Circuit and system aspects

Distortion and jitter:It is any change in the shape of waveform from the ideal.Some of
its factors are mismatched input output impedances,crossover distortion,transistor
saturation,interference,thermal effects etc.The problem of distortion increases as the
frequency increases.
Jitter is a form of distortion that results in an intermittent variation of a
waveform from its ideal position such as timing,period or phase instabilities.
Timing:Timing is an important aspect of most digital electronic circuit design.For the
proper functioning input and output pulses must appear at the correct time in the logic
sequences.As speed and complexity are continuously increasing, maintaining accurate
timing is becoming increasingly difficult.The integrity of the pulse waveform also
becomes more difficult to assure at higher frequencies.Any digital circuit will have a
maximum speed above which it will begin to perform incorrectly.At higher assembly
levels,such as telecommunications or control systems,further limitations on speed of
operation can be caused by inductive and capacitive effects within the circuit and by
propagation delays along the conductors.
Electromagnetic interference and compatibility :EMI is the disturbance of correct
circuit operation caused by changing electromagnetic fields or other electrical
stimuli,which are then received by signal lines and so generate spurious signals.
Electromagnetic Compatibility(EMC) is the ability of circuits and systems to
withstand these effects.Its also called EM immunity.
Some sources of generation of EMI are:
*high frequency radiation within the system, from switching within components,
transmissions from data lines, and oscillators.
*Transient differences between voltage potentials on different parts of the circuit ground
plane,due to inductive or capacitive effects.
*electromagnetic emissions from RF components, radios, radars, electric motors,
lightning strikes, etc.
*switching of inductive or capacitive loads such as motors on the same power circuit.
Intermittent Failures :A large proportion of failures of modern electronic systems are of
intermittent nature.The system performs incorrectly only under certain conditions,but not
others.These failures are often caused due to fault in connectors,vibrations,temperatures,
broken circuit card tracks, tolerance buildup effects between component parameters etc.

Reliability in electronic system design

Intro:The designer of an electronic system must consider the following main aspects in
order to create an inherently reliable design:
1.Electrical and thermal stresses on components to ensure no component is overstressed.
2.Variation and tolerances of component parameter values,to ensure that the circuit
operates correctly within the specified parameter values.
3.The effects of non-stress factors,such as electrical interference, timing, parasitic
parameters etc. particularly in high frequency operations.
4.Ease of manufacture and maintenance, including design for test.
Transient voltage protection:Electronic components are prone to damage by short
duration high voltage transients,caused by swithing of loads,capacitive or inductive
effects, ESD, incorrect testing etc.Small semi conductor components such as ICs and low
power transistors are particularly vulnerable owing to their low inertias.Logic devices
which interfere with inductive or capacitive loads, or which see test connections, require
transient voltage protection.This can be provided by a capacitor between voltage line to
be protected and ground,to absorb high frequency transients,diode protection, to prevent
voltages from rising beyond a fixed value,and series resistances, to limit current values.
The transient voltage levels which can cause failure of semi conductor devices are
referred to as VZAP.VZAP values depend on transient duration.
Passive devices can also be damaged by transients voltages,but the energy levels required
are much higher than for small semiconductor devices.So passive devices do not
generally need individual protection.
Thermal Design:It is important to control the thermal design of electronic systems,so
that maximum rated operating temperatures are not exceeded under worst cases of
environment and load,and so that temperature variations within the system are not severe.
High temperatures can accelerate some failure modes in marginally defective
components, and temperature cycling between ambient and high values can cause thermal
fatigue of bonds and component structures.
The maximum temperature generated within a device depends on the electrical
load and the local ambient temperature, as well the thermal resistance between the active
part of the device and the environment.For devices that consume significant power levels
in relation to their heat dissipation capacity, it is necessary to provide added thermal
protection.The device must be designed to allow heat to dissipate from assemblies.
Temperature control can be greatly influenced by the layout and orientation
of components and sub-assemblies such as PCBs.Hot components should be positioned
downstream in the heat flow path, and PCBs should be aligned vertically to allow
convective air flow.
Stress Derating :Derating is the practice of limiting the stresses which may be applied to
acomponent , to levels below the specified maxima, in order to enhance
reiability.Derating values of electrical stress are expressed as ratios of applied stress to
rated maximum stress.Derating enhances reliability by:
*Reducing the likelihood that marginal components will fail during the life pf the system.
*Reducing the effects of parameter variations.
*Reducing long term drift in parameter values.
*Providing allowance for uncertainity in stress calculations.
*Providing some protection against transient stresses, such as voltage spikes.
EMI/EMC:Circuit design to prevent EMI is a difficult aspect of all modern electronic
system design:
1.The use of filter circuits to decouple noise and transients from or to the power supply.
2.Circuits and conductors can be shielded by enclosing them in grounded, Faraday
shields, grounded conductive screens etc.
3.Circuit impedances should be balanced.
4.All grounds of circuit must be at the same potential during the circuit operation.
5.Contacts which make or break during circuit operation, must be selected to minimize
EMI.
6.Digital systems must include noise filters at the PCB power input and near to each IC.
7.Optical fibres used for data transmission are immune to electromagnetic effects.
8.In software-driven system, coding methods can be used to provide Emi protection.
Redundancy:In electronic circuit and system design it is possible to apply redundancy
at any level from individual components to subsystems.Decisions on when and how to
design –in redundancy depend upon the criticality of the system and must always be
balanced against the need to minimize complexity and cost.
Design simplication:Electronic system designs must be kept as simple as practicable.The
motto often quoted is KISS;Keep It Simple, Stupid.In electronics system simplification is
mainly a matter of minimizing the number of components and their connections.However
circuit protection,component derating and redundancy where required must be given
priority over design simplification.
Sneak analysis:A sneak circuit is an unwanted connection in an electrical or electronic
circuit not caused by component failure which leads to an undesirable circuit condition.
Sneak circuit occur if in systems interfaces are not fully specified or designer make
mistake in designing complex circuits.Sneak analysis is a technique developed to identify
such conditions and analyze them.

PARAMETER VARIATION AND TOLERANCES:All electrical parameters of

electronic components are subjected to both initial variations and long term drifts.
Parametr values can vary due to many reasons.whether these variations are important or
not in aparticular design depends upon the requirements for accuracy of the parameters in
that application.
Initial variation is an invetible consequence of the component production
processes.For many components maximum and minimum values are stated.Parameter
values also drift with age.Another sourceof circuit parameter variation arises from
parasitic parameters.These are electrical parameters which are not intrinsic to the design
but which occur due to construction and layout features.
Tolerance design:Every electronic circuit design must be based on nominal parameter
values of all the components that will contribute to correct performance.This is called
parameter design.However, having created the correct functional design it is necessary to
evaluate the effects of parameter variation on yield, stability and reliability.This is called
tolerance design.The first step is to determine which parameter values are most sensitive
in affecting yield and performance.Next step is to determine the extent of variation of
such parameter values by reference to component specifications.Design should aim
forminimum performance variation.