis are popularly called tidal waves but they
actually have nothing to do with the tides. These waves, which often affect distant shores, originate from
undersea or coastal seismic activity, landslides, and volcanic eruptions. Whatever the cause, sea water is
displaced with a violent motion and swells up, ultimately surging over land with great destructive power. In
1883, the violent explosion of the famous volcano, Krakatoa in Indonesia, produced tsunamis measuring 40
meters which crashed upon Java and Sumatra. over 36,000 people lost their lives as a result of tsunami
waves from Krakatoa.