WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY?

The Problem: Loss of Species

By the early 1980s, scientists around the world had begun to recognize that species extinctions
were occurring on a global scale.  The rate of these extinctions rivaled, or surpassed, those of the
Cretaceous period 65 million years ago when many species, including the dinosaurs became
extinct. The crisis facing species today differs in one fundamental way from any other extinction
events: all other cases of mass extinction throughout global history have come about as the result
of climatic change, a natural geological change or some cataclysmic event. The present crisis,
however, is being driven by human influences. Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, the
scientific community, the media, the public, and governmental agencies worldwide began
working to preserve the biological diversity of terrestrial systems.  Issues such as deforestation of
tropical forests, overdevelopment, overexploitation of species, pollution, habitat loss, invasions
by introduced species, and other issues which addressed habitat preservation and conservation
were brought into public focus.  However, maintaining the biological diversity of marine and
estuarine systems was largely overlooked throughout the 1980s, even though it was generally
accepted that marine systems are far more species rich and have greater ecosystem diversity than
terrestrial systems.  Representatives from 32 of the 33 known animal phyla can be found in
ocean and coastal waters. Of these, 15 phyla occur exclusively in estuarine or marine
environments.

Defining Biodiversity:

The vast wealth of life on earth is unified by a common strand: DNA. All living
things owe their forms and functions to the molecular makeup of their DNA. But
perhaps more intriguing than life's unity is its immense diversity. Biological
diversity - biodiversity - is one of the central themes of conservation. But what
exactly is biological diversity, and why should we be concerned about preserving
it? Simply put, biodiversity may be defined as the measure of how healthy our
ecosystems are.  Healthy ecosystems support high biological diversity;  while
stressed or highly disturbed ecosystems do not.  When we consider biodiversity as
a whole, we are actually addressing 3 main components: genetic level biodiversity,
species richness and ecosystem diversity.

Genetic Level Biodiversity:

The term "genetic diversity" is the most fundamental level of biodiversity, and refers to the
degree of variation in all the genes for all individuals within a species. Here we will define a
species as a group consisting of all the collected populations of morphologically similar
organisms which are able to interbreed with one another. A population is defined as consisting
of all the individuals of the same species within a defined geographical area, for example, the
Indian River Lagoon.

Within a species, it is theoretically possible for any individual to breed successfully with any
other individual of the species. However, populations, tend to remain somewhat separated from
each other. Thus, there is a higher probability that an individual within a population will select a
mate from the same population. Within a large population, the effect of geographic separation of
populations, which often results in reduced genetic mixing, is small.  However, within small
populations, there can be a tendency toward reduced genetic diversity among members of that
population. Over long periods of time, this can lead to geographically separated populations
diverging genetically, each population having its own set of genetic adaptations which allow it to
live optimally within a particular habitat.

This genetic divergence is the basis for evolution. Populations having greater genetic diversity
are far better equipped to cope with environmental change and go on to reproduce successfully
than populations with low genetic diversity. Populations with low genetic diversity can become
so well adapted to local conditions that any environmental disturbance may be enough to reduce
their numbers dramatically, or even destroy them entirely. Thus, in thinking about preserving
biodiversity, one must consider that each population within a species may have some unique set
of genetic adaptations that could potentially assist the entire species in overcoming
environmental, or human influenced challenges to its survival.

Species Richness:

This term, quite simply, is the measure of the number of species which occur within a particular
taxonomic level (i.e., genus level, family level, etc.) in a geographic area. In marine ecosystems,
species diversity tends to vary widely depending upon latitudinal and longitudinal location.  
Along a latitudinal gradient, species diversity tends to increase toward tropical areas.  Within
tropical areas, species diversity tends to increase along a longitudinal gradient, with more species
being found toward the Indo-Pacific region around northeastern Australia, Indonesia and the
Philippines. There is a moderate amount of species diversity in the eastern Pacific and western
Atlantic oceans, with lowest species diversity found in the eastern Atlantic.

Ecosystem Diversity:

Ecosystems are the collection of all the plants and animals within a particular area,
each differing in species composition, physical structure and function. Even within
highly diverse ecosystems, these elements can differ widely.  For example, most
estuarine ecosystems, especially salt marshes, generally have high primary
production. Coral reefs, an entirely different type of ecosystem, must rely on the
efficient recycling of nutrients in order to maintain high productivity. Deep sea
ecosystems, while rich in species, have no primary production because sunlight
does not penetrate such vast depths.
 

Threats to Biodiversity

The factors which threaten biodiversity in estuaries and in the oceans are generally
the same as those which affect biodiversity in terrestrial systems: overexploitation,
physical alteration of habitat areas, alien species introductions, and changes in
atmospheric composition. Many threats to the survival of life in the oceans (i.e.,
siltation, nutrient loading, pollution of air and water by toxic chemicals, etc) can
originate on land.  Also threatening marine ecosystems, particularly coastal and
estuarine systems, is the continuous increase in the size of human populations,
wasteful resource consumption, lack of knowledge, and poor management.  Habitat
degradation which occurs as the result of these problems, inevitably leads to loss of
species from an ecosystem, and thus, a loss of biodiversity.

The Solution: Preserving Biodiversity

In order to insure biological diversity in both marine and terrestrial systems, we

must finally recognize the fact that our natural resource base, our economic
development, our food, our medicine, our clothing, the air we breathe, indeed our
very existence on this planet is dependent on the life around us. In preserving
biological diversity, we are simply insuring our own continued prosperity and
survival.

Further Reading:

Norse, Elliot A. 1993. Global Marine Biological Diversity: A Strategy for Building
     Conservation Into Decision Making.  Island Press, Washington, D.C.  384 pp.

Thorne-Miller, Boyce, and J. Catena. 1991. The Living Ocean: Understanding

     and Protecting Marine Biodiversity. Island press, Washington D.C.180 pp.

So, what is biodiversity?

Biodiversity has many definitions, but perhaps the best and simplest one is
that biodiversity is "all living things on earth". This embraces all species and
all genetic variation on earth. There is growing recognition that we need to
protect our global biodiversity, and a growing realization that species loss is
accelerating.  We have moved into a period when the speed of species loss
has reached a critical level.  We now know, for example, that the
amphibians of the world are in a serious state of decline, a decline that
seems to be driven by major climate change. We also know that the world's
Mountain Gorillas face imminent extinction--a direct result of human
warfare. There is trauma in our oceans, with entire "dead zones" that have
developed, areas of oxygen depletion.  And much, much more.

In protecting biodiversity, we strive towards protection of species and their

habitats.  Habitat protection is critical if global biodiversity is to persist.  Wild
species cannot survive without their homes, their food sources, their
breeding areas and migration areas and, something we don't think about,
migration stopover areas--areas that allow migrating species to rest and
feed on their way to winter or summer homes. Our wild species need these
components in order to persist and reproduce. That is, in order to maintain
populations. They especially need these components in order to persist in
the face of adversity or major change, such as we are seeing now with
global climate change.

Biodiversity in our homes

But let's think of biodiversity in a different way. Lets think about

domesticated or cultivated species of plants and animals--species such as
horses, donkeys, dogs, cats, or even our food plants such as broccoli,
carrots, potatoes all derived originally from wild species. Without the
original wild horses or wild carrots, what would we be eating, and where
would our civilizations be today?   These domesticated species also
represent biodiversity. 
1. Biodiversity: What is it, where is it, and why is it important?

Estimates of the proportion of named species

1.1 Biodiversity reflects the number, variety and variability of living organisms. It includes
diversity within species, between species, and among ecosystems. The concept also covers how
this diversity changes from one location to another and over time. Indicators such as the number
of species in a given area can help in monitoring certain aspects of biodiversity. More...

See also our summaries:

Global Biodiversity Outlook 2 of the Convention on Biological Diversity

Millenium Ecosystem Assessement

1.2 Biodiversity is everywhere, both on land and in water. It includes all organisms, from
microscopic bacteria to more complex plants and animals. Current inventories of species, though
useful, remain incomplete and insufficient for providing an accurate picture of the extent and
distribution of all components of biodiversity. Based on present knowledge of how biodiversity
changes over time, rough estimates can be made of the rates at which species become extinct.
More...

1.3 Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. Biodiversity plays an
important role in the way ecosystems function and in the many services they provide. Services
include nutrients and water cycling, soil formation and retention, resistance against invasive
species, pollination of plants, regulation of climate, as well as pest and pollution control by
ecosystems. For ecosystem services it matters which species are abundant as well as how many
species are present. More...

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2. Why is biodiversity loss a concern?

Biodiversity provides many key benefits to humans that go beyond the mere provision of raw
materials. More...

See also our Water resource Digest

2.1 Biodiversity loss has negative effects on several aspects of human well-being, such as food
security, vulnerability to natural disasters, energy security, and access to clean water and raw
materials. It also affects human health, social relations, and freedom of choice. More...

2.2 Society tends to have various competing goals, many of which depend on biodiversity. When
humans modify an ecosystem to improve a service it provides, this generally also results in
changes to other ecosystem services. For example, actions to increase food production can lead
to reduced water availability for other uses. As a result of such trade-offs, many services have
been degraded, for instance fisheries, water supply, and protection against natural hazards. In the
long term, the value of services lost may greatly exceed the short-term economic benefits that are
gained from transforming ecosystems. More...

2.3 Unlike goods bought and sold in markets, many ecosystem services are not traded in markets
for readily observable prices. This means that the importance of biodiversity and natural
processes in providing benefits to humans is ignored by financial markets. New methods are
being used to assign monetary values to benefits such as recreation or clean drinking water.
Degradation of ecosystem services could be significantly slowed down or reversed if the full
economic value of these services were taken into account in decision-making. More...

2.4 Over the last century, some people have benefited from the conversion of natural ecosystems
and an increase in international trade, but other people have suffered from the consequences of
biodiversity losses and from restricted access to resources they depend upon. Changes in
ecosystems are harming many of the world's poorest people, who are the least able to adjust to
these changes. More...

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3. What are the current trends in biodiversity?

Living planet index

Virtually all of Earth’s ecosystems have been dramatically transformed through human actions
and ecosystems continue to be converted for agricultural and other uses.

The current loss of biodiversity and the related changes in the environment are now faster than
ever before in human history and there is no sign of this process slowing down. Many animal and
plant populations have declined in numbers, geographical spread, or both. Species extinction is a
natural part of Earth’s history. Human activity has increased the extinction rate by at least 100
times compared to the natural rate.

Comparing different types of measurements of biodiversity loss is not simple. The rate of change
in one aspect of biodiversity, such as loss of species richness, does not necessarily reflect the
change in another, such as habitat loss. Moreover, some aspects of biodiversity loss are not easily
measured, for instance the fact that the same species are increasingly found at different locations
on the planet and that overall biodiversity is decreasing.

The Living Planet Index, compiled by the WWF, provides an indication of the declines in the
overall abundance of wild species (see figure). More...

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4. What factors lead to biodiversity loss?

See also our Climate Change Digests

4.1 Biodiversity is declining rapidly due to factors such as land use change, climate change,
invasive species, overexploitation, and pollution. Such natural or human-induced factors –
referred to as drivers – tend to interact and amplify each other. More...

4.2 While changes in biodiversity are more clearly linked to direct drivers such as habitat loss,
they are also linked to indirect drivers that are at the root of many changes in ecosystems. The
main indirect drivers are changes in human population, economic activity, and technology, as
well as socio-political and cultural factors. More...

Extend of cultivated systems

4.3 Different direct drivers have been critically important in different ecosystems over the past
50 years. For example, in terrestrial ecosystems, the main driver has been land cover change such
as the conversion of forest to agriculture. In marine systems, however, fishing, and particularly
overfishing, have been the main drivers of biodiversity loss. More...

4.4 Overall, the main factors directly driving biodiversity loss are: habitat change, such as
fragmentation of forests; invasive alien species that establish and spread outside their normal
distribution; overexploitation of natural resources; and pollution, particularly by excessive
fertilizer use leading to excessive levels of nutrients in soil and water. More...

4.5 Recent changes in climate have already had significant impacts on biodiversity and
ecosystems in certain regions. As climate change will become more severe, the harmful impacts
on ecosystem services are expected to outweigh possible benefits, such as a longer growing
season, in most regions of the world. Climate change is expected to exacerbate risks of
extinctions, floods, droughts, population declines, and disease outbreaks. More...

4.6 Many drivers affecting biodiversity are stronger today than they were in the past and are also
occurring together. Because exposure to one threat often makes a species more susceptible to
another, multiple threats may have unexpectedly dramatic impacts on biodiversity. Drivers of
extinction range from local to global in scope and from immediate to long-term in their effects.
For example, the extinction of species due to habitat loss can be rapid for some species, while it
may take hundreds of years for others. More...

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5. How might biodiversity change in the future under various plausible

scenarios?

5.1 The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment developed four plausible scenarios to explore the
future of biodiversity and human well-being until 2050 and beyond. The different scenarios are
based on either increased globalization or increased regionalization, and an either reactive or
proactive way of addressing environmental issues. More...

Land cover map for 2000

5.2 Overall, in all four scenarios, agricultural land will expand and forest cover will shrink,
particularly in developing countries. This will lead to a continuing decline in local and global
biodiversity, mainly as a result of habitat loss. More proactive approaches to the environment
will be more successful in slowing these trends. More...

5.3 Aquatic biodiversity and specific fish populations are expected to decline due to factors such
as excessive levels of nutrients, overharvesting, invasion by alien species, and pollution. More...

5.4 Human well-being will be affected by biodiversity loss both directly and indirectly. Direct
effects include an increased risk of sudden environmental changes such as fisheries collapses,
floods, droughts, wildfires, and disease. Changes will also affect human well-being indirectly,
for instance in the form of conflicts due to scarcer food and water resources.

Though the average income per person (GDP) is projected to rise in all scenarios, this can mask
increased inequity for instance in terms of food security. Major decisions will have to address
trade-offs between competing goals, for instance between agricultural production and water
quality, or between water use and aquatic biodiversity. Policies that conserve more biodiversity
are also promoting higher overall human well-being by preserving multiple benefits obtained
from ecosystems. More...

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6. What actions can be taken to conserve biodiversity?

See also our summaries on:

Agriculture

Fisheries
Forests

6.1 Protected areas are an essential part of conservation programs, but they are not sufficient by
themselves to protect the full range of biodiversity and can be difficult to enforce. To be
successful, sites for protected areas need to be carefully chosen, ensuring that all regional
ecosystems are well represented, and the areas need to be well designed and effectively
managed. More...

6.2 Market tools, such as direct payments for ecosystem services or transfers of ownership
rights to private individuals, can provide economic incentives to conserve biodiversity and to use
ecosystem services sustainably. More...

6.3 Prevention and early intervention have proven to be the most successful and cost-effective
way of tacklinginvasive species. Once an invasive species has become established, its control
and particularly its eradication through the use of chemicals or through the introduction of other
species is not necessarily effective and is extremely difficult and costly. More...

6.4 To be conserved, biodiversity must be integrated into the agriculture, fishery, and forestry
sectors. These sectors are directly dependent on biodiversity and affect it directly. The private
sector can make significant contributions, for example by adopting certain agricultural practices.
Many companies now show greater corporate responsibility and are preparing their own
biodiversity action plans. More...

6.5 Strong institutions at all levels are essential to support biodiversity conservation and the
sustainable use of ecosystems. International agreements need to include enforcement measures
and take into account impacts on biodiversity and possible synergies with other agreements.
Most direct actions to halt or reduce biodiversity loss need to be taken at local or national level.
Suitable laws and policies developed by central governments can enable local levels of
government to provide incentives for sustainable resource management. More...

6.6 Informing all of society about the benefits of conserving biodiversity, and explicitly
considering trade-offs between different options in an integrated way, helps maximize the
benefits to society. Ecosystem restoration is generally far more expensive than protecting the
original ecosystem, but is becoming increasingly important as more areas become degraded.
More...

6.7 Direct and indirect drivers of biodiversity loss must be addressed to better protect
biodiversity and ecosystem services. Possible actions include eliminating harmful subsidies,
promoting sustainable intensification of agriculture, adapting to climate change, limiting the
increase in nutrient levels in soil and water, assessing the full economic value of ecosystem
services, and increasing the transparency of decision making processes. More...
 

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7. Can the 2010 biodiversity targets be met?

Source: www.biodiv.org 

In 2002, the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed on a target to
achieve a “significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional, and
national level as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on earth” by
2010.

Given appropriate actions, it is possible to achieve a reduction in the rate of biodiversity loss for
certain components of biodiversity and in certain regions within that time frame.

However, a reduction in the overall rate of biodiversity loss is unlikely to be achieved by 2010.
Indeed, current trends show no sign of a slowdown of biodiversity loss, and direct drivers of loss
such as land use change and climate change are expected to increase further. Moreover, it can
take many years for institutions to take actions and for the positive and negative impacts of
human actions on biodiversity and ecosystems to become apparent.

Since changes take place over different time frames, longer-term goals and targets — say, for
2050 — are needed to guide policy and actions, in addition to short-term targets.

Even on economic grounds alone, there is substantial scope for greater protection of biodiversity.
Ultimately, however, the level of biodiversity that survives on Earth will be determined not just
by considerations of usefulness but also by ethical concerns. Trade-offs between promoting
human well-being and limiting biodiversity loss are likely, but synergies are also possible.
More...

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8. Conclusion: main findings

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) highlights a series of main findings regarding
biodiversity. More...

8.1 Finding 1. Human actions are often contributing to irreversible losses in terms of diversity of
life on Earth. Changes in biodiversity have been more rapid in the past 50 years than at any time
in human history and are expected to continue at the same pace or even to accelerate. More...

8.2 Finding 2. Biodiversity contributes directly or indirectly to many aspects of human well-
being, for instance by providing raw materials and contributing to health. Over the past century,
many people have benefited from the conversion of natural ecosystems to agricultural land and
from the exploitation of biodiversity. However, these changes have increased poverty among
some social groups. More...

8.3 Finding 3. Although many individuals benefit from activities that lead to biodiversity loss
and ecosystem change, the full costs borne by society often exceed the benefits. This is revealed
by improved valuation techniques and growing knowledge about ecosystems. Even when the
benefits and costs of ecosystem changes are not entirely known, a precautionary approach may
be justified when costs could be high or changes irreversible. More...

8.4 Finding 4. Factors such as habitat change, climate change, and a growing population and
consumption will continue to cause losses in biodiversity and changes in ecosystem service at the
present pace or even faster. More...

8.5 Finding 5. Many of the actions that have been taken to conserve biodiversity and promote its
sustainable use have been successful in limiting biodiversity loss. Overall the losses are now
occurring more slowly than they would have in the absence of these actions taken by
communities, NGOs, governments, as well as business and industry. To achieve greater progress
towards biodiversity conservation, it will be necessary – but not sufficient – to strengthen a series
of actions that focus primarily on the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and
ecosystem services. More...

8.6 Finding 6. Unprecedented additional efforts would be needed to achieve a significant

reduction in the rate of biodiversity loss at all levels by 2010. More...
By the early 1980s, scientists around the world had begun to recognize that species
extinctions were occurring on a global scale. 

The rate of these extinctions rivaled, or surpassed, those of the Cretaceous period
65 million years ago when many species, including the dinosaurs became extinct.

The crisis facing species today differs in one fundamental way from any other
extinction events: all other cases of mass extinction throughout global history have
come about as the result of climatic change, a natural geological change or some
cataclysmic event. The present crisis, however, is being driven by human
influences. Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, the scientific community, the
media, the public, and governmental agencies worldwide began working to
preserve the biological diversity of terrestrial systems.  Issues such as deforestation
of tropical forests, overdevelopment, overexploitation of species, pollution, habitat
loss, invasions by introduced species, and other issues which addressed habitat
preservation and conservation were brought into public focus. 

However, maintaining the biological diversity of marine and estuarine systems was
largely overlooked throughout the 1980s, even though it was generally accepted
that marine systems are far more species rich and have greater ecosystem diversity
than terrestrial systems.  Representatives from 32 of the 33 known animal phyla
can be found in ocean and coastal waters. Of these, 15 phyla occur exclusively in
estuarine or marine environments.

Biodiversity has many definitions, but perhaps the best and simplest one is
that biodiversity is "all living things on earth". This embraces all species
and all genetic variation on earth. There is growing recognition that we
need to protect our global biodiversity, and a growing realization that
species loss is accelerating. 

We have moved into a period when the speed of species loss has reached
a critical level.  We now know, for example, There is trauma in our oceans,
with entire "dead zones" that have developed, areas of oxygen depletion. 
And much, much more.

Biological diversity - biodiversity - is one of the central themes of conservation.

But what exactly is biological diversity, and why should we be concerned about
preserving it? Simply put, biodiversity may be defined as the measure of how
healthy our ecosystems are.  Healthy ecosystems support high biological diversity; 
while stressed or highly disturbed ecosystems do not. 

When we consider biodiversity as a whole, we are actually addressing 3 main

components: genetic level biodiversi ty, species richness and ecosystem diversity.

Genetic Level Biodiversity:

Species Richness:

Ecosystem Diversity:

But let's think of biodiversity in a different way. Lets think about

domesticated or cultivated species of plants and animals--species such as
horses, donkeys, dogs, cats, or even our food plants such as broccoli,
carrots, potatoes all derived originally from wild species. Without the
original wild horses or wild carrots, what would we be eating, and where
would our civilizations be today?   These domesticated species also
represent biodiversity. 
the level of biodiversity that survives on Earth will be determined not just by considerations of
usefulness but also by ethical concerns.

Threats to Biodiversity
 The Solution: Preserving Biodiversity

What actions can be taken to conserve biodiversity?

6.1 Protected areas are an essential part of conservation programs, but they are not
sufficient by themselves to protect the full range of biodiversity and can be difficult to
enforce. To be successful, sites for protected areas need to be carefully chosen, ensuring
that all regional ecosystems are well represented, and the areas need to be well designed
and effectively managed. More...

6.2 Market tools, such as direct payments for ecosystem services or transfers of ownership
rights to private individuals, can provide economic incentives to conserve biodiversity and to
use ecosystem services sustainably. More...

6.3 Prevention and early intervention have proven to be the most successful and cost-
effective way of tackling invasive species. Once an invasive species has become established, its
control and particularly its eradication through the use of chemicals or through the introduction
of other species is not necessarily effective and is extremely difficult and costly. More...

6.4 To be conserved, biodiversity must be integrated into the agriculture, fishery, and
forestry sectors. These sectors are directly dependent on biodiversity and affect it directly.
The private sector can make significant contributions, for example by adopting certain
agricultural practices. Many companies now show greater corporate responsibility and are
preparing their own biodiversity action plans. More...

6.5 Strong institutions at all levels are essential to support biodiversity conservation and
the sustainable use of ecosystems. International agreements need to include enforcement
measures and take into account impacts on biodiversity and possible synergies with other
agreements. Most direct actions to halt or reduce biodiversity loss need to be taken at local or
national level. Suitable laws and policies developed by central governments can enable local
levels of government to provide incentives for sustainable resource management. More...

6.6 Informing all of society about the benefits of conserving biodiversity, and explicitly
considering trade-offs between different options in an integrated way, helps maximize the
benefits to society. Ecosystem restoration is generally far more expensive than protecting
the original ecosystem, but is becoming increasingly important as more areas become
degraded. More...
6.7 Direct and indirect drivers of biodiversity loss must be addressed to better protect
biodiversity and ecosystem services. Possible actions include eliminating harmful subsidies,
promoting sustainable intensification of agriculture, adapting to climate change, limiting the
increase in nutrient levels in soil and water, assessing the full economic value of ecosystem
services, and increasing the transparency of decision making processes. More...