Vedanta Letters

by Sanjiv R. Malkan, Ph.D.

Intro Vedic Literrature, Part I

MultiMedia Communications, Inc.

Vednata Letters © 1993-2009, All Rights Reserved Page 1
 Introduction to Vedic Literature, Part I
by Sanjiv R. Malkan
The most of the vedic customs and rituals we know, come
directly or indirectly from vedic and post-vedic literature.
Therefore, it is important to examine the basics of vedic and post-
vedic literature.
Vedic literature is divided into two categories: Primary and
Secondary, as shown in the flow chart. The primary literature is
called Sruti (Zuita) and the Secondary literature is called Smrti (Sma&ita).
Sruti (Zuita)
The primary literature is called Sruti (Zuita), which simply means
'hearing' or 'divine revelation'. It is believed that the sacred
knowledge of the Veda was first 'heard' by ancient rushis (≠ ixa), and
the knowledge was orally transmitted by brahmans from generation
to generation The primary literature Sruti (Zuita), is usually referred
as Vedas.
Vedas
Vedas are considered to be the stepping stones of vedic
literature. Veda means 'knowledge', a term specifically applied to
the 'supreme scared knowledge' contained in the four Samhitas
(collections), called vedas. The Vedas are divided into four groups,
namely, the Rigveda (≠ gvaed), the Yajurveda (yajauvR aed), the Samaveda
(saAmavaed), and the Atharvaveda (åTavaRvaed). Each one of these four
groups has original text or mantra portion and many commentary
portions. The original text or mantra portion is called Samhita
(saMihtaA), and the prose or commentary portions are called Brahmanas
(bòaah˙,‹‹a), Aryankas (åAr,yakaã), Upnishads (üpaˆnaxad), and Srauta-Sutras
(saQ§a-saU§a).
Samhita (saMihtaA). Samhita means a collection of methodically
arranged compositions of similar character hymns. There are four
principal Samhita, namely, the Rigveda-Samhita, the Yajurveda-
Samhita, the Samaveda-Samhita, and the Atharvaveda-Samhita.
Rigveda-Samhita is the oldest and most important work of
Vedic literature. It is the greatest source of information about early
Vedic social, political, religious, and linguistic development. The
hymns of the Rigveda-Samhita were composed and handed down
orally by different sage families for recitation purpose only. A
Rigvedic hymn usually goes through three phases: it begins with
an exhoration that is followed in the main part by praise of the
deity, prayers, and imploration, with frequent references to the deity's
mythology, and finishes with a specific request. The Rigveda-
Samhita is divided into ten books (called mandalas) having 1028
hymns (including 11 supplementary ones) and consisting of 10,552
(including 80 supplementary) stanzas. There are 432,000 syllables,
153,826 words, and about 10,000 lines of verse in the text. Each
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mandala differ individually, but they have some common
characteristics. The hymns in each mandala are arranged in the
order of the deities addressed. The hymns addressed to the Lord
Agni are placed first, those to Lord Indra second, and those to other
Lords last.
The mandalas two to seven constitute the Family Books, that
is, the hymns contained in each of these books constitute
compositions of various members of the same sage family. Thus
the second mandala is devoted to the compositions of Gritsamada
(g‹‹as& amad) family, the third mandala to the Visvamitra (ivazvaaima§a>) family,
the fourth mandala to the Vamadeva (vaAmadEvaO) family, the fifth
mandala to the Atri (åA§aeya>) family, the sixth mandala to the
Bharadvaja (BarÊaja>) family, the seventh mandala to the Vasistha
(vaisaxF) family. These mandalas (2 to 7) most probably formed the
nucleus of the Rigveda.
The eighth mandala resembles the Family Books in that
majority of the hymns, 1 through 66, were composed by Kanva
(kaãA,va>) family, and the rest of the hymns, 67 through 103, were
composed by other sage families. The ninth Mandala consists of
hymns addressed to Soma Pavamana rites relating to extraction
and purification of the soma juice, that is, the clarified sacrificial
liquid. Basically most of the hymns for this mandala have been
taken from other nine mandalas, perhaps for ritual purposes. The
first and tenth mandalas are not considered as Family Books because
they were composed later by a number of poets, and it is believed
that none of the poets composed more than 26 hymns. Each of
these two mandalas contains 191 hymns.
Rigveda-Samhita covers a wide variety of subject matter. The
religion reflected in the Rigveda is a polytheism mainly concerned
with appeasement of divinities associated with the sky and
atmosphere, such as Indra, Varuna, Agni, and Surya.
Philosophically, the hymns convey the secular and moralistic values.
The Rigveda-Samhita represents an attempt to adapt ancient myths,
magical incantations, and spells of nomadic Aryan tribes, chiefly
concerned with ensuring the satisfaction of their immediate material
needs. The achievement of these aims under the leadership of Indra
is the theme of many early hymns. The hymns also formed
systematized mythology which defined the functions of the gods
and established a practical relationship between the gods and
devotees. Family as a social unit and marriage as an indissoluble
bond are referred in many hymns. Individual occupations, such as
medicine, sewing, chariot-building, navigation, and hunting are also
frequently referred. Many of the hymns reveal 'love of nature'.
These hymns deal with certain powers in nature and also embellished
with allusions to the familiar objects of nature like rivers, animals,
and birds. Among the objects of the nature, cows and rivers form
the most prominent objects that attracted the attention of the sages
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 VEDIC LITERATURE

PRIMARY SECONDARY
(Sruti - Zuita) (Smrti - Sma&ˆta )

VEDAS

Rig Yajur Sama Atharva Sutras

Upvedas
& Itihasas
Sastras Ramayana
Ayurveda
Two principal Sutras - &
Gandharva
Samhitas Srauta-Sutras Graha & Dharma Mahabharata
Aranyakas Dhanur
& (Bhagvat Gita)
Sthapatya
Four principal Each of the four Many Sastras
Each of the four
Samhitas - Vedas has at least
Vedas has at least
Rig, Yajur, one Srauta-Sutra
one Aranyakas
Sama, and Atharva
Vedangas
Siksa - Phonetics
Chandas - Prosody Puranas
Upnishads Nirukta - Etymology Altogether 18
Brahmanas Vykarana - Grammar Puranas
Jyotisa - Astronomy
Over 200
Each of the four Kalpa - Ceremonial
Upnishads, only
Vedas has at least
thirteen are the
one Brahmans
most popular

and poets of those days. lies in the variation of the sacrificial formulae.

Yajurveda-Samhita as a whole is the prayer-book for the
Adhvaryu priest. Here Adhvaryu priest means a priest who carries
out the manual duties of the sacrifice and who also recites the
sacrificial prayers or yajus. The word Yajur comes from the root
Yaj, which means to worship. Yajurveda-Samhita is separated into
two main divisions: the Black Yajurveda-Samhita (also called Krsna
Y-Samhita) and the White Yajurveda-Samhita (also called Sukla
Y-Samhita) and each has its own recensions.
The main difference between the Black and White Yajurvedas
is that in the Black Samhita--there are the original mantras or
incantations to be recited at the rituals along with many explanatory
portions, while in the White Samhita--there are only the original
mantras. The further difference is that the Black Samhita pay
attention to the Hotar and his duties, while the White Samhita rarely
mentions the duties. Basically, Yajurveda-Samhita is divided into
five text books or Samhitas. Out of these five, four belong to Black
Yajurveda-Samhita and one belongs to White Yajurveda-Samhita.
The principal book of the Black Samhita is called the Taittiriya-
Samhita and there are also the Kathaka-Samhita, the Maitrayani-
Samhita, and the Kapisthala-Samhita. These four Samhitas are
closely interrelated, discussing the same subject matter in sometimes
identical or nearly identical language. The White Samhita has one
book called Vajasaneyi-Samhita with two well known recensions,
namely the Madhyandina School and the Kanava School. These
two recensions agree almost entirely in content; the main difference
Taittriya-Samhita consists of seven books, called ashtakas; these
again are divided into 44 prasnas, 651 anuvakas, and 2198 kandikas,
the latter being separated from one another on the principle of an
equal number of syllables to each. The Vajasaneyi-Samhita, is extant
in both recensions in 40 adhyayas. In the Madhyandina recension
these are divided into 303 anuvakas and 1,975 khandikas. The first
25 adhyayas contain formulas for the general sacrificial ceremonies
and the rest of the adhyayas address the specific sacrificial
ceremonies.
Yajurveda-Samhita represents an advanced stage in the progress
of rituals and it is mainly concerned with the Srauta sacrifices only.
Some of the rituals described in Yajurveda are useful in many of
the smaskara ceremonies. Historically speaking, the main interest
of the Yajurveda is its literary value as prose. The written words
are short and the sentences are brief and expressive. The elegant
mode of narration, explanatory discourses, and plenty of variety in
the style and modes of expression make the Yajurveda-Samhita a
literary masterpiece.
Samaveda-Samhita stands between the poetic Vedas and the
ritualistic Vedas. In content and form, it is poetry of the highest
order, while in arrangement and purpose it is ritualistic. Therefore,
the Samaveda is often called as the song book of the Vedas. The
Samaveda is not original, meaning the mantras have been selected
from the Rigveda and grouped together, arranged, and transposed

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for ritualistic purposes. Altogether, the Samaveda consists 1,810
verses, of these 261 verses are repeated, and all but 75 are to be
found in the Rigveda, mostly in mandals VIII and IX. Most of the
verses are composed in the gayatri metre or in a combination of
gayatri and jagati, and were from the beginning meant to be sung.
There are three recensions of the Samaveda-Samhita, namely-
-the Kauthuma, the Ranayaniya, and the Jaiminiya. Of these three
the best known recension is the Kauthuma, which is divided into
two parts: the Purva-Arcika or the First Adorations and the Uttara-
Arcika or the Later Adorations. The Purva-Arcika consists of verses
grouped into ten, in different metres and addressed to the three gods:
Agni (Fire), Indra (the Warrior Hero), and Soma (the Divine Plant).
The metres are selected in a way that the mantras are suitable for
singing in different melodies. The Uttara-Arcika consists of
complete songs with all kinds of extensions, repetitions, additions,
and so on of syllables. There are different song groups bearing
different names. The chants or melodies to the verses of the
Samaveda were taught orally, but in later times songbooks were
written to describe the chants or melodies. The four main songbooks
are: the Gramageyagana, the Aranyagana, the Uhagana, and the
Uhyagana.
The importance of the Samaveda-Samhita lies in the sacrificial
and magical spheres, for the chants were believed to possess magical
power. On this basis it is probably true that the original meaning of
saman is 'appeasing' or 'propitiatory song.'
Atharvaveda-Samhita is another important poetic literature of
vedic age. Originally Atharvaveda was called Atharva-Angirasa.
The terms Atharvan and Angirasa are names of two vedic families
of priests. This two names not only refer to the priestly families but
also to the magic formulae of the families. The Atharvan formulae
were employed for healing purposes and thus were associated with
'holy or white' magic, while the Angirasa formulae were employed
as curses against enemies, rivals, etc. and thus associated with 'hostile
or black' magic.
Atharvaveda-Samhita possesses two recensions: the Saunaka
School and the Paippalada School. The Saunaka is the most popular
recension which originally consisted of eighteen books. Two books
were added at a later date. Altogether, the Saunaka recension has
730 hymns in 5,987 stanzas and prose-units. The first eighteen
books are divided into three divisions. The first division (Books I-
VII) consists mainly of charms and imprecations of a popular
character in verse form. The second division (Books VIII-XII)
consists of both verse and prose. The third division (Books XIII-
XVIII) consists of books devoted to a particular subject matter, for
example Book XIV describes wedding ceremony and Book XVIII
describes funeral rites.
As opposed to the other three Samhitas, the Atharvaveda-
Samhita is not used at the ritual ceremonies and has been called as
'Brahmaveda', the Veda of prayer. Many of the prayers carry the
spirit of the other three Samhitas and generally mystical in character,
which lie midway between the Veda and the Upnishad. Principally,
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the Atharvaveda-Samhita contains the formulas intended to protect
against the baneful influences of the divine powers, against diseases,
cursing of enemies, together with formulas for all manner of
occurrences in everyday life, such as prayers for protection on
journeys and luck in game.
Brahmanas (bòaah˙,‹‹a). Brahmanas are priestly compositions
severally appended over a long period to each of the four Vedas.
Initially they consisted of manuals of simple rites, which
subsequently became elaborated. The quality of the Brahmanas
varies, as does their relevance to the particular Veda to which they
are appended. As an example, the Gopatha Brahmanas, attached to
the Atharvaveda is really a Vedanga, and was only added when the
Atharvaveda received canonical acceptance, probably to conform
to the convention that each Veda should have atleast one Brahmanas.
Some passages in the Brahmanas are full of genuine thought and
feeling, and are the chief source of information of one of the most
important periods of social and intellectual development of Vedic
age.
Brahmanas are connected to the Samhitas in the sense that they
connect the sacrificial mantra with the sacrificial rite by explaining
their direct mutual relation on the one hand, and on the other, their
symbolic connection with each other. The Samhitas explain the
particular ritual in its details, while the Brahmanas explain the sacred
significance of the ritual. In Brahmanas we find traditional narratives
about ancient legends, cosmological myths, oldest linguistic and
etymological explanations, and philosophical explanations. The
Brahmanas originated from the opinions of individual sages,
imparted by oral tradition, and preserved as well as supplemented
in their families and disciples.
The Brahmanas of the Rigveda specify the duties of the Hotar,
the Invoker or Offerer, that priest who was responsible for reciting
the mantras suitable for the sacrifice of the moment. There are two
Brahmanas attached to Rigveda, namely Aitareya and Kausitaki
(or Sankhayana) Brahmanas.
The Aitareya Brahmanas consists of forty Adhyayas divided
in Pancaka. This Brahmanas deal essentially with Soma sacrifice
called Agnistoma (Adhyayas 1-16) which lasts for a day. It then
deals with a Soma rite called Gavamayana, which lasts for 360 days
(Adhyayas 17-18), then Dvadasaha rite which lasts for twelve days
(Adhyayas 19-24). The Adhyayas 25-32 deal with the Agnihotra
or Fire Oblation, and the final, supplementary portion (Adhyayas
33-40) deals with the consecration of the king and the position of
his domestic priest or Purohita. The Kausitaki Brahmanas is closely
related to Aitareya in subject matter. This Brahmanas is uniform
and methodical in its treatment of the subject matter, thereby giving
justification to the view that the work is the product of one hand.
The subject matter in Kausitaki is wider than Aitareya. The
Kausitaki discusses the Agnyadhanam ritual, the setting up of the
Sacrificial Fire; the Darsapurnamasau ritual, the New and Full Moon
sacrifices; the Kamya Istayah ritual, optional sacrifices; and the
Caturmasyani ritual, the four monthly sacrifices.
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 The Brahmanas of the Yajurveda specify the duties of the
Adhvaryu priest, the actual performer of the sacrifice, and the one
who recites the 'Yajus' or sacrificial prayers. Each of the two
Yajurvedas (Black and White) has one Brahmanas. Taittiriya
Brahmanas is attached to Black Yajurveda-Samhita and Satapatha
Brahmanas is attached to White Yajurveda-Samhita.
Taittiriya Brahmanas discusses a variety of subject matter, such
as explanations of the Rajasuya, the Agnihotra, and the list of victims
for the human sacrifice called as Purusamedha. The Satapatha
Brahmanas means 'Brahmana of Hundred Paths' so called because
it consists of one hundred Adhyayas. This Brahmanas is ranked as
the most important Brahmanas, as far as the exactiveness of its
subject matter. This Brahmanas possesses two recensions: the Kanva
School and Madhyamdina School. The Kanva recension consists
of 17 Kandas: the first, fifth, and fourteenth kandas are divided into
two parts. The Madhyamdina recension consists of 14 Kandas,
subdivided into 100 Adhyayas. This Brahmanas addresses a variety
of subject matter describing many of the sacrifices, such as
Asvamedha, Daksayana, Rajasuya, and Abhisecaniya. It also
contains many myths and legends of importance.
The Brahmanas of the Samaveda specify the duties of Udgatar
priest, the one who sings and tunes the verses during the sacrificial
ceremonies. The Samaveda possesses the greatest number of
Brahmanas, although there is a question whether a majority of these
works are in reality Brahmanas at all. In actuality only three works
out of the nine or ten may be called Brahmanas. There are two
major and independent Schools of the Samaveda which possess
Brahmanas: the Tandins and Talavakaras or Jaiminiyas. The nine
main Brahmanas of Samaveda are: Tandya Mahabrahmana or
Panchavimsa, Sadvimsa, Samavidhana, Jaiminya, Arseya,
Devatadhyaya, Upnishad or Chandogya or Mantra, Samhitopnishad,
and Vamsa. Each of these nine Brahmanas belongs one of the two
Schools of Samaveda. The following is a brief explanation on each
of these nine Brahmanas:
Panchavimsa means 'twenty five' thus referring to the fact that
this Brahmana consists of twenty five chapters or books. This
Brahmana belongs to the Tandin School and it is also called as the
Tandya Mahabrahmana. This is one of the oldest Brahmanas and
contains some important old legends. This Brahmana deals
generally with the chants, lauds (that is a chant of certain number
of strophes), and praises of the various soma sacrifices. Also
mentioned are myths, legends, geographical information, and details
relating to the Vratyastomas sacrifices by which people of Aryan
(Vratya) origin not living according to the Brahmanical system were
admitted to this way of life. The word Sadvimsa means 'twenty
sixth,' this implies that this Brahmana serves as a supplement to the
Panchavimsa Brahmana. It mainly deals with the ceremonies and
rituals related to the soma sacrifices. The work consists of six
chapters; the sixth chapter, however, seems to have been added to
the work at a later time, and is called the Adbhuta Brahmana, a
work which is sometimes treated as a separate Brahmana.
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Jaiminiya Brahmana is the largest of the Samaveda Brahmanas
and perhaps the most important of all the Brahmanas with reference
to mythological and legendary material. This work is of special
interest for the history both of religion and legend, but unfortunately
the manuscript material is so fragmentary that it cannot be edited.
This Brahmana parallels that of the Panchavimsa Brahmanas in
subject matter. This Brahmans discusses the Agnihotra sacrifices
where as the Panchavimsa Brahmana does not. This Brahmans
contains five chapters or Kandas, the first three chapters form the
nucleus of the work describing the most common sacrifices and
ritual. The last two chapters form the basis of the Upnishad and
Arseya Brahmana.
Samavidhana Brahmana was composed to achieve ends such
as gaining heaven, warding off evils, etc. for ordinary people.
Generally, these gains are obtained through great sacrifices such as
Agnihotra and Agnyadhana, by people with great mental and
physical stature. Thus this Brahmana shows how an ordinary person
can obtain certain ends through the proper arrangement of Samans.
Arseya Brahmana is nothing but an anukramanika, that is an
index or table of contents. Each of the Samaveda Schools
(Kauthuma-Ranayaniya and Jaiminiya) posses their own recension
of this work. The Devatadhyaya Brahmana deals with the divinities
to which the Saman's are addressed, the etymology of the metre,
and their colors. The term Devatadhyaya means Lesson on the
Divinities, which refers to the subject matter found primarily in the
first khanda.
Upnishad Brahmana is also called Chandogya or Mantra
Brahmana. This Brahmana deals with the mantras for the household
or Grahya rites such as the birth and marriage rites. The first two
chapters of this Brahmana describe the recitations or parapathaka.
The remaining eight parapathaka of this Brahmana form the
Chandogya Upnishad. The Samhitoupnishad Brahmana deals with
the secret meaning of the samhita, a word which is used in the sense
of a sama-gana or verse-chant which consists of melodizing with
the use of the saptasvara. Here saptasvara means the seven notes
on the musical scale usually consisting of nisada, rsabha, gandhara,
sadja, madhyma, dhaivata, and pancama; which resembles the sound
or pitch of an elephant, bull, goat, peacock, curlew orheron, horse,
and koil. This Brahmana also discusses the rewards of the chanter
of samhita, the scientific aspects of melodization of saman in
different svara's in harmony, and Daksina or sacrificial gifts given
to the teacher upon the completion of one's education. The Vamsa
Brahmana describes the Vamsa or lineage of all the rishis --real and
legendary, involved in the learning and tradition of the Samaveda.
The Brahmanas of the Atharvaveda do not specify any duties
for a priest or hotar. The sole Brahmana belonging to the
Atharvaveda is the Gopatha Brahmana. This Brahmana contains
two sections, the first section consists five parapathaka and the
second consists six parapathaka. This Brahmana basically describes
the concept of time and also mentions legendary stories.
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 Aranyakas (åAr,yakaã). The term Aranyaka means 'relating to
the forest (aranya),' therefore they are usually called 'forest book or
forest treaties or forest text.' The Aranyakas were intended only for
those brahmans and ksatriyas who had renounced the world and
retired to forest solitudes. The Aranyakas are essentially sacred
esoteric writings which form the core of the Upnishads and are
considered to be sacrificial texts which emphasize the mystical and
symbolic aspects of certain sacrifices. They are to be looked upon
as a more advanced study of the Vedic sacrifices which could only
be mastered after understanding the Brahmana portions of the Vedas.
The Aranyakas texts are very brief and philosophical compared with
Brahmans texts. The Aranyakas do not appear in all the Vedas
therefore there are only four to five main Aranyakas.
Like Brahmans, the Aranyakas belong to the various Vedic
schools and their names are the same as that of Brahmans of the
same Vedas. Thus the two Rigveda Aranyakas are Aitareya and
Kausitaki, both connected to the Brahmans of the same name; the
Samaveda Aranyakas is the Jaiminiya belonging to the Jaiminiya
Brahmana; and the sole Krsna Yajurveda Aranyakas is the Taittiriya
Aranyaka, which is a continuation of the Taittiriya Brahmana. The
following is a brief explanation on each of these Aranyakas:
Aitareya Aranyaka consists five parts. The first part discusses
the Mahavrata rite both from the ritualistic and speculative points
of view. The second part consists of two divisions. The first division
deals with speculations of the Uktha or Hymn and its identity with
Prana or Life-breath and Purusa or man; the second division forms
the Aitareya Upnishad. The third part discusses the various form of
the text, such as word-text, step-text, the sibilants, and vowels. The
fourth part consists of Mahanamni verses and the fifth part consists
of a description of the Niskevalya Sastra.
Kausitaki Aranyaka is attached to the Brahmana of the same
name. The subject matter contained parallels that of the Aitareya
Aranyaka. This Aranyaka had fifteen Adhyayas. The first two
Adhyaya correspond to the Aitareya Aranyaka. The Adhyaya 3 to
6 form the Kausitaki Upnishad. The Adhyayas 6 to 13 discuss a
variety of subject matter and form basis for many of the Upnishads.
The Adhyaya 14 underlines the importance of studying and knowing
the meaning of the Veda. And the Adhyaya 15 gives Vamsa or line
of teachers.
Jaiminiya Aranyaka is attached to the Jaiminiya Brahmana
and belongs to the Samaveda. This Aranyaka introduces theological
myths to explain both the origin of the cosmos and speech (especially
chanted speech). This Aranyaka discusses the importance of
syllable OM as speech and essence of speech as the life-breath. It
also contains important myths and legend such as the contention
between the deva's and asura's, a myth assessing that only the
atmosphere existed in the beginning, and the myth asserting that
only space existed in the beginning.
Taittiriya Aranyaka is a true continuation of the Taittiriya
Brahmana. As a result it resembles a Brahmana in subject matter
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rather than a true Aranyaka. The contents of this Aranyaka are
divided into ten chapters and basically discuss various mantras
and rites. The chapters 7 to 9 form the Taittiriya Upnishad and
chapter 10 form the Narayana Upnishad.
Upnishads (üpaˆnaxad). The word Upnishad is derived from the
root sad means 'to sit' and the prefixes -- upa means 'near to' and ni
means 'down: hence, 'to sit down near to someone.' The sense of
the word reflects the instruction of the student by the teacher of
confidential, private, and secret doctrines. Thus it refers to the sitting
of the student near to the teacher, the proximity reflecting a secret
doctrine imparted by the teacher to the student. Form this definition
one may think that the Upnishads are esoteric and secret instructions,
but in actuality they are not. Most of the Upnishads contain neither
esoteric doctrine nor teaching imparted in secret. There are over
200 upnishads, but only nine to eighteen actually contain esoteric
and secret teaching. The remainder are considered as sectarian
religious works which are post-vedic in both language and content.
The Vedic Upnishads are for the most part, dialogues or discussions
on the true nature of reality, called either brahman or atman, which
underlines both the psycho-physical microcosm and macrocosm.
The purely Vedic Upnishads based on age, language, and subject
matter are: Brhad-aranyaka, Chandogaya, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Isa,
Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Svetasvatara, Kausitaki
Brahmana, Maitri, Subala, Jabala, Paingala, Kaivalya, and
Vajrasucika. The following is a brief explanation on each of these
Upnishads:
Brhad-aranyaka Upnishad is considered to be the most
important of the Upnishads. It is actually a part of the Satapatha
Brahmana. It consists of three Khandas or sections, namely Madhu,
Muni, and Khila. The Madhu Khanda expounds the teaching of the
basic divinity of the individual and Universal Self; the Muni or
Yajnavalkya Khanda provides a philosophical justification of the
teaching; and the Khila Khanda deals with certain modes of worship
and meditation, upasana, answering roughly to the three stages of
religious life, sravana, hearing the upadesa or the teaching, manan,
logical reflection, upapatti and nididhyasana or contemplative
meditation.
Chandogya Upnishad belongs to Sama Veda. Chandoga
means the singer of the Saman. This Upnishad is a part of the
Chandogya Brahmana which has ten chapters. The first two chap-
ters of the Brahmana deal with sacrifices and other forms of wor-
ship. The other eight constitute the Chandogya Upnishad. This
Upnishad discusses the problems of liturgy and doctrine such as
the genesis and significance of Aum, and the meaning of Saman.
Aitareya Upnishad belong to Rig Veda. This Upnishad is a
part of the Aitareya Aranyaka, and the Upnishad begins with the
Fourth Chapter of the second Aranyaka, and comprises Chapters
IV, V, and VI. The main purpose of this Upnishad is to lead the
mind of the sacrificer away from the outer ceremonial to its inner
meaning.
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 Taittiriya Upnishad belongs to Taittiriya School of Yajur Veda.
It is divided into three sections called Vallis, namely Siksa,
Brahmananda, and Bhrigu. The Siksa Valli describes the science
of phenetics and pronunciation (it is to be noted here that Siksa
Valli is also the first of the six Vedangas, limbs or auxiliaries of the
Veda). The Brahmananda Valli and Bhrigu Valli deal with the
knowledge of the Supreme Self called paramatma-jnana.
Isa Upnishad also called Isavasya Upnishad, derives its name
from the opening word of the text Isavasya or Isa. This Upnishad
belongs to the Vajasaneyi School of the Yajur Veda. The Vajasaneya
Samhita consists of forty chapters of which this Upnishad is the
last. The essence of this Upnishad is to teach the essential unity of
God and the world, that is being and becoming. It teaches that life
in the world and the life in the Divine Spirit are not incompatible.
Kena Upnishad derives its name from the first word Kena,
and belong to Sama Veda. It is also known as the Talavakara, the
name of the Brahmana of the Sama Veda to which the Upnishad
belongs. It has four sections: the first two contain verses and the
other two contain prose. The verse portion deals with the Supreme
Unqualified Brahman, the absolute principle underlying the world
of phenomena and the prose portion deals with the Supreme as God,
Isvara. The knowledge of the Absolute, para vidya, which secures
immediate liberation (sadyo-mukti) is possible only for those who
are able to withdraw their thoughts from worldly objects and
concentrate on the ultimate fact of the universe. The Knowledge of
Isvara, apara vidya, puts one on the pathway that leads to deliverance
eventually (karma-mukti). The worshipping soul gradually acquires
the higher wisdom which results in the consciousness of the identity
with the Supreme.
Katha Upnishad also called Kathakopnishad belongs to
Taittiriya School of Yajur Veda. The whole Upnishad is based on a
story about a poor and pious Brahman. The Upnishad consists of
two chapters, each of which has three Vallis or sections. Some of
the portions of this Upnishad are also found in Bhagvad Gita.
Prasna Upnishad belongs to Atharva Veda and has six sections
dealing with six questions put to a sage by his disciples who were
intent on knowing the nature of the Supreme to the constituents of
the world. The Upnishad is so called as it deals with prasna or
question.
Mundaka Upnishad belongs to Atharva Veda and has three
chapters, each of which has two sections. The name–Mundala, is
derived from the root mund, which means 'to shave.' In other words,
one who comprehends the teaching of the Upnishad is shaved or
liberated from error or ignorance. The Upnishad clearly states the
difference between the higher knowledge or the Supreme Brahman
and the lower knowledge of the empirical world. The Upnishad
also states that only by higher knowledge and not by sacrifices or
worship that one can reach Brahman. Only the samnyasin who has
given up everything can obtain the highest knowledge.
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Svetasvatara Upnishad also belongs to Taittiriya School of
Yajur Veda. Its name is derived form the sage who taught it. The
Upnishad teaches the unity of the souls and the world in the one
Supreme Reality. The Upnishad is an attempt to reconcile the
different philosophical and religious views which prevailed at the
time of its composition.
Kausitaki-Brahmana Upnishad belongs to Rig Veda. This
Upnishad has several recensions and the version Dipikas by
Samkarananda is the most popular. This Upnishad has four chapters.
The first chapter describes the superiority of the Kshatriyas to the
Brahmins; the second chapter describes Prana as the Ultimate
Reality; the third chapter describes identification of Prana with Life,
Consciusness, and Ataman; and the foruth chapter describes the
Self as Lord of all the bodily faculties.
Maitri or Maitrayaniya Upnishad belongs to Maitrayaniya
sakha or branch of Black Yajur Veda. Maitri is the principal teacher
and Maitrayana is the name of the sakha to which the Upnishad
belongs. The Upnishad has seven chapters, of which the last two
are comparatively modern. This Upnishad was written at a later
date than other classical Upnishads. The Upnishad refers to the
trimurti conception–Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. The trimurti forms
were traced to the three gunas, namely rajas, sattva, and tamas.
The subject matter also suggest the illusory character of the world
and momentariness of phenomena show the influence of Buddhist
thought.
Subala Upnishad belongs to Sukla Yajur Veda. It is basically
written in the form of a dialogue between the sage Subala and
Brahma, the creator. It discusses the nature of the Universe and the
character of the Absolute.
Jabala Upnishad belongs to Atharva Veda. It discusses a
few important questions regarding renunciation.
Paingala Upnishad also belongs to Sukal Yajur Veda. It is
written in the form of a dialogue between Yajnavalkya and his pupil
Paingala. Some of the important questions such as meditation on
the Supreme, the nature of release, are discussed.
Kaivlaya Upnishad belongs to Atharva Veda. It discusses the
study and practice that lead to the state of Kaivalya or aloneness.
Vajrasucika Upnishad belongs to Sama Veda. It describes the
true character of a Brahmana and incidentally offers comments on
the nature of the Supreme Reality. The Upnishad is valuable in that
it undermines caste distinctions based on birth.
Srauta Sutra (saQ§a-saU§a). Before I start the discussion on Srauta
Sutra, let me explain the term Kalpa Sutras. The Kalpa Sutras are
manuals containing concise rules or sutras concerning kalpa. The
Kalpa Sutra texts are appended to the Brahmana portion of the Vedas.
The earliest Kalpa Sutras dealt with the Sruti tradition, such as rites
and ceremonies of the Vedic Samhitas and Brahmanas, and were
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called Srauta Sutras. The second class of the Kalpa Sutras, however
dealt with Smriti tradition, such as domestic and social activities,
and were called Smarta Sutras.
The word 'srauta' means ceremonies of the three fires in which
Vedic mantras were used, and the word 'sutra' means relating to or
attached to. The Srauta Sutras were composed to elucidate the
sacrificial instructions contained in the Brahmana portion of the
Vedas, which had become obscure over the years. The subject matter
of the srauta sutras is the same as corresponding Brahmanas. The
main objective of the sutras was to comprehend everything that
was written in the Brahmanas in compressed and enigmatic style.
Each of the Four Vedas has one or more Srauta Sutras. For the
Rig Veda – the Asvalayana, Sankhyana, and Saunaka; for the Sama
Veda – the Masaka, Latyayana, and Drahyana; for the Black Yajur
Veda – the Apastamba, Baudhyana, Satysadha-hiranya-kesin,
Manava, Bharadvaja, Vadhuna Vaikhansa, Laugaksi, Maitra, Katha,
and Varaha; for the White Yajur Veda – the Katyayana; and for the
Atharva Veda – the Kusika.
Sources:
1. Stutley, M. and Stutley, J. : Harper's Dictionary of Hinduism,
Harper & Row, New York, USA, 1977.
2. Weber, Albrecht : The History of Indian Literature, Trubner &
Co., London England, 1882
3. Santucci, J. A. : An Outline of Vedic Literature, Scholars Press,
Missoula, Montana, USA, 1976.
4. Raja, C. K. : Survey of Sanskrit Literature, Bhartiya Vidya
Bhavan, Bombay India, 1962.
5. Hopkins, T. J. : The Hindu Religious Tradition, Dickenson
Publishing Company, Inc., Encino, California, USA, 1971.
6. Radhakrishnan, S. : The Principal Upnishads, Harper &
Brothers Publishers, New York, USA, 1953.
7. Gowen, H. H. : A History of Indian Literature, Greenwood
Press Publishers, New York, USA, 1968.

8. Comte, F. : Mythology, W & R Chmabers Ltd., New York,

USA, 1991.

vae,‹ aug‹ aIta paircaya

What is Venugeet?

Venugeet is a part of Bhagavad Purana. It comes in the twenty-first chapter of the

Tenth Canto of the Bhagavad Purana. It is well known that Lord Krishna in his
childhood in Vrindaban, used to go to tend cows with his brother and friends every
morning. Very often he used to stand under a tree in Vrindaban and play his ‘transcen-
dental flute’ for all living entity. Practically all-living creatures used to get captivated
by the sound vibration of his ‘transcendental flute’.

After hearing the ‘transcendental flute’ of Lord Krishna, the gopis in Vrindaban re-
membered Him and began to talk amongst themselves about how nicely Krishna was
playing His flute. This conversation of gopis describing Lord Krishna in various
forms, their pastimes with Krishna and their attraction to the sound of the flute is
known as Venugeet. Venugeet has 20 slokas, out of which 14 slokas were sung by
gopis.

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